Introduction to the Keyboard Reconstruction

Question
In the Grade 8 ABRSM Music Theory exam, question 2 is about following the style of the
given material to write something which fits convincingly. The pieces are normally taken
from the Romantic repertoire.
The examiner is looking for several skills in this question. You will need to demonstrate that
you understand the harmony of the piece by choosing appropriate chord progressions, and
you need to show that you can write in a pianistic style which takes into account the normal
rules of harmony regarding things like consecutives 5ths, doubling of chord notes, and voice
leading etc.
As a rule of thumb, you should write “conservatively” – don’t break any “rules” unless you
see that they have already been broken within the given material.
You are also expected to notice patterns and sequences and reuse them in appropriate
places. There will most likely be places where you are, in fact, supposed to copy over some
material either note-for-note, or perhaps with some small alterations to fit the harmony. In
the places where you need to invent the melody yourself, you need to show that you
understand the style of the piece and can write something which fits seamlessly within the
given material.
And, of course, you are expected to write with good notational skills, correct rhythmic values
for the time signature, and take into account the practical capabilities of the player and
instrument.
You do not need to add performance directions in this question.
Method
You need a strong harmonic basis for the piece before you begin to write anything melodic.
For this reason, I strongly recommend identifying the likely chords before you do anything
else at all.
 Make a note of the key, and any modulations, and write down the chord names e.g. C
major where possible.
 Add the Roman numeral chord names, where you are certain of them.
 Fill in the gaps by selecting chords from the common progressions where possible.
You do not need to stick to the basic diatonic chords however – think about using
dominant and supertonic 7ths, diminished 7ths, augmented 6ths or Neapolitan 6ths, for
added interest.
 Next, write in any obvious sections of imitation or sequence.
 Finish by writing in the parts you need to invent for yourself.
In the following lessons, you’ll learn more about each of these steps in detail.
Harmony in the Keyboard Reconstruction
Question Grade 8
Decide how often the harmony seems to change. The harmony should change often
enough to sustain interest, but not so much that it becomes frantic and confusing. Usually
this will mean changing the chord around twice per bar, although sometimes once per bar,
or once per beat, will be appropriate.
In this piano piece by Mendelssohn (Op.72 no.1), notice how frequently the harmony
changes. At the most, it is on each beat of the bar. At the least, it is every bar. The harmony
does not change on the quaver (eighth note) or semiquaver (16th note) subdivisions.

Look at the notes which fall on the beat (check the time signature to know how many beats
per bar there are!) The notes which fall on the beat are the ones which should closely
coincide with the harmony. Notes which fall between the beats are more likely to be
dissonant with the harmony. It’s important to have clear cut chords falling on the beat, in
order to make the harmony coherent for the listener.
Choose chords so that:
 They fit the notes in the supplied material (but think about accented passing notes too)
 The harmony changes at least once a bar
 The harmony is not anticipated (repeated from a weak beat to a stronger beat)
 The harmony is varied and not overly repetitive or motionless
 The harmonic progressions are conventionally acceptable
 Cadences are conventional
 Modulations are conventional
 The inversion of the chord is acceptable (look at the bass note/lowest note to determine
the inversion)
By “conventional” I mean “done in the normal way” according to the traditions of Romantic
era harmony.
Common Chord Progressions
In most cases it will be possible to work out a fairly traditional harmonic structure. We will
expect to use the most common diatonic harmonies:
I, ii, IV, V, vi, vii° in major keys (iii is rarely used)
i, ii°, III, iv, V, VI, vii° and VII in minor keys. (III and VII are the tonic and dominant in the
relative major key, and are derived from the melodic minor scale. III+ (augmented) is not
used)
Pieces of music usually begin with the primary chords (I, V and less often IV), to establish
the key, and then more colourful chords are introduced for variety. Towards the end of any
phrase, we expect a cadence, which again will use primary chords (imperfect, plagal or
perfect cadences).
The most commonly seen progressions belong to the progression of 5ths. If you can fit
the music to a part of the progression of 5ths, it will automatically sound logical. In the
progression of 5ths, the chords move back to the tonic chord in steps of a 5th.
The most commonly used section of this progression is VI-II-V-I.
ii7 is also normally followed by V, or Ic (see below).
When working out the likely harmony, the melody note which sounds simultaneously with
the bass note may or may not be part of the chord. When the melody note is NOT a triad
note, it will be a suspension, appoggiatura or accented passing note (they are much the
same in reality), or it will belong to a chromatic chord (e.g. Neapolitan 6th) or added chord
(e.g. V9).
A suspension/appoggiatura/accented passing note will fall by step to the next note, which
WILL be a chord note. In the following example, which chords would make a good
progression?

The minim (half note) suggests we have come to the end of a phrase (longer note value),
and as the key is C major, we would expect a perfect cadence (V-I) here. The most
commonly used chord before V at a cadence is ii. Do these chords fit? At first glance, you
might say no, since E is not in the chord of D minor, and C is not in G major. However, you
can treat both the E and C as accented passing notes. By doing this, the D fits with D minor
(ii), and the B with G major (V), making a good progression. You could write this in the left
hand:
Instead of always asking yourself “which chords fit this note?”, turn it on its head to “can I
make this note fit a common harmonic progression?”

Chromatic Chords
A chromatic chord could be a diminished 7th, an augmented 6th (French, Italian or
German), a Neapolitan 6th, or a flattened chord VI, for example.
Diminished 7ths contain strong semitone pulls – make sure they are followed by a chord
which contains the right resolutions. If the dissonances are not resolved by step, they
should be continued (rather than moving to another note which is not a resolution).
Here, vii°b7 in C major resolves to I. There are three semitones which resolve by step: Ab-
G, F-E and B-C. Alternatively, you could follow it with V7, which only resolves the
diminished 7th. V7 contains its own dissonance, which should be resolved in the next chord
(I).

The augmented 6th chords are described in detail in the score-reading section of this
course. Augmented 6th chords are often followed by the dominant chord.
The Neapolitan 6th or flattened supertonic chord (e.g. a chord Db major in the key of C
major) is most often followed by the dominant.
The flattened 6th chord (bVI, e.g. an Ab major chord in C major), and minor
subdominant (iv, e.g. Fm in C major) are also sometimes seen.
With all chromatic chords, the easiest way to progress to the next chord will generally be
by small movements or repetition. Move by semitone steps, repeat notes which are
common to both chords, and use small leaps only if necessary. For example, iv moves
smoothly to V7: two notes move by a semitone, one note is common to both chords (F), and
the other movement is a third.
 In this extract from Mozart’s 6th piano sonata, which chord would fit in the first blank bar?
(The prevailing key is D major). Try to work it out for yourself first, then read on!

The bass clef stave gives us the chord notes Bb-D-F. These make up a Bb major chord
which is bVI in the key of D major, so bVI would work. Alternatively, we could add G# into
the mix, making the German 6th chord. Mozart in fact, uses the German 6th here. This is
what he wrote:

Modulations
Modulations are normally brought about by the use of V(7)-I in the new key, most often
preceded by a pivot chord (a chord which exists in both keys).
The diminished 7th chord is also a powerful modulation tool. There are only three different
diminished 7th chords (if you spell them enharmonically):
1. C-Eb-Gb-Bbb
2. C#-E-G-Bb
3. D-F-Ab-Cb
The diminished 7th chord starting on D# is enharmonically the same as no.1 here, which
contains Eb, (D#-F#-A-C is the enharmonic spelling), and so on. So, you can easily move in
quite unexpected directions, by re-spelling a diminished 7th.
For example, in the key of C major a typical chord progression could be I – vii°b7 (Bdim7)
(B-D-F-Ab). The Bdim7 chord could be re-spelled as Ddim7 (D-F-Ab-Cb) which is vii°b7 in
Eb major.
This would allow a quick, but smooth modulation to the relatively distant key of Eb major (or
minor).

Notice that the natural resolution of the diminished 7th chord creates a chord with a doubled
third.

Inversions
The inversion of the chord is created by the bass line (lowest sounding notes). You should
follow the normal conventions. You should try to avoid second inversion chords except at
the places where they are acceptable i.e.:
 cadential 6-4s (Ic-Va at a cadence, 6-4 falls on a strong beat)
 passing 6-4s (bass moves by step, and the 6-4 chord falls on the middle weak beat)
 pedal 6-4s (the 6-4 chord arises because of an ongoing pedal)
 arpeggio 6-4s (the 6-4 chord is played in an arpeggio fashion)
In this extract, chord IVc is used – can you work out for which of the above reasons it’s
acceptable?

In this case, it’s a pedal 6-4. The repeated tonic G pedal starts in bar 8 and continues for
several bars, while the harmony changes above it.
If pedals are used in the given material, attempt to use them in your own part of the
composition too.
An arpeggio 6-4 is shown here, from Mozart’s piano sonata no.16:
The broken chord pattern is very typical in keyboard style music.

Chord Ic has an unusual property. Although it contains the notes of the tonic chord, it
actually sounds more like an unstable dominant chord, because of its doubled dominant
note.
For this reason, Ic works after chords like ii7 or the augmented 6th chords, which are
normally followed by V. However, it’s not normally simply used instead of chord V – but as
well as. So the following progressions are quite common:
 ii(7) – Ic – Va
 Germ/It/Fr 6th – Ic – V

Consecutives
Avoid consecutive perfect 5ths and octaves, (unless they have already been used in the
given material and contribute to the overall style).
A perfect 5th can be followed by a diminished 5th, but the effect is not pleasant the other
way round.
This is because the diminished interval is a dissonance, which needs to resolve inwards
by step. If the F moves to G here, the dissonance is not resolved satisfactorily.

Voice Leading
Pay attention to the voice leading. Although you are writing for piano, try to see
where individual parts lie. Within a single part, the voice should move smoothly and the
relationship between the leading note and tonic should be maintained - a leading note
should be followed by the tonic in the same register – not one in the next octave.
In this extract from Mozart’s 19th piano sonata, notice how smoothly each individual line
flows. Whenever there is a leading note (E), it resolves upwards by a semitone to the
nearest tonic, and elsewhere the vast majority of melodic movement is by step (semitones
or tones). Although this is a keyboard piece, look at it as a piece of 3 and 4-part harmony, to
see how the voice-leading of the individual parts is handled.

Doubling and Omissions

Follow the normal conventions regarding doubling or omitting chord notes. For example,
avoid doubling the leading note or 7th, and aim to include the root and third as a minimum
of any chord.

Dissonances
For the most part, strong dissonances should be prepared. In the Romantic era, the
dominant and diminished 7th chords were commonly used without preparation, but other
dissonances, including suspensions, are normally prepared in the preceding chord.
Dissonances should generally resolve by step.
Suspensions should not be anticipated. This means that the resolution note should not be
sounded in another part (apart from the bass) before the “real” resolution takes place.
Texture in the Grade 8 Keyboard
Reconstruction Question
In some places in the keyboard piece of question 2 you will find that one hand plays single
notes, in other places one hand may have two, three or more notes to play simultaneously.
When more than one note is played, the texture could be either polyphonic (two or more
independent voices) or homophonic (chords). Make sure that the texture
is consistent and does not flit about from one type to the other for no reason.
Here are some examples of different textures.
This Schumann piece entitled “Armes Waisenkind” (“The Poor Orphan”) begins with a
homophonic texture. A chord is played on each quaver (eighth note) beat, and the melody is
in the soprano/right hand. Generally, two notes are played in each hand, but in bar 1, the
G#/B is followed by a single A. Can you think of a reason why?

The answer is, that since G# is the leading note, it most logically leads to A. If Schumann
had continued in 3rds, the harmony would be wrong (A-F would not fit the A minor
harmony), and falling to E would spoil the shape of the motif.

This extract from the Rondo movement of Dussek’s 5th Sonatina for piano (Op.20) has a
more polyphonic texture. The right and left hands have clear, independent melodies.

This “Old French Song”, transcribed by Tchaikovsky, uses a tonic G pedal in the bass, and
the left hand also has a melodic line to help thicken out the texture of the piece. Notice what
happens in the notation when the pedal and melodic lines coincide (boxed), the G is written
with both an upwards and downwards stem, to indicate that it belongs to both.
Look for clues about what is expected in terms of texture. For example, if you are given a
bar which seems complete, but the stems are apparently pointing in the wrong direction,
this is a clue that you need to write a rhythmically different second part on the same stave,
with stems up. (If the rhythm is not different, there is no reason to make it into separate
parts).
In this example, which bars need another part adding to them?

In the right hand, bars 1-3 all contain notes above the middle line, with stems
pointing upwards. This indicates that a rhythmically different lower part, with stems down,
should be added. In the left hand, bar 3 needs another part adding above the Cs. Here is a
possible rendering:

Where there are two parts on one stave, the bars should be complete for both parts. If
one part ends before the end of the bar, complete it with the necessary rests. Rests can be
positioned higher or lower on the stave, to make it clear which part they belong to.
Here, the rests in the centre of the stave complete the first beat of each bar in the right
hand. In the second beat, additional quaver (eighth) rests are needed, placed lower down
on the stave to show they belong to the lower part.
Notation
Clefs
It’s very likely that the extract will contain a change of clefs at some point – so be vigilant!
Although the normal set up for piano staves is treble clef for the right hand and bass clef for
the left, in fact either clef can be used for either hand. The clef used will give you a strong
clue about the register of the notes you are supposed to be writing. For example, if the left
hand moves into treble clef, it would not be logical to write some low pitched music with
several ledger lines, which would be better suited to the bass clef.

Stems
Ensure that the stems are the right way up for your notes. Notes above the middle line
should have their stems pointing downwards, and vice versa.
When a group of notes is beamed together, find the note which is furthest from the middle
line, and use the stem direction of that note for the whole beamed group.
In the following examples, you can see how the correct stem direction is determined by the
note furthest from the middle line:

Chords
When writing chords, make sure that the notes (and any accidentals) are not squashed
together.
If a chord contains a 2nd, write the higher note on the right hand of the stem, and the lower
note on the left. The stem will always be in the middle, between the notes which form an
interval of a second.
For chords with accidentals, the top accidental is normally written closest to the chord,
followed by the lowest accidental, which can be displaced to the left if necessary. Any
further accidentals can be moved further out to the left to make enough room to see them
clearly.
In this example, the top (A#) accidental is placed first, close to the F. This is followed by the
C#, which is moved slightly out to the left, to avoid merging with the A#. Finally the F# is
placed so that it also does not touch any of the other accidentals.

Rhythm
Rhythmic patterns which exist in the given material should be reused elsewhere in the
piece, to give a feeling of cohesion. Don’t introduce rhythms which have a completely
different style – for example, if the piece contains no syncopation, don’t add any!
Think about the momentum of the piece. Often, the rhythm of a piece will keep up a similar
momentum throughout, but relax or slow down towards a cadence point. On the other hand,
the rhythmic tension may well intensify towards a climax. Tension can be increased in
rhythm by using faster or more complicated note values.
If the piece begins with an upbeat, consider whether it is appropriate to begin subsequent
phrases also with an upbeat. Look for patterns to help you decide.
Generally, phrases should be well balanced. Look for questioning and answering phrases.
An answering phrase will often contain very similar material (perhaps the same rhythm, for
example), but will end with a different type of cadence, or perhaps with a modulation. Make
sure that your phrases end smoothly enough, and not too abruptly.
In this Mendelssohn piece, the rhythm of bar 1 is repeated several times in the first eight
bars. Each phrase ends with a cadence which is clearly visible by the use of minims (half
notes). In the next eight bars, the rhythmic pattern is altered slightly (more quavers/eighth
notes are used), but the link between bars 1-8 and 9-16 is very evident – both use a dotted
rhythm on the first beat of the bar, and are built with even four-bar phrases.
Melody
By “melody”, I mean the melodic, rather than the harmonic, aspect of the music, and not
necessarily the “top part”. In polyphonic music, there is more than one melody taking place.
Melody can be found in either of the two hands, and may even exist in the bass, where the
accompaniment is provided above.

Sequences and Imitation

Use sequences and imitation whenever possible. These techniques are important to help
glue a piece together, so that it makes sense to the listener. Imitation happens when a
section of music is repeated in a different octave. Sequences are formed when the melody
is transferred to a different scale step.
It is very likely that some of the gaps in the question will be places where imitation or
sequences are the best thing to write. While in previous ABRSM grades you may have been
encouraged to avoid exact repetition in your composition, at this stage reality comes to the
fore! In real life, a great deal of repetition of musical ideas exists in music, especially in
larger compositions. If you find a place where an exact copy of previous material will work,
write it in!
In this example, taken from a piece called “Élégie” by Eduard Rohde, we could copy the
right hand part from bar 1 into bar 3:

Although the left hand is slightly different, the harmony is the same (Gm, Cm), and the
melody will sit perfectly.

Repetition of Notes
Be very careful about repeating individual notes. You can repeat a note, if there is a good
reason to do so. A good reason could be to maintain a particular rhythmic pattern, or to
keep up the rhythmic momentum, or to prepare a dissonance, for example.
If the given material uses pedals, do try to incorporate pedals within the rest of the piece
too.

Melodic Contour
Look at the contours of the given material, and work out how the melodies are constructed –
do they move by step or leap? Generally, it is good practice to avoid two leaps in the same
direction, unless the notes form an arpeggio. So, after a leap, turn back in the opposite
direction.

False Relations
Aim to avoid false relations. A false relation is when one part/voice has a note which is a
chromatically altered version of the note in the other part, in close proximity. Although false
relations can be used to good effect in some cases, in a music theory exam where you
cannot listen to what you are writing, it’s safer to avoid using them!
False relations sometimes sneak in unnoticed in minor keys, where the leading note (and
sometimes submediant too) are raised by a semitone in one place, but not in another. This
bar sounds very awkward, because of the false relation F natural and F sharp.
Dissonance
Be careful in your use of dissonant melodic intervals – moving by diminished or augmented
intervals, or by a leap/fall of a 7th. On the whole it is best to avoid these intervals, but base
your decision on what happens in the given material. It is always better to follow the style
closely, than apply “rules” unthinkingly.

Crossing Hands
You are writing a relatively simple piano piece. Often, you will see that the title of the piece
is connected with children in some way – this is because they are often taken from simple
study pieces for little hands. Don’t make things too complicated!
Make sure that the right hand does not cross the left hand (unless this is a feature which
already exists in the piece), and avoid writing the exact same note to be played by both
hand simultaneously.
In this example, the last three notes are unisons, which means the texture is thinned and
only one part will be heard:
Score Reading - Harmony, Melody and Texture
In the grade 8 ABRSM music theory exam you will probably be asked to show that you
understand the actual sounds of the printed notes on the page. You may be asked about
the way the sounds combine (“texture”), the feelings they produce in the listener, or
technical questions about how sounds are produced or notated.

Essential Harmony Notes

You might be asked to identify whether certain notes are “unessential” to the harmony or
not. Basically, a note which is essential to the harmony is one which is not a note of melodic
decoration. Notes which fall into the categories of passing notes, auxiliary notes,
suspensions, appoggiaturas, anticipations, retardations and pedals are all notes which are
not essential to the harmony.

Enharmonic Chords
An enharmonic chord is one which, when spelled a different way, has a different name. The
two most commonly seen enharmonic chords are the dominant 7th and German 6th.
In the key of C major, the German 6th chord uses the notes Ab-C-Eb-F#. It is an augmented
6th chord, because of the interval between Ab and F#.
If you respell the chord with Gb instead of F# however, you create the dominant 7th chord in
the key of Db!

Implied Suspensions
Suspensions occur when a note in a chord is held over into the next chord, creating a
dissonance with the bass note. Suspensions have three stages. The “preparation” stage
refers to the note when it sounds in the chord before the suspension. The “suspension”
stage is the moment when you hear the dissonance. The third stage is the “resolution”, and
is when the dissonance resolves into a consonance – usually by falling by a step into the
chord.
An “implied” suspension happens when the suspension is not resolved in the usual way,
and the dissonance is left hanging in the air for a moment. A suspension which only
resolves after a rest is also an implied suspension. In the following example, the F is an
implied suspension over the C major chord. It is followed by a rest, rather than a resolution.
Locating Suspensions
You may be asked to find a suspension within the score. The question often looks
something like this “find a suspension on the dominant of the relative minor key”. In a dense
score, it may feel like you are looking for a needle in a haystack, but you will make the task
easier if you work out in advance which notes you are looking for.
 To find the “relative minor key” (or whichever key you need), look at the key at the start
of the piece and work out the necessary key from there. (E.g. if the piece starts in F
major, the relative minor is D minor.)
 Work out which chord is the “dominant” of the new key. (E.g. in D minor, the dominant
chord is A major.)
 Work out which notes are usually used in a suspension on that chord. The common
suspensions are 4-3, 9-8 (root position chords) and 7-6 (first inversion).
o In A major root position 4-3, note 4 is a D, moving to C# (note 3). C# will have an
accidental on it, which makes it a lot easier to find! Bass note: root (A).
o In A major root position 9-8, note 9 is B, moving to A (note 8). Bass note root (A).
o In A major first inversion 7-6, note 7 is B, moving to A (note 6). Bass note third (look
for the accidental!)
 Now that you have narrowed it down to specific notes to look for, you can scan through
the score looking for those notes. Make sure what you have found is actually a
suspension, by ensuring that the bass note (always the lowest sounding note) is correct.

False (Cross) Relations

A false (or cross) relation occurs when a note is placed in close time proximity to a
chromatically altered version of itself, in another part. For example, if in a flute and piano
piece, the flute plays a G natural and a moment later the piano plays a G#, a false relation
occurs. When music moves chromatically, it is usually done by step, so the G-G#
movement would sound fine played by the same part/instrument. When the chromatic
change occurs in different parts, the effect will be a slight clash or dissonance.
False relations often occur in minor keys, where the notes from the melodic minor scale can
cause this type of dissonance, or in any key where there is a lot of chromaticism or fast key
changes.
The following bar from Bach’s Fugue in D major from his “Well Tempered Klavier Book 2”,
shows a false relation between D sharp and D natural. Although the notes are played on the
same instrument, a fugue is a polyphonic piece built from different individual parts. This
fugue is in four parts. The D# occurs in the tenor voice and is quickly followed by D natural
in the soprano.

To find a false relation, scan the score for accidentals. Look for notes of the same letter
name with different chromatic alterations, which are written close to each other. A false
relation can occur within one single bar, or on successive beats across bars. If two
chromatically different notes are written in successive bars, but not successive beats, there
will be enough “space” between them to prevent a clash, and they will not be considered to
be false relations.
The following bars are taken from Bach’s Fugue in D minor (“Well Tempered Klavier Book
1”) and are used to illustrate what is NOT a false relation. The first bar contains Bb and C#,
while the second contains B natural and C natural. However, there is enough elapsed time
between the notes to prevent the false relation occurring.

Texture
Music which is written for two or more instruments can be either homophonic or polyphonic.
“Homophonic” means “sounding together”, and is used describe music that is composed
“vertically”, with harmony as the foundation or backbone of the piece. In homophonic music
it is common to find chords or broken chord (arpeggios) as an accompaniment, against a
single melody. A melody which is harmonized in 3rds or 6ths is also homophonic, because
the harmony line is completely dependent on the melody.
In contrast, polyphonic music is made up of two more individual strands of melody. It is
composed “horizontally” and the melodies provide the foundation of the piece. By combining
separate melodies together, the end result is often, of course, that chords are formed.
However, they can be thought of as a secondary consideration in polyphonic music.
“Polyphonic” means “many sounds” and it sounds like lots of (or at least two!) individual
parts are being played at the same time. The musical form of the “fugue” is an example of
the polyphonic style. The word “contrapuntal” means basically the same thing as
“polyphonic”.

Melody Organisation
In this section, you’ll learn some of the vocabulary which is used to talk about the way
pieces of music are organised.
The theme of a piece is its principal or most recognisable melodic idea. A famous example
of a theme is the “Ode to Joy” tune, from Beethoven’s 9th Symphony, which begins like this:

A theme can be used to make a series of variations. A variation uses the same overall
structure of the theme, but changes it to make something new, but obviously connected.
Variations can be made by decorating the melody, making subtle changes to the rhythm,
changing from major to minor, and so on.
This is the opening theme from Mozart’s Piano Sonata No. 11, which is the basis for six
variations which make up the first movement of the piece. At its most fundamental level, bar
1 of the theme consists of just C# and E. The D is an auxiliary note and of lesser
importance. Bar 2 is constructed in a similar way.

The first variation begins like this:

How has the theme been adapted?

In the variation, the C# and E still take prominence in bar 1, but this time they are decorated
by an appoggiatura (B#), a chromatic passing note (D#) and an upper auxiliary note (F#).
Variation three is even more contrasted:

This time, the parallel minor key has been used (A minor is the parallel minor key to A
major). The important notes of C-E (bar 1) and B-D (bar 2) are still there – they are simply
decorated with scale-based runs.

In an orchestral score, the melodic line refers to the instrumental part(s) playing the “tune”,
as opposed to the accompaniment.
In this extract from the 2nd Movement of Brahms’ 4th Symphony, can you identify where the
melodic line is being played? Try to sing through each part individually, then decide which
part(s) sound most like a tune. A tune often moves by steps and a mix of other intervals, is
not overly repetitive, is rhythmically interesting, does not outline an arpeggio and/or is in a
strong-sounding register for the instrument.
The melodic line is in the clarinet and first violin part. The flute part is very low in its register
and therefore would not be particularly audible. The bassoon and second violin parts are
quite repetitive, and the viola, cello and double bass parts outline the harmony.

A reprise is the re-stating of the theme, usually at the end of a piece. It may be adapted in
some way, for example shortened, or decorated. In sonata form, the reprise is formally
known as the recapitulation, and the initial statement of the theme is called the exposition.

A coda is an end section, which is designed to finish of a piece neatly or with a final flourish.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Describing Chords &
Prevailing Key
In most ABRSM Grade 8 Music Theory exam papers, you will be asked to find or describe
chords within a score. Chords usually need to be described in full, with their name, position
and prevailing key. Typically answers can be written as follows:
 Using the Roman numeral system
 Using the letters a, b, c or d to show position/inversion
 Using abbreviations for chromatic chords, such as “dim.”, “N6”, “Ger 6” etc.
When you are asked to describe a chord, the notes you need to include will be marked
either with an asterisk, or with a bracket.
An asterisk is used when all the notes line up vertically, and a bracket or box is used when
some or all of the chord notes do not sound simultaneously.
In the first example here, the chord to describe contains all the notes directly under the
asterisk: G-D-E-G in the left hand, and Bb-D-E-Bb in the right hand.

In the second example, the box shows that the chord is made up of the notes in the right
hand beginning on C# and followed by E-G-A-C#-E-G, and also the left hand notes of the
minim (half note) A and crotchet (quarter note) E (which are still sounding at this point),
followed by C#-E-G-A.

To work out a chord successfully, use this three-step process.

1. Work out the chord’s name e.g. G7
2. Work out its inversion e.g. G7b
3. Work out the prevailing key e.g. G7b in C minor
Each step is described in detail below.

Describing Chords by Name

Write out the names of all the notes encompassed by the asterisk or boxed area, and then
stack them in thirds. Discard any duplicates.
For example, in [A] above, the notes stacked in thirds and with duplicates removed are E-G-
Bb-D. In [B], the notes are A-C#-E-G.
The lowest note is the root of the chord, and gives the chord its letter name. The quality
(major, minor, augmented or diminished) of the chord depends on the intervals of the next
two notes, relative to the root.
 Major third + perfect 5th = Major chord (e.g. C-E-G). Use capital letters (e.g. IV).
 Minor third + perfect 5th = Minor chord (e.g. C-Eb-G). Use lower case letters (e.g. iv).
 Major third + augmented 5th = Augmented chord (e.g. C-E-G#). Use capitals and a plus
sign (e.g. IV+)
 Minor third + diminished 5th = Diminished chord (e.g. C-Eb-Gb). Use lower case letters
and a ° symbol (e.g. iv°)

Don’t forget to check:

 The key signature
 Whether any accidentals written earlier in the bar still apply
 Whether there has been a sneaky change of clef earlier in the bar or stave

The basic 3-note triads, e.g. C major or Bb minor, should be easy enough to work out.
Four- or five-note chords may take a bit more detective work:

1. Added 7th chords are a triad plus the 7th above the root, e.g. G-B-D-F.
2. Diminished 7th chords are vii° or ii° plus the diminished 7th above the root, e.g. B-D-F-
Ab.
3. Neapolitan 6th chords are bII – in other words they are built on a flattened supertonic
(2nd degree of the scale). If the key is C minor and the chord notes are Db-F-Ab, you have
found a Neapolitan 6th chord (you can write it as “N6”).
4. The group of chords called the “augmented 6ths” is made up of the “Italian”, “French”
and “German” 6ths. These are perhaps some of the more confusing chords to differentiate –
so here are some tips!
 All augmented 6th chords contain a tonic note. So, if the prevailing key is C major, they
will contain the note C.
 The “augmented 6th” part of the chord is formed by adding the note a major third below
the tonic (Ab) plus an augmented 4th above (F#). Together, these two notes make the
interval of an augmented 6th. You can also commit to memory that neither of these notes
are found in the prevailing key – they are what makes the chord chromatic.
 The Italian 6th is nothing more than these three notes e.g. Ab-C-F#.
 The French 6th adds the note a tone higher than the tonic: Ab-C-D-F#. This produces a
chord which has a “whole tone” feel to it and thus sounds rather dreamy and is preferred
by French composers such as Debussy.
 The German 6th adds the note a minor 3rd higher than the tonic: Ab-C-Eb-F#. (This
chord is an enharmonic dominant 7th - this particular chord could be spelled as Ab-C-Eb-
Gb, for example, to make V7 in Db major.)
 If you stack an augmented 6th chord in thirds, you will find that there is a diminished 3rd
in it somewhere (e.g. F#-Ab). So, the presence of a diminished 3rd should quickly alert
you to the fact that you are dealing with an augmented 6th chord (an augmented 6th is
an inverted diminished 3rd).
 A trick to remembering the names of the augmented 6th chords is to think of them
geographically. Italy is furthest south, and is the simple 3-note version. Moving
northwards to France, you add a note “north” of the tonic. Finally, moving further
northwards to Germany, you add the note even further from the tonic.
5. Some chords will not stack in thirds and may appear at first glance to be nothing more
than a random collection of notes. In almost every case, these will in fact be extended
dominant chords, and you can verify this by checking the next chord, which should be the
tonic chord.
An extended dominant chord will always contain a root (i.e. the dominant note in the
prevailing key). The other notes it contains can vary! The following examples are based on
C major:
 V7 (G-B-D-F) should be familiar to you.
 V9 (G-B-D-A) contains three consecutive scale notes, G-A-B, which can clash if played
too closely together. The third is often omitted to prevent this.
 V11 (G-B-D-C) again has a potentially clashing B/C, so the third is sometimes omitted.
 V13 (G-B-D-E) looks like iii7 (E-G-B-D), so be careful! Remember that the dominant
chord has a strong relationship with the tonic, so we would process this chord aurally as
V13-I rather than iii7-I.
 Extended chords can be combined. You may see G-D-F-A for example. When naming
an extended dominant chord, only use the number of the added note furthest from the
root. In this case, there is an added 7th and 9th, but the chord should be named as “V9”.

Chord Inversions
After you have stacked the chord in thirds, check which note is the lowest sounding one in
the chord in the score. Then compare this note with the stacked chord to find the inversion.
 Root = lowest note > root position (a)
 Third = lowest note > first inversion (b)
 Fifth = lowest note > second inversion (c)
 Seventh = lowest note > third inversion (d)
Watch out! The lowest sounding note in the chord might not be the one written on the
lowest stave. For example, in a cello sonata, the cello part will be placed above the piano
part, but may well contain lower-pitched notes than the piano part. It is the
lowest sounding note which determines the inversion – not the lowest written.
How to Find the Prevailing Key
The key at the start of a piece of music is the “original” key. Music can change key for brief
moments, or for extended passages. When a key change occurs but does not settle, we say
the music is “passing through” that key – it is on its way somewhere else. When a key
change settles for a number of bars – enough to make the new tonic feel established – the
music has “modulated”. The “prevailing” key is whatever key the music is in at any
particular moment in time, and you need to know the prevailing key before you can describe
a chord with Roman numerals.
To work out the prevailing key, use the following clues to help you do some detective work!
Take the chord you have stacked in thirds, and work out what type of chord it must be. The
type of chord it is will help you understand what the prevailing key is.

1. Is it a Dominant 7th?
Clue: Major chord with minor 7th above root e.g. G-B-D-F
Prevailing key: Perfect 4th above root e.g. C (progression: V7-I)
Check: whether prevailing key is major or minor
2. Is it a Supertonic 7th?
Clue: Minor or diminished chord with minor 7th above root e.g. D-F-A-C (ii7) or B-D-F-A
(ii°7).
Prevailing key: Next chord should be V followed by prevailing key tonic chord, or a second
inversion tonic chord (progression ii-V-I)
Check: whether prevailing key is major or minor.
3. Is it a Diminished 7th?
Clue: 4-note chord stacked in minor thirds e.g. B-D-F-Ab.
Prevailing key: the dim7 chord will be VII or II . The next chord(s) will normally be V or I-V.
Check: whether prevailing key is major or minor.
4. Is it a Neapolitan 6th?
Clue: Deceptively “simple” 3-note major chord, uses accidentals.
Prevailing key: Next chord should be V in the correct prevailing key, often followed by I.
(N6-V-I)
Check: whether the prevailing key is major or minor.
5. Is it an Augmented 6th?
Clue: Diminished 3rd found when chord stacked in thirds.
Prevailing key: Take the augmented 6th interval and move each note out by one semitone
so that you find an octave e.g. if you have Ab-F#, move Ab by a semitone to G, and F# by a
semitone to G. This is the dominant note in the prevailing key. In this case, the prevailing
key is C. (Aug6-V-I)
Check: whether the prevailing key is major or minor.
6. Is it an Extended Dominant?
Clue: chord will not stack in thirds.
Prevailing key: Look at the bass line – you should see a rising 4th (or falling 5th) to the next
bass note e.g. G-C. These are chords V-I.
Check: whether the prevailing key is major or minor.
Some Examples of Chords and their Prevailing Keys
Here are some chords which have been extracted from real pieces of music. Try to “solve”
the chords yourself using the plan outlined below, then compare your answer to the one on
this page.
Plan: Write down chord notes > stack in 3rds (if possible) > name chord and
inversion > check progression for prevailing key.

1. From a Chopin Prelude Op.28 no.20

• Chord notes: F-B-D-G

• Stack in thirds: G-B-D-F
• Chord: G7 = V7d
• Key: C minor (next chord is C-Eb-G)

2. From “La Fille aux Cheveux de Lin” by Debussy

• Chord notes: Gb-Cb-Fb-Ab-Cb-Db-Fb-Ab-Cb-Db-Fb-Ab (don’t forget the dotted minims

(dotted half notes) which are still sounding from the first beat of the bar). Remove
duplicates: Gb-Cb-Fb-Ab-Db
• Stack in thirds: Not possible > presume it’s an extended dominant > check bass line > Gb
(V)-Cb (I)
• Chord: Gb major extended. Triad: Gb-(Bb omitted)-Db; 7th=Fb; 9th=Ab; 11th=Cb > Chord
is V11a
• Key: Cb major (nice!)
3. From Chopin’s Piano Sonata Op.4 No.1, First Movement

Chord A
• Chord notes: Ab-C-F#-C. Remove duplicates > Ab-C-F#
• Stack in thirds: F#-Ab-C
• Chord: Contains diminished 3rd (F#-Ab) > Italian 6th
• Key: Move by semitone to find dominant: F#>G and Ab>G. G is the dominant, and C is the
tonic. Following chord is G7 (V7) then Cm (i) so key is C minor.

Chord B
• Chord notes: Ab-Ab-C-D-F. Remove duplicates > Ab-C-D-F
• Stack in thirds: D-F-Ab-C
• Chord: D dim + 7th = ii°7c
• Key: Still C minor from previously (the E natural is a chromatic auxiliary note).

4. From Mozart’s Piano Sonata No.12, K332, Third Movement

• Chord notes: Ab-C-F#-Eb

• Stack in thirds: F#-Ab-C-Eb
• Chord: Diminished 3rd (F#-Ab) > German 6th
• Key: Move by semitone to find dominant: F#>G and Ab>G so G is dominant, C is tonic.
Check next bar for major/minor. Key = C minor.
5. From Beethoven’s “Moonlight” Sonata, Op.27 No.2

• Chord notes: F#-F#-A-D-F#. Remove duplicates: F#-D-A

• Stack in thirds: D-F#-A
• Chord: D major > simple triad with accidental foreign to key signature > presume to be
Neapolitan 6th. If it’s an N6, the tonic will be a semitone lower (C#) and we’d expect it to be
followed by V, V7 and/or Ic. In this case it’s followed by G#7 then C# minor second
inversion, so N6 fits the criteria.
• Key: C# minor

6. From Chopin’s Prelude Op.28 No.20

• Chord notes: D-D-C-D-F#-B. Remove duplicates > D-C-F#-B

• Stack in thirds: Not possible > presume it’s an extended dominant > check bass line > D
(V)-G (I)
• Chord: D major extended. Triad: D-F#-(A omitted); 7th=C; (9th=E-not included); (11th=G-
not included); 13th=B. Chord is V13a.
• Key: G major.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Rhythm Questions in
Scores
Questions on rhythm in the grade 8 music theory exam will normally either test your skill in
manipulating rhythms, or your knowledge of some of the less common rhythmic notations.

Rewriting a Rhythm in a Different Rhythmic Notation

This is something you probably studied for grade 5 theory, but may have forgotten all about!
The question will ask you to rewrite a short section of a rhythm, but change the pulse
from simple to compound time or vice versa, without changing the rhythmic effect.
To do this, remember that each simple time signature has a compound equivalent, which
can be found by changing the beat to a dotted version of the same note. For example, 4/4
represents four crotchet (quarter note) beats per bar. If you write four dotted crotchets
(dotted quarter notes) per bar, you change the time signature to 12/8. Both of these time
signatures have four beats per bar, so they are both “quadruple” times, but 4/4 is simple
and 12/8 is compound.
Here is a table of conversion:

In simple time signatures, the main beat divides into two, whereas in compound time
signatures it divides into three. So in order to preserve the rhythmic effect, you will probably
need to use triplets or duplets to split the beat in the correct way.

Here are the common note values of 3/4 converted into compound time. The new time
signature is 9/8.

Notes which are equal to or larger than one beat simply need a dot adding to them, to turn
them into compound beats. However, notice that a full bar in 9/8 is written with tied single
dotted notes – it’s not usual to use the double dotted minim (double dotted half note).
The normal quavers (eighth notes) in 3/4 need a duplet sign in 9/8, whereas the triplets in
3/4 can be written without any extra notation in 9/8, since the main beat is supposed to split
into three anyway.

Tuplets
You should already be very familiar with both the triplet and the duplet – rhythmic groupings
which are used to change the way the main beat is subdivided.
 Triplets are used in simple time signatures (those with 2, 3 or 4 as the top number),
when the beat needs to be divided into three instead usual two.
 Duplets are used in compound time signatures (those with 6, 9 or 12 on top), when the
beat needs to be divided into two instead of three.
A group with five notes is called a quintuplet, with six notes it’s a sextuplet and so on.
However, since they can contain any number of notes, it becomes impractical to give them
all separate names, and the word “tuplet” comprises all irregular groups.
In the grade 8 exam, you might be asked to explain in words what the tuplet means. You
can explain a triplet as “play three notes in the space of two”, for example. However, an
irregular tuplet group can align with one or more beats – you may have to do a little
mathematics to work out what the exact rhythm is supposed to be!
Let’s take a look an example of an irregular tuplet, from Chopin’s Nocturne in C# Minor
B.49:

The tuplet is clearly marked “18”, but in the space of how many normal notes? The note
value used is the semiquaver (16th note), and the tuplet takes up the same space as a
minim (half note). A minim is normally worth eight semiquavers, so this tuplet means “play
eighteen notes in the space of eight” (and good luck with that!)

Shorthand Tuplets
As with repeated notes, tuplets are also sometimes written in an abbreviated form to save
on space. A slash across the tail of the note shows you the note value, and the number
shows you the type of tuplet.
A bar written like this:
Should be played like this:

Measured Notes v. The Tremolo

Notes with crossed stems (or slashes above the note for semibreves/whole notes) normally
indicate measured repeated notes. The number of slashes across the stem is equal to the
number of “tails” on the equivalent note.
This semibreve (whole note) with two slashes indicates that the G should be played as
repeated semiquavers (16th notes). It takes up considerably less space on the page to write
this, than sixteen normal notes!

Don’t confuse the repeated note symbol with that of the tremolo. A true tremolo is a rapid
repetition of a single note, or a rapid alternation between two notes, and it is not measured
precisely.
Tremolos on a single note are commonly found in string music, where the player lets the
bow almost tremble across the string. Tremolos are notated in the same way as measured
repeated notes, but will normally also include the word “tremolo”, (or “trem.” or
“tremolando”).
Tremolos between two notes are commonly found in wind music, where the player can
move quickly with relative ease by simply lifting and replacing the required number of
fingers. The slashes are placed between the two notes, like this:
Grade 8 Score Reading - Instruments and
Transposition
At grade 8, you should be familiar with all the instruments that are commonly seen in the
Symphony Orchestra, including the over- and under-sized versions of the standard
orchestral instruments.
It’s important to learn about the transpositions of these non-standard instruments, because
if you are asked to work out an interval or chord, you will need to know the precise pitch
(including octave) in order to find the correct answer. In particular, when deciphering
chords, you need to know what the lowest sounding note is in order to work out an inversion
– if you forget that some instruments transpose down an octave into concert pitch, you will
likely end up with the wrong inversion of the chord!

Woodwind
In the flute family, the piccolo is very frequently seen. Despite its small size, piccolo notes
can be heard above every other orchestral instrument, no matter how loudly they are
playing. This is due to its penetrating high pitch. Music for the piccolo is written an octave
lower than it sounds, to prevent unreadable ledger lines above the stave.
The bass flute is much more rarely seen, and in contrast to the piccolo is one of the
quietest instruments there is. It has a very woody, mellow sound. Bass flute music is usually
written in the treble clef, but sounds an octave lower than written.

In the oboe family, the cor Anglais should already be familiar to you. The cor Anglais
always transposes down a perfect 5th into concert pitch. Oboes and cors Anglais use the
treble clef.
The contrabassoon (also known as the double bassoon) is the lowest sounding woodwind
instrument. Its music is written in the bass clef and sounds an octave lower than written.

In the clarinet family you should already know that the standard sized instrument comes in
two types – the A and the Bb. Beginning clarinet players always start on a Bb instrument,
and this is considered to be the “default” version.
Clarinets in A are used mostly in order to avoid the player playing in keys with lots of
sharps, as the key design on the clarinet makes these awkward. Some composers
deliberately choose the clarinet in A even when the key is not sharp, because they prefer its
slightly darker tone. (Most people can’t tell the difference between the two instruments,
however!)
In some pieces of music, the player needs to swap between the two instruments during the
piece. This is often notated with the words “muta in” plus the key of the instrument, eg.
“muta in A” means “switch to the A clarinet”.
The clarinet in Bb transposes down a major 2nd into concert pitch, and the clarinet in A
transposes down a minor 3rd. Also in the clarinet family you can often find the smaller-
sized Eb clarinet, which transposes up a minor 3rd into concert pitch. This is one of the few
instruments which transposes up into concert pitch, rather than down. The bass clarinet is
pitched in Bb, but transposes down a compound major 2nd into concert pitch.
All the clarinets are single-reed instruments (unlike the oboe and bassoon which use a
double-reed), and they all use the treble clef.

Brass
Brass instruments are some of the oldest instruments still in use today. Originally, all brass
instruments were made of a conical metal tube of varying lengths. Longer instruments were
coiled up to make them manageable. A brass tube with no openings/holes/valves/pistons
can produce all the notes in the harmonic series, except the lowest note (the
“fundamental”), which is usually too difficult to sound. The player changes pitch simply by
changing their lip pressure as they blow into the mouthpiece.
This is the harmonic series produced on the note C:

As you can see, a “natural” horn (or trumpet etc.) has a limited number of notes. However,
it is pretty good at playing arpeggios based on its fundamental note e.g C-E-G here (which
is why they are excellent for fanfares!)

For many hundreds of years, the only way to play a different series of notes would be to use
a different sized instrument. A horn in D will produce a harmonic series as above, but with
each note a major 2nd higher. For this reason, it was usual practice not to add a key
signature into a brass part, since there was no need to use one. Instead, the player was
instructed to use a horn of a particular pitch.
Over time technological advances were made to brass instruments. Pistons, slides and
valves were added, which in effect shorten or increase the basic overall length of tubing,
allowing a different version of the harmonic series to be accessed quickly. Notation methods
did not quickly follow this change however, and the practice of notating brass parts with no
key signature lasted until even the 20th century!
What this all means for you as a music theory exam candidate is that:
 The absence of a key signature in a brass part does not signify anything special, it
simply means they didn’t write it in.
 To find out what key a score is in, look at an instrument such as the flute, oboe, violin or
piano. Do not use a brass part for this purpose!
 You may come across brass instrument parts for instruments pitched in a wide variety
of keys. The modern trumpet is pitched in Bb, but parts in orchestral scores might
feature instruments pitched in A, D or C, for example. French horn parts in Bb, E or C
may also be seen.
 To know which direction (up or down) you should transpose into concert pitch, consider
the pitch of the instrument in relation to C. Instruments generally transpose down into
 concert pitch, but those which are up to a major third above C transpose upwards, i.e.
those pitched in D, E or Eb.

Tips for Transposing

Although you are likely to be an old-hand at transposition questions if you are coming from
the earlier ABRSM grades, you will find that the questions in the grade 8 paper have been
made slightly more complicated in some way. Apart from involving some of the less
common instruments, you may be asked to do a transposition which:
 is into the “wrong” clef e.g. put a clarinet part into the bass clef, or a cor Anglais part
into the alto clef.
 uses the “wrong” key signature e.g. the key signature is an enharmonic equivalent (Gb
instead of F#, for example), or simply different (common in atonal music)
 is out of instead of into concert pitch (read the question carefully!) This scenario
happens for example, if a natural (C) trumpet part should be rewritten for a modern (Bb)
instrument.
 asks you to also work out the new key signature
 uses notes tied over the bar, or requires stem direction changes

Always look at the information given – for clarinets and brass instruments, the transposing
pitch of the instrument will always be written on the score (although it may be in any
language e.g. “Es” is “Eb” in German.) Cors Anglais are always pitched in F.
Look at the key signatures (original and transposed). Don’t use them to make assumptions
about the key, or the transposing interval of the instrument – they might not match up! But,
do make sure that the notes you write take the key signature into account – don’t
add unnecessary accidentals which are already taken care of by the key signature.
(“Courtesy” accidentals are fine, and are used when a note has previously been
chromatically altered, for clarification only). If you have been given a flat key signature to
transpose into (e.g. Gb major), don’t write in a sharp key (e.g. F#) – use the enharmonic
equivalents if necessary.
Here’s an example transposition question. The bar is taken from Busoni’s “Symphonisches
Tongedicht”, Op.32a and is for two Bb clarinets. How would you transpose it into concert
pitch, using the key signature provided?

First of all, don’t be confused by the E major key signature. We are transposing Bb clarinet
parts, so the original music needs to go down a major 2nd, no matter what. Work out each
note in turn, then decide whether an accidental is needed, on the basis of the new key
signature.
C# → B : no accidental
A# → G# : no accidental
D# → C# : no accidental
A → G : natural symbol
E → D : natural symbol
G# → F# : no accidental

Write in the notes, adjusting the stem directions where necessary. Don’t forget to copy over
the ties, and, if necessary, make sure the notes are all aligned correctly across the parts.
Here is the finished transposition:

The stems have been changed on each pair of notes, because it is the note furthest from
the middle line which dictates the stem direction of a chord.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Naming Composers
and Eras in Scores
As in earlier grades, you may be asked to guess the composer or era of the score you are
analysing. The choice of composers given at grade 8 is usually a little wider than in previous
grades, but will still include well-known names.
The best way to improve your chances at this question is to listen to a wide variety of music.
Tune into your local classical music radio station, or use Youtube to find some playlists by
genre, for example. Look up any unfamiliar names and check which era they belong to, and
the also type of composition they are best known for writing.
Here are some names that are worth learning, their eras, and in some cases the genre they
are best known for.
For further details about the stylistic characteristics of each era, see the MyMusicTheory
Guide to Classical Music Series of blog posts.

Bach Baroque

Bartok 20th C, atonal, string quartets

Beethoven Classical, Early romantic

Brahms Romantic

Bruckner Romantic, large orchestra

Chopin Romantic, piano

Couperin Baroque

Debussy 20th C, impressionism, whole tone

Gershwin 20th C, jazz

Handel Baroque

Haydn Classical

Liszt Romantic, showy piano

Mozart Classical

Mahler Romantic, large orchestra, 8 French

horns!
Mendelssohn Romantic

Prokofiev 20th C

Puccini Romantic, opera

Rachmaninov Romantic, piano and orchestral

Rossini Classical, opera & vocal

Satie 20th C, piano, quiet

Schoenberg 20th C, atonal

Schubert Classical, Lieder (German songs with

piano)

Schumann Romantic

Shostakovich 20th C, piano, sharp contrasts, atonality

Strauss Classical, orchestral waltzes

Stravinsky 20th C, non-diatonic, rhythmically

diverse

Tchaikovsky Romantic, orchestral

Wagner Late Romantic, opera

Verdi Early Romantic, opera

Vivaldi Baroque, violin works

Other Clues
The harpsichord faded away by the classical era. Piano and clarinet exist from the classical
era. Piano pedal was used from the Romantic era. Performance directions in French,
English or German will reflect the nationality of the composer.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Describing Sounds in a
Score
You may be asked some questions about the way the music sounds, or how the composer
has achieved a particular effect. Some typical questions include:
 Describe how the composer builds tension and excitement/a climax
 Which words could you use to describe the sound?
 How is [section 1] contrasted with [section 2]
 How does the composer make a repeated note more interesting?
 Why does this section sound shrill/calm?
 Which features illustrate the tempo/expression markings of the piece?
 Which features suggest this is/is not the end of a section?
 Describe the similarities and differences between [section 1] and [section 2]

Whatever the question, the answer will be connected with at least one of the principal
dimensions of music, namely:
 Pitch
 Tempo
 Rhythm
 Key/modality
 Dynamics
 Attack

When music is written at a medium level, meaning a moderate tempo, middle-of-the-range

notes, even paced rhythms, and a moderate dynamic, it is not very exciting. Most pieces of
music contain sections like this though, because they are the “default” values. A satisfying
composition is often one which has calm sections interspersed with more exciting ones –
this keeps the listener’s interest up but does not wear them out!
In order to increase the tension, drama and excitement, the default values are increased.
Pitch becomes higher, tempos become quicker, rhythms become less even or are
doubled/quadrupled, key changes occur (often very rapidly), dynamics increase or are
contrasted considerably and notes are attacked fiercely, with accents or staccato. Any
number of these effects can be combined – the more values are increased, the higher the
sense of tension. Words you might be able to use to describe the sound include high-
pitched, harsh, shrill, loud, full-sounding, powerful, anxious, restless, explosive, passionate,
exciting, dramatic or dense.
In order to relieve the tension, the opposite techniques are used – the dynamics and pitch
are reduced and the pace slows down. Words you might be able to use include quiet,
flowing, calm, restful, thin, level in dynamics, low-pitched, sweet or tranquil.
Features that are commonly used toward the end of a piece are the pedal (especially
dominant), return to the original key, repetition of original themes and cadences.
If you are asked to describe the similarities and differences, try to include enough detail
to illustrate your point clearly. Don’t simply say “the dynamics are different”, for example,
but explain how they are different: “the first section is played very quietly, whereas the
second section is played at a moderately loud dynamic”.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Introduction to the Trio
Sonata
The Trio Sonata genre dates back to the Baroque period – it was very popular between
about 1600-1750. Despite its name, the Trio Sonata is a composition written for four
instruments. It’s called a trio, because there are three written parts, and the fourth
instrument provided the “continuo”, or accompaniment. A typical set up would have been
two violins, a cello and harpsichord. The format of the written parts is always two high
pitched instruments and one bass instrument. The bass part contained a bass part, and
also a figured bass line, which would have been “realized” by the harpsichord player, so in
effect, the bass line is doubled up too.
Any of the typical instruments at the time could feature in a trio sonata. These include the
violin, viola, cello, flute, oboe, bassoon and recorder. Here’s a period painting showing what
the ensemble would have looked like:

The texture of music in a Trio Sonata is usually contrapuntal. This means that each
instrument is equally important, and the music is created by an intertwining of rhythmically
independent parts. You can also find homophonic movements in Trio Sonatas, where the
instruments work together, playing the same rhythms, creating chords. You won’t normally
get this type of texture in the Grade 8 exam question, however.
In the exam, you’ll be given about a page’s worth of score, with several empty bars in the
upper two parts. The bass line and figured bass line are provided, along with some material
at the start, and occasional bars throughout the piece. Your job is to the fill in the blanks!
 Putting the Puzzle Together
To put together the puzzle of a Trio Sonata, you need to bear in mind several things:
1. You have to respect the given harmony shown in the figured bass
2. You have to respect the style of the period, which includes obeying the rules of Baroque
harmony
3. You have to recognise patterns and sequences which are already on the page and know
when and how to reuse them
4. In places where sequences don’t fit, you have to invent your own material which should
sound convincingly Baroque
If you’ve already taken or studied grades 6 and 7 ABRSM music theory, you will be well-
prepared for understanding the figured bass aspect. The figures will normally contain some
7th chords and some suspensions, as well as various modulations.
You’ve also covered most of what you need to know about Baroque harmony, when you
learned the rules of harmony for Bach Chorales. There are a few more details we will look
at here, but if you know about consecutives, doubling, omissions and voice-leading, you are
more than half way there already.
Recognising patterns and sequences may be new for you. However, once you know what
you are looking for, you will find out that using sequences in the right places means that a
lot of the Trio Sonata will “write itself”.
Inventing your own material which “sounds Baroque” might seem like a challenge. However,
I will break the style down into some instructions and guidelines which you can follow, in
order to produce something which sounds good enough!

Listening Matters
You will, of course, want to do plenty of practice before taking the exam. While doing
practice questions and past exam papers is essential, one of the most useful things you can
do is listen. You can only expect to write something which sounds like a Trio Sonata, if you
have plenty of experience of listening to the genre. Educate your ear through listening –
even better, following the score at the same time – and your brain will subconsciously begin
to sort out what is right/wrong according to the style.
If you have any music notation software, try transcribing a Trio Sonata with it – you will pick
up lots of tips that way! You will notice the frequency of sequences, typical melodic patterns,
key changes and much more.
Use Youtube for recordings and imslp.org for scores. Some of the typical composers of this
genre are Corelli, Telemann, Handel, Vivaldi, Tartini, Quantz, Gluck, Albinoni and
Buxtehude. By the way, in performance, the soloists would have used a considerable
amount of ornamentation (trills, turns and so on) of their parts, particularly in slow
movements, so don’t be surprised if what you hear doesn’t match exactly what’s written in
the score! Ornamentation wasn’t really included on the score itself at this time – the
performers were supposed to show their skill by improvising ornaments as they played.
Here's a video to get you started. This is Corelli's Op.3 Sonata no.5 in D minor. The score is
available for free on imslp.org, or you can download it here.

What's in this Course

In this course, you’ll learn about tackling the Trio Sonata question one step at a time.
 We’ll begin by looking “under the hood” at a Trio Sonata – identifying its most important
characteristics.
 We’ll then create a simple Trio Sonata in the Baroque style, part by part. It will be “easy”
in the sense that we won’t delve into complicated chords, suspensions or sequences,
and it will be in a major key.
 We’ll then move on to decorating a main melody line and examine the special
considerations that come up in minor keys – awkward melodic intervals and how to
handle them, and how to know whether melody notes should be raised by a semitone, as
per the melodic minor scale.
 Then we’ll go through the task of treating dissonances – added 7th chords (dominant
and supertonic 7ths), 9ths and suspensions, and we’ll look at how sequences are
typically used.
 Finally we’ll go through a method you can use in the exam, plus the steps you need to
take to make sure you submit your very best work.

How to Complete a Trio Sonata for Grade 8 ABRSM

Music Theory
In this video, you can watch me complete a real exam question. After going through the
course provided for you on the website, you should be able to do the same with great
success! Let me know if you have any problems, and I will be happy to help.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Trio Sonata Under the
Hood
In this chapter we’ll take a look at a Trio Sonata by Corelli – his Opus 3 No. 1 in F major,
second movement. We’ll use this to illustrate some of the most distinctive features of the
Trio Sonata genre. The figured bass has been left out, as we don’t need to focus on that at
the moment.
Listen and read the score on the video, then look through the score printed below (which
will explain the boxes), and listen again.

Corelli - Trio Sonata Op.3 No.5 Second Movement

Notice the following things, which are all typical of the Trio Sonata genre (examples are
shown in boxes):
 Three parts: two upper parts and a bass line/continuo
 Large amount of imitation (exact repeats) and sequences (bars 1-5)
 Wide range of notes used (up to two ledger lines above the stave).
 Majority of melodic movement is by step or thirds (bar 9)
 Where the melody doesn’t move by step, most often it moves by a 4th, 5th or octave (bar
25)
 Very rare to see two leaps in the same direction, unless the leaps form part of an
arpeggio (bar 6)
 Melodic movement based on arpeggios (but not always straight up/down) (bar 7)
 Occasional parallel thirds in the 2 upper voices, particularly in scales (bar 30)
 No consecutive perfect 5ths or octaves
 Leading notes lead to the tonic (bar 15)
 Dissonances are prepared and resolved (bars 31-32)
 Upper parts cross each other frequently (bar 5) and use a wide range
 No similar motion in all three parts simultaneously
 Typical melodic decoration used: passing notes (bar 13), auxiliary notes (often repeated)
(bar 8), suspensions (bar 11) etc.
 Rhythmic momentum is kept up throughout, and is only relaxed at the approach to a
cadence (bar 36)
 All three parts almost never move together with the same rhythm at any point
 Two parts may occasionally move together rhythmically for short periods (2-3 beats)
 Syncopation is quite common (tied notes onto a strong beat) (bars 16-18)
 Longer note values used at important cadences (bar 21)

Grade 8 Music Theory - Creating a Simple Trio

Sonata
The secret to writing a part which sounds like a trio-sonata part, is to focus primarily on the
melody notes which fall on the main beat of each bar, and to treat these notes as a “main
melody”.
Any notes which are squashed between these important notes can be thought of as melodic
decoration. In a piece written in 4/4, for example, the main melodic line will often be made
from the four notes which fall on each crotchet (quarter note) or minim (half note) beat.
 When creating the “main melody”, the basic idea is that a melodic line moves smoothly.
For the most part, it will move by step to the next note, and when it cannot move by step
it will move by a 3rd.
 At cadences, a rise of a 4th or fall of a 5th are common, and they are also sometimes
used elsewhere in the melody for short periods.
 Leaps of a 7th are rare.
 Augmented and diminished intervals are treated with care.
 Each note of the “main melody” will normally correspond with a change of chord in the
harmony.

We’ll use this Trio Sonata by Telemann (TWV 42 in A minor) as an example. At first sight,
the top part looks very busy (the middle part is silent here), but we can boil it down to
something more simple, by looking at the notes which fall on the beat. Notes which are
categorised as “melodic decoration” have been greyed out. What is left, is what I call the
“main melody”.
In bar 1, the first two beats of the bar fit with an A minor tonic chord. We will treat the
quavers (8th notes) E-A-C as melodic decoration: they are harmonic auxiliary notes (i.e.
chord notes which are ornamental, and not important in themselves).
In the second half of bar 1, the harmony changes to a dominant E major chord, with B
falling on the strong beat. (Remember that in quadruple time, the 3rd beat of the bar is the
second strongest). This E major chord actually lasts until half way through bar 2, where the
7th, D is also added, before the harmony changes back to A minor. In bar 1, the quaver (8th
note) E, and the following semiquavers (16th notes) can be considered as decoration of the
B. The E and G# are harmonic auxiliary notes, and the F# and A are passing notes.
In the first half of bar 2, E-B-D are harmonic auxiliary notes. In the second half of bar 2, the
tied D is a suspension, which resolves to the true harmony note, C. The quick notes are
decorative – harmonic auxiliary notes and normal auxiliary notes - and they don’t make the
melody move away from the A minor harmony.
In bar 3, the first note in the bar is B, which forms part of chord ii° (B dim).
On beat 2, there is a leap of a diminished 5th to F, and the harmony here is a German
augmented 6th chord (chord notes F-A-C-D#). Having the main melody leap by a dissonant
interval is not recommended – instead we can treat the F as decorative, and consider the A
to be the main melody note.
The third beat of bar 3 only uses G#, so this must be part of the main melody.
This leaves us with a very simple “main melody”.

When it comes to writing your own parts, it’s a great idea to begin with a simple “main
melody” like this, and then work some melodic decoration into the gaps between each
“long” note. This way, you will ensure that your melody sounds plausible, rather than
(perhaps) a random succession of “notes which fit the harmony”!
The kind of melodic decorations which are squeezed in are the usual suspects:
 Passing notes
 Auxiliary notes
 Harmonic auxiliary notes
 Suspensions
 Anticipations
 Retardations
 Changing notes
Of all these types, the first three are the most commonly used. Personally I think that
changing notes are the hardest to use effectively, and are probably best avoided unless you
have a very good inner ear and plenty of aural experience to guide you.
Creating the Main Melodies
Let’s work backwards now, to create two main melodies to fit a bass line, and then decorate
them in a Baroque style.
This is the bass line we’ll use. I think it helps to pencil in the letter names of the chords
before you start, so you can more quickly understand which notes you can choose from to
make the melody. For the same reason, you can also write in the letter names of any notes
which will need to appear in suspensions too.

We’ll start by adding one part, and then add the other (rather than working vertically, chord
by chord).
I’ll write in a main melody for the top part, with one note falling on each chord change. In
this case there are four beats per bar, but the harmony is changing with each half bar, so
we could write a main melody with crotchets (quarter notes) and/or minims (half notes).
With each note you write in the first part, make sure that:
 You haven’t doubled the third of a root position major chord (in a minor chord it’s
acceptable, but usually there is a better option).
 You haven’t doubled the leading note in the prevailing key. (Notice any key changes,
however short-lived. In this case, the piece starts in C major, but by the end of bar 2 has
moved to A minor, meaning that G# is the leading note at this precise point).
 You haven’t created consecutive perfect 5ths/8ves with the bass line (check with the
bass note which is directly above the figure AND with any melodic decoration notes in
the bass, so in bar 1, you need to check against the first C, and then check again against
the E which follows).
 You don’t move in similar motion 3rds/6ths with the bass for more than two bars (it gets
tiresome on the ear, and the independence of parts becomes lost as they meld together).
 Aim to move mostly by step or 3rds. For variety, add a limited number of 4ths, 5ths or
octaves.
 Use different types of motion with the bass line: use contrary motion as well as similar
motion.
 Try to avoid two jumps in the same direction (i.e. thirds or greater)
If the note you choose means that there is, as yet, no root, third or required suspension in
the chord, write a reminder, on the middle part stave, of the note that will be added at that
point, for the chord to be complete. (5ths can be omitted, except in a 6-4 chord or
diminished chord).

After checking carefully for consecutives, add in the middle part. When adding this last part
you should:
 Check for consecutive 5ths/8ves with the top part AND bass line (separately).
 Don’t double the third unless it’s a first inversion chord, or a minor chord, and never
double the leading note in the prevailing key.
 Aim to make most chords “complete”, i.e. with a root, third and fifth.
 As with the top part, move mostly by steps and thirds, but also add 4ths/5ths/octaves for
variety.
 Don’t forget that the top and middle parts can cross each other.
 Don’t let all three parts move in similar motion.
 Make sure you added in the “reminder” notes!
To fill in this middle part, I’ll begin on G, the note which is missing from the C major triad.

Now we need to add in melodic decoration to liven it up. I’ll be using semiquavers (16th
notes), and try to split them between the two parts, so that there is a degree of balance. The
decoration will mostly be a combination of auxiliary harmony notes, passing notes and
normal auxiliary notes. Ties can be used liberally. Always look for opportunities to create
sequences. Notice how the two upper parts rarely have an identical rhythm at the same
time, and there is a slight slowing down (less use of semiquavers (16th notes)) as we
approach the end of the phrase.

The result is something which sounds plausibly Baroque! (The recording here uses flute and oboe for the
upper two parts.)
Grade 8 Music Theory - Minor Key Issues in
Trio Sonatas
Augmented and diminished melodic intervals are uncommon (but occasionally used) in the
main skeleton outline which we looked at in the previous chapter. They occur more
frequently within the melodic decoration.
The main point to remember is that dissonances should resolve by step: move from the
dissonance to the nearest possible note. In most cases this will mean a semitone step.

Augmented 4ths/Diminished 5ths (The “Tritone”)

In a dominant 7th chord, two of the chord notes make a diminished 5th. For example, in G7,
the notes B-F are a diminished 5th. Turned around the other way, F-B makes an
augmented 4th. The term “tritone” refers to either interval.

When they are used as harmonic auxiliary notes in a V7 chord, the aug4/dim5 intervals will
sound ok. V7 is normally followed by the tonic chord, and the dissonant 7th will resolve by
step.
For example here, the V7 chord in A minor (E7) includes the notes E-G#-B-D, with G#-D
making an augmented 4th. The augmented interval sounds fine here, as it is simply part of
the chord.

Aug4/dim5 intervals also occur when chord IV moves to chord V, if the subdominant note
moves to the leading note.
In the D minor example below, subdominant G moves to leading note C# (augmented 4th)
in the top part. However, the main skeleton melody moves from D (last beat) to C#, which is
the smooth interval we would expect. Placing the augmented 4th into the melodic
decoration softens its harshness a little.
Diminished 4th/Augmented 5th
When i (minor tonic) is followed by V, the mediant in the tonic chord can fall (rather
deliciously) to the leading note in V, creating a diminished 4th.
In this example below, the prevailing key is D minor. In the top part, the first main melody
note D is embellished with E (passing note) and F (auxiliary harmony note and mediant in
this key). The F then falls by a diminished 4th to C# (leading note in V). Notice that the C#
resolves by step to D.

In this case the dissonance is again softened because it occurs as part of the melodic
decoration. However, you can also occasionally find this interval occurring within the main
melodic skeleton too, with quite a dramatic effect. You can certainly use it that way, but use
it very sparingly!
 Choosing From the Melodic Minor Scales
Since the melodic minor scale has a raised 6th and 7th degree on the way up, but not on
the way down, it can sometimes seem confusing whether you should be raising a note by a
semitone or not when the music is in a minor key.
There is a certain amount of artistic licence here – sometimes either version of the scale
can be used. But in some situations, you can use your knowledge of theory to guide you in
your choice. It’s certainly not the case that the ascending version of the scale should only
be used where the melody ascends, for example. The following examples are all in A minor.

1. 7th degree to tonic: raise the 7th. The leading note gets its name from the fact that it has
a strong pull towards the tonic. In almost all cases where the leading note is followed by the
tonic, (ascending pattern), raise the 7th.

2. 7th degree auxiliary: raise the 7th. When the tonic note is decorated with a lower auxiliary
note, the 7th should be raised. This is the same leading note function described in 1.

3. 6th and 7th degrees to tonic: raise both. When the leading note has been raised, the 6th
also needs to be raised to avoid the augmented 2nd between the 6th and 7th degrees of
the scale.

4. Dominant decoration: raise 6th/7th. In point 3 above, the melody notes would fit with a
dominant E major chord. When the harmony is chord V, the decoration should agree with
the chord notes. So, if you use a descending scale pattern, the 6th and 7th are still normally
raised.

5. Subdominant decoration: don’t raise 6th/7th. Minor chord iv includes the unraised 6th
degree of the scale (e.g. F in a D minor chord iv in the key of A minor). Decorate chord iv
with the notes that agree with the chord.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Decoration in Trio
Sonatas
Patterns of Decoration
There are some typical patterns which are used to add decoration between two notes. The
ideas in this chapter are just a small selection, to get you thinking about how you can move
from one main melody note to the next in a “fancy” way. For more inspiration, study as
many Trio Sonatas as you can and see what sort of patterns were used in each case.
In the following examples, the main melody notes are on the top stave, and possible ways
to decorate them are immediately below. Play or sing through them.
Decorating a Unison or Long Note

Decorating a Rising 2nd

Decorating a Falling 2nd

Decorating 3rds

Decorating 4ths and 5ths

Melodic Decoration and Harmony

When you decorate any note, pay attention to the harmony which is required at that point.
The first note in the decorative part, (in other words, the note after the main melody note),
will usually need to either be a chord note belonging to the current harmony, or
a step away from the main melody note.
If you choose a note which is neither a step away, nor a chord note, you will most likely
write a decoration which clashes with the rest of the harmony.
The following decorations all work properly:

In the above examples in the key of C major, the main melody moves from G down to D in
each case.
 Bar 1: Harmony moves from I to V. Main melody note G is followed by chord note E.
 Bar 2: Harmony is V throughout the bar. G is followed by chord note D.
 Bar 3: Harmony moves from I to V. G falls by a step.
 Bar 4: Harmony is V throughout. G falls by a step.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Added 7ths and 9ths in
Trio Sonatas
Added 7th Chords
The added 7th chords you are most likely to encounter are the dominant 7th (V7) and
supertonic 7th (ii7/ii°7/II7). You might also see an occasional diminished 7th (vii°7b or vii°7).

Theoretically, since a 7th chord contains four notes, and we are writing harmony
in three parts, you’ll need to omit something. In V7 and ii7 this will normally be the 5th, and
in a diminished 7th chord, it could be the 3rd or 5th.
In practice, the chord is often made complete by the use of melodic decoration. For
example, in the first V7 chord in the C major section above, the missing D might be supplied
like this:

You may see 7s in the figured bass on chords other than V and ii. They will usually be
suspensions – which we’ll explore in the next chapter.
You can easily identify a suspension because it is followed by a short dash.
Approach and Exit in V7 and ii7
In order to handle a V7 or ii7 chord correctly, it’s not enough just to include the right notes in
the chord! In Baroque harmony dissonances were treated in a specific way, so if the added
7th creates an accented dissonance, the approach and exit from the dissonance must also
be correct. “Approach” means the note before the dissonance, and “exit” is the
note after the dissonance.
For example, in G7, the added 7th note is F. In whichever part the F is written in, you also
need to look at the notes before and after the F. In this case, the F of G7 is in the top part:

Chord V7 is normally approached either by a preparation or a leap. Chord ii7 should only
be approached by preparation.

If the 7th is “prepared”, it means that it occurs in the previous chord, in the same part. We
could prepare the F in the top part like this:Approach by Preparation
Preparations are often tied to the following 7th, but they don’t have to be.

Approach by a Leap
Chord V7 (but not normally ii7) can also be approached by a leap. A “leap” is a jump
upwards of an interval bigger than a 2nd.
Here, the A leaps up to the 7th F, so that’s fine.

If you decide to approach a 7th chord by a leap, you’ll need to make sure you know that it’s
a V7 and not a supertonic 7th, which means working out the prevailing key at that point
(which of course, is something you should be doing anyway!)

7th as Melodic Decoration

7ths which are shown in the figured bass can sometimes be added as melodic decoration
(rather than “chord notes”) – particularly when you need to preserve the pattern in a
sequence – use your judgement! Here, the added 7th Bb (boxed) is a passing note, to make
a sequence with bar 1.
V-V7
You may see chord V moving to chord V7. In this situation, make the root of V move
downwards by step to the 7th.
In this example, the prevailing key is E major. The B in the dominant chord moves
downwards by step to A, to become the 7th in the following V7 chord.

II7 (V7) – V7 – I
You may see a series of dominant 7th chords used in quick succession, following the circle
of 5ths. For example, in the key of G, the progression A7-D7-G might be found. In this case,
A7 is a secondary dominant chord. The best way to deal with this, is to make at least one
part move chromatically: C#-C-B in this case.
Exit by Step
All 7ths should be quitted by a step downwards. These bars contain three different 7ths, all
of which resolve by step in the next chord.

Diminished 7th Chords

Diminished 7th (vii°7 or vii°7b) are seen more rarely than the other types of added 7th
chord.
They characteristically appear in chromatic progressions, such as the following (prevailing
key Bb major):
Notice how the bass line moves upwards by semitones from D to F, and one of the upper
parts moves downwards by semitones (the middle part here, Eb-D-Db-C). The diminished
7th chord is d.

This passage illustrates well the way dissonances are prepared and resolved.
 Chord a is V7, and the Eb will have either been prepared or approached by a leap in the
previous bar.
 Chord b is tonic first inversion.
 Chord c is a subdominant Eb major chord, with a prepared 7th D from the previous
chord.
 In chord d, the 7th D moves to Db in the diminished 7th chord. The part moves by a
semitone. The G is a harmonic auxiliary note.
 Chord e is a suspension. The Bb in the top part was prepared in chord d, and the Db
from chord d moves by semitone to C.
 Chord f is the resolution of the suspended Bb onto A.
You’re most likely to see diminished 7th chords used at strategic points in the music, such
as at cadences or modulations.

9th Chords
Chords with an added 9th are figured with a 9. You can distinguish them from suspended
9ths, as there is no dash after the figure 9.
The 9th above the bass is, of course, the same as a compound 2nd. Since it’s a dissonant
interval, it needs to be prepared in the previous chord.

In this case, the added 9th is the A, which is prepared in the previous chord, and then
repeated.
When you realize a 9th chord, think carefully about the other note you will write, to create
the 3rd part. With a root and a 9th, e.g. G-A, if you add the third of the chord, B, you will
create quite a clash, since the chord will consist of three consecutive tones (whole steps) G-
A-B.

You have various options to avoid this:

 Add the third as an accented passing note moving to the 9th (like the above example,
where the top part has B-A semiquavers (16th notes)
 Omit the third and add the 5th (D)
 Omit the third and double the root (G)
 Put a rest – but only if it makes sense rhythmically.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Suspensions in Trio
Sonatas
Suspensions are most often formed with the figure 4-3, 9-8 or 7-6. The 7-6 suspension
happens when a first inversion chord is used.

The crucial thing to remember about suspensions is that they must be prepared in
the previous chord of the same part, and they must resolve (be quitted) by step.
In the following extract, two suspensions are hooked together:

In the 7-6 suspension, the C is prepared in the previous bar, suspended as 7, and resolves
to Bb as 6.
The same Bb then functions as the preparation for the next suspension as 4, which then
resolves to A as 3.

Suspensions are always notated with a small dash between the suspended note and the
resolution note.

Don’t anticipate the resolution note! The note of resolution should not also be written into
the other part. Suspensions sound good because the ear is waiting for the resolution note to
happen – if it can already be heard in another part, the effect of the resolution will be
spoiled.
For example, in this case, the resolution note is Bb, and it’s in the middle part. This means
that the note Bb is not a possibility for the space in the box on the top stave. G or D would
be fine.
Suspensions can be decorated. In example A, the resolution has been decorated with an
auxiliary note. In example B, the suspended note has been decorated with an auxiliary
harmony note.
Grade 8 Music Theory - Sequences, Imitation
and Motifs in Trio Sonatas
Trio Sonatas normally make a lot of use of melodic sequences and imitation.
Rhythmically, certain motifs are normally repeated throughout the piece.
 Imitation is when a section of melody is echoed in one of the other parts.
 Sequence is when a melodic fragment is repeated but starting on a different note.
 A motif is a short musical idea which recurs frequently and gives a sense of unity to the
piece.
Imitation: the melody is repeated in the middle part, at the same pitch.

Sequence: the melody here is repeated a 4th higher, and the sequences interlock.

Motifs: A certain rhythm, for example this rhythm in 6/8, might appear frequently throughout
the piece.

Part of your task in the exam will be to recognise where sequences/imitation will fit, and to
use them appropriately. Look carefully at the parts of the piece that have been provided for
you – usually they will include at least one fragment which will work as a sequence/imitation
elsewhere in the piece. A clue to the location that a sequence/imitation will fit, is often where
you’re given only a few notes, which will be the beginning of the sequenced section.
(Sometimes the parts are filled in for other reasons, such as awkward or unusual harmony,
or to guide you to the right part of the stave. Don’t assume that all the filled-in bits will make
sequences – look carefully!)
Sometimes the location where a sequence/imitation will fit is a bit more obscure. You may
find that after you have sketched in the main melody based on the figured bass, an outline
appears which mirrors the outline of another part of the piece, in which case, you will
probably be able to decorate it in the same way, to produce a sequence/imitation.
Sequences can bear minor alterations to fit with a change in harmony – they’re not always
“exact” copies.
 Grade 8 Music Theory - Method for Completing
a Trio Sonata
To make a good attempt at completing a Trio Sonata exam question, I’d suggest breaking
the task down into four stages:
1. Preparation
2. Composing by numbers
3. Free composition
4. Checking

1. Preparation
Starting at the beginning, go through the piece looking at the figured bass. Underneath each
change of chord, pencil in the following information:
 Prevailing key
 Letter name of chord (e.g. C major)
 Roman numeral of chord (e.g. V)
You need to know the prevailing keys in order to work out the Roman numerals, and to
make sure you never double the leading note.
You need to know the Roman numerals, so that you can understand the relationship of
each chord to its neighbour – you need to know when a ii7 chord is being used, for
example, so that you can approach the 7th correctly.
In addition, completing this task will give you a general understanding of how the piece
sounds, more quickly than just trying to hear it in your head (but do try to hear it in your
head too!)
Writing in the letter name of the chords will help you work out the Roman numerals, and will
also make it quicker for you to see which notes should be included in each chord.
2. Composing by Numbers
A surprising amount of the sonata will “write itself”, if you follow the guidelines listed below.
Completing the puzzle is a question of logic – what “can’t” be, and what “must” be!
Added 7th chords, 9ths and suspensions need to be handled with care – but actually this
makes your job a little easier. Because you have to follow some rules to use them correctly,
they take the guesswork out of what the melody should be doing in each part.
Use the guidelines to sketch as much of the outline “main melody” as you can.
 No consecutive 5ths/8ves
 Leading notes should rise to the tonic in V-I
 Figured 7ths and 9ths cannot be omitted
 Notes which must have been prepared in the same part in the previous chord:
o 9ths in “9” chords
o 7ths in ii7 chords
o suspensions
 7ths in V7 chords must normally be either:
o prepared or
o approached by a leap
 Suspensions and 7ths must resolve downwards by step
 3rds and roots cannot be omitted, with some exceptions:
o Omit the 3rd in 9th chords
o The 3rd may be omitted in diminished 7th chords
o A final tonic chord can consist of three roots
 Diminished triads should be complete (root, 3rd and 5th)
 When part of a melodic figure has been started for you, often a sequence/imitation will fit.
o Find the “main melody” notes in the original figure and see if they fit with the figured
bass in another location.
o If they do, copy over the melodic decoration too, to make the sequence/imitation
o You may need to adapt a couple of notes of the original to make it fit the new
harmony.
 Avoid melodic augmented 4ths (not forbidden, but awkward) and leaps of a 7th (except
as an approach to V7).

In this example, the main melody notes which must logically fit in the boxes are explained
below.
 A. The A minor chord is missing its root, so this must be an A, above the previous G.
B. The Bb major chord is missing its third, so this must be D.
C. The ii7 chord has F as its 7th, which must be prepared in the previous chord, so this must
be F (the preparation F is in bar 3).
D. The Gm7 chord needs a third, so this must be Bb.
E. The V7 chord has Bb as its 7th. The preparation is already made in [D], so this should also
be Bb.
In this example, after the outline is sketched in, it becomes evident that the top part should
be a sequence of the filled in middle part in the previous bar.

They should be decorated in the same way:

3. Free Composition
Normally, you’ll be able to complete quite a large part of the sonata “by numbers”. You’ll
then be left with a few completely blank beats or bars where you’ll need to invent
something, and you will also need to add appropriate passing and auxiliary notes to keep up
the rhythmic momentum.
This is, perhaps, the trickiest part of the task, because there is no one single correct
answer.
Begin by filling in all of the “main melody” outline, and then add some melodic decoration to
the whole piece. Here are some further tips to help you:
Copy ideas from elsewhere:
 If you wrote a sequence, does the 2nd part also fit with the sequence?
 Copy the same types of melodic decoration that are used elsewhere
 Copy the same types of rhythmic groups that are used elsewhere
 If rests have been used, add some in the same way

If two chord notes appear in the figure, but there is only space for one note, look either side
to see if the other chord note features just before/after. If so, include the other one. Here for
example, the figure asks for the 7 and 3#, both of which are missing.
 However, the bass has just played a D# on the previous beat, and would still be in the
listener’s aural memory, and the 7th is more crucial, so the middle part should have A here.
If your “main melody” contains a repeated note, consider leaping upwards by an octave on
the second note. This makes a more interesting melodic line, and is especially useful if you
need to move into the correct part of stave to continue from the next given section.
Every time you add some melodic decoration, remember to check it against each of the
other two parts for consecutive 5ths and octaves.

4. Checking Your Work

Aim to leave yourself enough time to check through your answer in the exam. While you are
practising, you should also practise checking – the faster and more accurately you can do it,
the better chance you will have on the day!

1. Are the figures interpreted correctly (i.e. does the chord have the right notes in it)?
2. Are all suspensions correct (preparation – suspension – resolution)?
3. Are all 7th chords correct (preparation/approach – resolution)?
4. Are all 9th chords correct (preparation)?
5. Are accidentals added correctly (including cancellation when no longer needed)?
6. Have you avoided consecutives on the main melody notes?
7. Have you avoided consecutives within the melodic decoration?
8. Do leading notes rise to the tonic?
9. Are augmented intervals avoided/treated correctly?
10. Have you avoided all three parts moving in similar motion (one beat is ok – no more!)?