metals

Article
The Influence of Niobium Additions on Creep
Resistance of Fe-27 at. % Al Alloys
Ferdinand Dobeš 1 , Petr Dymáček 1,2, * and Martin Friák 1,2
1 Institute of Physics of Materials, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Žižkova 22, CZ-61662 Brno,
Czech Republic
2 CEITEC IPM, Institute of Physics of Materials, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Žižkova 22,
CZ-61662 Brno, Czech Republic
* Correspondence: pdymacek@ipm.cz; Tel.: +420-532-290-411




Received: 3 June 2019; Accepted: 27 June 2019; Published: 30 June 2019


Abstract: Results of creep tests of two Fe-27 at. % Al-based alloys with additions of 2.7 and 4.8 at. %
of niobium conducted in the temperature range from 650 ◦ C to 900 ◦ C in the authors’ laboratory are
presented. The purpose of the study is to supplement previous work on Fe-Al-Nb alloys to obtain a
more complete overview of creep properties from the dilute alloy with 1% of Nb up to the eutectic
alloy with 10% of niobium. At higher temperatures and lower stresses, the creep resistance of the 10%
niobium alloy is better than that of the lower niobium alloys. On the other hand, the eutectic alloy
loses its preference at lower temperatures and higher deformation rates. This phenomenon is similar
to that reported by Yildirim et al. for Fe-50 at. % Al-based alloys and is probably associated with an
increased stress sensitivity of the eutectic alloy.

Keywords: iron aluminides; creep; stress exponent; activation energy

1. Introduction
High-temperature creep resistance and tensile strength of Fe-Al-based alloys can be improved
by additions of niobium because it contributes to both solid solution hardening and precipitation
strengthening [1–5]. The effect of niobium additions on mechanical properties was to some extent
studied for both ferritic alloys with Al concentrations less than 19% (all compositions are given in at. %
throughout this paper) [6–10] and alloys based on ordered compounds of Fe3 Al [8,9,11–17]. Recently,
the influence of niobium additions to FeAl (Fe-(50−x)% Al-x% Nb, x = 1, 3, 5, 7, 9) [18], i.e., up to the
eutectic through between FeAl and C14 Laves phase on room-temperature mechanical properties were
studied. It was shown that the eutectic alloy with 9% Nb exhibited the lowest compressive strength
among the heat-treated alloys. A similar systematic investigation regarding creep properties of the
alloys of Fe3 Al-type was missing. To bridge this gap, it was decided to study the compressive creep of
Fe-27% Al with 3 and 5% of niobium as a complement to previous studies of the alloys with 1% [19]
and 10% Nb [17].

2. Materials and Methods

The alloys were prepared using vacuum induction melting and casting under Argon. The casts
(dimensions 40 × 30 × 80 to 90 mm3 ,) were rolled at 1200 ◦ C to 13 mm in several steps, with a 15%
thickness reduction in each pass. The composition of the investigated material was determined by wet
chemical analysis and is given in Table 1 and marked in a part of the ternary Fe-Al-Nb diagram in
Figure 1 [20]. The mean concentration of the technological impurities coming from the metals used
for the preparation of the alloys was: 0.1% Cr, 0.01% B, 0.1% Mn, and 0.06% C. The results of the
microstructure investigations are described in the previous paper [21]. The grains of the FA3Nb alloy

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are large
alloy are and
largehave
and an irregular
have shape;shape;
an irregular their size
theiris size
200 to 500 to
is 200 µm.500The
μm.precipitates are λ1 Laves
The precipitates phase
are λ1 Laves
(C14) (Fe, Al)
phase (C14) (Fe,2 Nb. These appear as smaller irregular shapes up to 10 and as needle-like
Al)2Nb. These appear as smaller irregular shapes up to 10 μm and as needle-likeµm
µm up to 50 up
long. They
to 50 μm are They
long. homogeneously distributed
are homogeneously both along
distributed boththe grain
along theboundaries and inside
grain boundaries andthe grains.
inside the
The grains
grains. Theofgrains
the FA5Nb
of thealloy
FA5Nbare coarse withcoarse
alloy are dimensions in the orderin
with dimensions of the
hundreds of micrometers.
order of hundreds of
The Laves phase forms a eutectic with
micrometers. The Laves phase forms a eutectic the Fe 3 Al matrix
with the Fe3Al matrix and comprisesfractions
and comprises about 0.4 volume about 0.4 of
the eutectic.
volume fractions of the eutectic.
Table 1. Chemical composition of the studied alloys (at. %).
Table 1. Chemical composition of the studied alloys (at. %).
Alloy
Alloy Fe Fe Al Al Nb Nb
FA3Nb FA3Nb 71.5
71.5 25.825.82.7 2.7
FA5Nb 67.9
FA5Nb 67.9 27.327.34.8 4.8

Figure 1. Detail of the isothermal section of the Fe-Al-Nb system at 800 ◦°C
C according to Palm [20].

Creep tests were performed in uniaxial compression mode on prismatic samples with a height
2 The samples were
(gauge length) of 8 mm and aa square square base
base of cross-section 44×× 4 mm 2. The
of cross-section samples were prepared by
traveling wire electro-discharge machining and fine grinding of the contact surfaces. The tests were
performed
performed on ona dead-weight
a dead-weight creep machine
creep that was
machine thatconstructed in-house in-house
was constructed in a protective
in aatmosphere
protective
of dry purified
atmosphere argon.
of dry The load
purified wasThe
argon. applied
load in a perpendicular
was direction to the
applied in a perpendicular bases. The
direction samples
to the bases.
were subjected to stepwise loading, where the magnitude of the load was changed
The samples were subjected to stepwise loading, where the magnitude of the load was changed after a steady creep
rate
afterwas established
a steady creep for
ratea was
given load. A substantial
established for a givenamount
load. of strain occurred
A substantial before
amount of astrain
constant creep
occurred
rate
before was registeredcreep
a constant afterrate
eachwasloading step. The
registered afterterminal valuesstep.
each loading of the true
The stress and
terminal valuesthe of
creep
the rate,
true
i.e., the true compressive strain rate, were evaluated for each step:
stress and the creep rate, i.e., the true compressive strain rate, were evaluated for each step:

FFiil
σσ
i =
i
= (1)
SS00ll00

ε ε==−−ln (l/l
ln( l l 0)) (2)
(2)
0

where Fi is the force applied in the i-th step, S0 is the initial cross-section area, and l and l0 are the
where Fi is the force applied in the i-th step, S0 is the initial cross-section area, and l and l0 are the
instantaneous specimen height and the initial specimen height, respectively. The creep rate was
instantaneous specimen height and the initial specimen height, respectively. The creep rate was
found by linear fitting of the creep strain vs. the time curve in the linear part of the respective step.
found by linear fitting of the creep strain vs. the time curve in the linear part of the respective step.
Figure 2 shows several examples that document how the creep strain evolves with time after both stress
Figure 2 shows several examples that document how the creep strain evolves with time after both
decrement and increment. Final deformation of the specimens was as a rule less than 0.1. The longest
stress decrement and increment. Final deformation of the specimens was as a rule less than 0.1. The
test duration
longest was approximately
test duration 727 h; the
was approximately total
727 testtotal
h; the duration was more
test duration than
was 3300
more h. 3300 h.
than
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0.10
0.10

8.5 MPa
8.5 MPa
2.1E-7 1/s
2.1E-7 1/s
0.08
0.08

STRAIN
TRUESTRAIN
0.06 6.9 MPa 6.8 MPa
0.06 6.9 MPa 6.8 MPa
7.2E-8 1/s 6.4E-8 1/s
7.2E-8 1/s 6.4E-8 1/s
8.7 MPa
8.7 MPa
TRUE 0.04
0.04
3.7E-7 1/s
3.7E-7 1/s

15.8 MPa
15.8 MPa
6.2E-6 1/s
0.02 6.2E-6 1/s
0.02
FA3Nb
FA3Nb
900 °C
900 °C
0.00
0.00 0 20 40 60 80 100
0 20 40 60 80 100
TIME (h)
TIME (h)

Figure 2. Example
Figure Example of
of aa creep
creep curve
curve of
of the FA3Nb
FA3Nb alloy
alloy at
at 900 °C showing
showing five
◦ C showing five different
different segments
segments
2. Example of a creep curve of thethe
FA3Nb alloy at 900900 °C five different segments with
with
with corresponding
corresponding applied
applied stresses
stresses and creep
and creep rates.
corresponding applied stresses and creep rates.rates.

3. Results
3. Results
.
The dependence
The dependenceofof
dependence ofthethe
the creep
creep
creep ε onεε the
rate
raterate onapplied
on the applied
the applied
stress σstress
at theσ
stress σvarious
at the
at the temperatures
various temperatures
various temperatures
is shown in is
is
shown in
Figures
shown in Figures
3 and
Figures4, on33 and
aand 4, on
double
4, onlogarithmic
aa double
double logarithmic
logarithmic
scale. Thescale. scale. The data
data were
The data were analyzed
analyzed
were analyzed using
using the using the following
following
the following
relation:
relation:
relation: .
ε = Aσnn (3)
εε =
=A Aσσn (3)
(3)
where A
where
where A is
A is aaa parameter
is parameter dependent
parameter dependent on
dependent on the
on the temperature
the temperature and,
temperature and, and n
and, and
and n is
n is the
is the stress
the stress exponent.
stress exponent. Its
exponent.
Its
Its values
values
values
for both
for both investigated
both investigated
investigated alloys alloys are
alloys are summarized
are summarized
summarized in in Figure
in Figure
Figure 5. 5. The
5. The exponent
The exponent
exponent n n is,
n is, albeit
is, albeit slightly,
albeit slightly, dependent
slightly, dependent
dependent
for
on
on the temperature.
the temperature. ItItshould shouldbebenotednoted that
that thethe same
same temperature
temperature dependence
dependence of ofisnevident
n is evident for
for the
the
on the temperature. It should be noted that the same temperature dependence of n is evident for
the alloy Fe-Al-Nb
alloy Fe-Al-Nb
Fe-Al-Nb studied studied
studied by by Milenkovic
by Milenkovic
Milenkovic and and
and Palm Palm
Palm [17]. [17].
[17]. A A detailed
A detailed
detailed analysisanalysis
analysis of of the
of the exponent
the exponent
exponent n n is
n is
is
alloy
possible provided
possible provided a
provided aa singlesingle mechanism
single mechanism
mechanism is is rate-controlling
is rate-controlling
rate-controlling over over the
over the experimental
the experimental
experimental range range
range of of stress
of stress and
stress and
and
possible
temperature.
temperature. The effect
The effect of of the
the mechanism
mechanism change change can can bebe taken
taken intointo account
account through
through an an explicit
explicit
temperature. The effect of the mechanism change can be taken into account through an explicit
dependence
dependence of ofthe
theexponent
exponent n on stress
n on
on [22].[22].
stress In the Instudied alloys,alloys,
the studied
studied the presence of Lavesofphase
the presence
presence Laves particles
phase
dependence of the exponent n stress [22]. In the alloys, the of Laves phase
introduces
particles threshold
introduces stress
threshold responsible
stress for an
responsible apparent for anincrease
apparent of the exponent
increase of n
the at lower
exponent stresses
n at and
lower
particles introduces threshold stress responsible for an apparent increase of the exponent n at lower
consequently
stresses and at higher
and consequently
consequently at temperatures
at higher [23].
higher temperatures
temperatures [23]. [23].
stresses

Figure 3.
Figure 3.
Figure Dependence of
Dependence of
3. Dependence the
of the creep
the creep rate of
creep rate of the
the FA3Nb
FA3Nb alloy
alloy on
on applied
applied stress.
stress.
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Figure4.
Figure
Figure 4.4.Dependence
Dependenceof
Dependence ofthe
of thecreep
the creeprate
creep rateof
rate ofthe
of theFA5Nb
the FA5Nballoy
FA5Nb alloyon
alloy onapplied
on appliedstress.
applied stress.
stress.

Figure5.5.Dependence
Figure Dependenceofofstress
stressexponent
exponentnnon
ontemperature.
temperature.

Toallow
To
To allow
allow an
anan approximate
approximate
approximate description
description
description of behavior,
of this
of this behavior,
this behavior, the studied
the studied
the studied
range of range of temperatures
temperatures
range of temperatures
is formally isis
formally
divided
formally divided
into intotwo
two areas:
divided into twoareas:
below areas: belowand
andbelow
above and◦above
700 above
C. Taking 700into
700 °C.Taking
°C. Takinginto
account intoternary
the account
account theternary
ternary
diagram,
the diagram,
the proposed
diagram,
theproposed
proposed division resultsfrom
from ◦D0
division
the results from a difference
division results aadifference
in the difference inthe
lattice structure:
in thelattice
lattice structure:
there structure:
would then there would
be awould
there D0 thenatbe
3 lattice
then be
650aaD0 C,3 3
lattice ◦
and atat650
a B2
lattice 650°C,
lattice°C,atand
700
and aaB2B2 lattice
Clattice
and atat700
above. 700Although
°Cand
°C andabove.
above. Although
the addition
Although the
ofthe addition
niobium
addition ofniobium
niobium
increases
of increasesthe
the increases
temperature the
temperature
of the phase of
temperature ofthe
thephase
phase
transition, the transition,
question the
transition, thewhether
is question
question isiswhether
the whetherthe
niobium the niobium
solubility
niobium solubility
is solubility
large isislarge
enough large enough
to shift
enough the
toshift
shiftthe
transition the transition
totransition
temperatures totemperatures
temperatures ◦
above 650 above above650
C. 650°C.°C.
to to
.
Relationsbetween
Relations betweensteady-state
between steady-statecreep
steady-state creeprate,
creep rate,and
rate, andreciprocal
and reciprocaltemperature
reciprocal temperature
temperature as
asas derived
derived
derived from
from
from thethe
the εε vs
ε vs. vs
σ
σ relations
relations
σ relations are
areare shown
shown
shown in
in in Figures
Figures
Figures6 and6
6 andand
7. As7.
7. AsAs in
in the
in thethe
above above
above case case of
of the
case the stress
stress
of the exponent,
exponent,
stress exponent, we we we can
can can also
alsoalso
use use use
the
thedivision
the division
division intotwo
intointo
two twotemperature
temperature
temperature regions regions here.
here.here.
regions TheThe Theapparent
apparent
apparent creep creep activation
activation
creep energy,
activation energy,
defined
energy, defined
as: as:
defined as:
" 
∂ ln ε 
. #
∂∂lnε
lnε
QQ==−−
Q = −  , , , (4)
(4)
∂(1(1RT
∂(∂1/RT RT) ))σσσ

whereTTTisisthe
where
where is the
the absolute
absolute
absolute and R
temperature,
temperature,
temperature, and
and RR is
is the is the
the universal
universal universal gas constant,
gas constant,
gas constant, can be
can be determined
can be determined determined
separately
separately
for both for
regions, both regions,
although thisalthough this
determination determination
should be should
taken with be taken
great
separately for both regions, although this determination should be taken with great caution with
caution great
at caution atat
temperatures
below ◦
temperatures
700 C. belowbelow
The 700°C.
°C.activation
estimated Theestimated
estimated
energiesactivation energiesfor
for the energies forthe
thehigh-temperature
high-temperature high-temperature
region are given in region
Figure are
8.
temperatures 700 The activation region are
givenin
given inFigure
Figure8.8.The
Theactivation
activationenergy
energyisisclose
closeto to335
335kJ/mol
kJ/molreported
reportedbybyMcKamey
McKameyetetal. al.[11]
[11]for
forthe
the
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The activation energy is close to 335 kJ/mol reported by McKamey et al. [11] for the Fe-28Al-1Nb alloy.
ItFe-28Al-1Nb
is also comparable
alloy. Ittoisthe activation
also comparableenthalpy
to theof the diffusion
activation of theofniobium
enthalpy in Fe(Al)
the diffusion as niobium
of the estimatedin
by Morris
Fe(Al) as et al. [24], i.e.,
estimated 330 kJ/mole.
by Morris et al. [24], i.e., 330 kJ/mole.

Figure6.6.Dependence
Figure Dependenceof
ofminimum
minimumcreep
creeprate
rateon
onreciprocal
reciprocaltemperature
temperaturefor
forthe
thealloy
alloyFA3Nb.
FA3Nb.

Figure7.7.Dependence
Figure Dependenceof
ofminimum
minimumcreep
creeprate
rateon
onreciprocal
reciprocaltemperature
temperaturefor
forthe
thealloy
alloyFA5Nb.
FA5Nb.
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Figure
Figure 8.
Figure 8. Dependence
8. Dependence of
ofactivation
of activation energy
activation energy Q
energy Q on
Q on applied
on applied stress.
applied stress.
stress.

4.
4. Discussion
4. Discussion
Discussion
Figure
Figure 999 gives
Figure gives the
gives the selected
the selected creep
selected creep data
creep data for
data for the
for the present
the present FA3Nb
present FA3Nb alloy
FA3Nb alloy as
alloy as well
as well as
well as data
as data for
data for the
for the alloy
the alloy
alloy
with
with 1%
with 1% of
1% of niobium
of niobium
niobium[19],[19], acquired
[19], acquired
acquiredalsoalso by
also by compressive
by compressive testing
compressive testingtestinginin the
in the same
the same laboratory,
same laboratory,
laboratory, forfor tests
for tests over
overaaa
tests over
range
range of
range of identical
of identical temperatures.The
identical temperatures.
temperatures. Thefigure
The figureconfirms
figure confirmsthat
confirms thatthe
that thealloy
the alloywith
alloy with
with thethe
the lower
lower
lower niobium
niobium
niobium content
content
content is
is
is weaker
weaker
weaker thanthan
than the the alloy
the alloy tested
alloy tested
tested in in
in the the present
the present
present study, study,
study, at at least
at least
least at at high
at high
high creep creep rates.
creep rates.
rates. In In
In the the alloy
the alloy
alloy with with
with 1% 1%
1% of
of
of
Nb,Nb,
Nb, probably
probably
probably allall
all thethe
the niobium
niobium
niobium is is dissolved
is dissolved
dissolved in in the
in the
the matrix,
matrix,
matrix, andand
and thethe
the formation
formation
formation of of the
of the
the Laves
Laves
Laves phase
phase phase
is is
is not
not
not expected.
expected.
expected.

Figure 9.
9. Comparison
Figure 9.
Figure Comparison of
Comparison of the
of the creep
the creep rate
creep rate variation
rate variation with
variation with the
with the applied
the applied stress
applied stress for
stress for the
for the present
the present alloy
present alloy FA3Nb
alloy FA3Nb
FA3Nb
and
and Fe-Al-based
and Fe-Al-based alloy
Fe-Al-based alloy containing
alloy containing1%
containing 1%
1%ofof Nb
ofNb [19].
Nb[19].
[19].

For
For comparison
comparison with with aa previously
previously published
published study study onon the
the Fe-25%
Fe-25% AlAl alloy
alloy that contained the
that contained the
amount of
of niobium
niobium close
close toto
thethe eutectic
eutectic composition
composition [17],
[17], Figure
Figure 10 10 shows
shows the
amount of niobium close to the eutectic composition [17], Figure 10 shows the creep rate vs. the the
creep creep
rate rate
vs. vs.
the the
stress
stress
data data
data obtained
stressobtained at three at
obtained at three
three temperatures.
temperatures. It has to beItItemphasized
temperatures. has
has toto be
be emphasized
that the data that
emphasized in the
[17]
that data
were
the in
in [17]
obtained
data [17]bywere
the
were
obtained
obtained by
identical by the
the identical
testing technique,
identical testing technique,
i.e., by
testing i.e.,
i.e., by
the stepwise
technique, the
thestepwise
compressive
by stepwise compressive
testing. The lines
compressive testing. The
for the
testing. lines
lines for
present
The the
alloys
for the
present alloys at a temperature of 850 °C were obtained by interpolation.
present alloys at a temperature of 850 °C were obtained by interpolation. Two different features Two different features
follow
follow from
from thethe comparison
comparison of of the
the data:
data:
Metals 2019, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 9

(i) At higher temperatures and lower stresses, the creep resistance of the 10% niobium alloy is
higher than that of the lower niobium alloys. At a temperature of 850 °C, the creep resistance of
the
Metals alloy
2019, with 10% of niobium is the best over the entire stress range studied.
9, 739 7 of 9
(ii) This effect is reversed at lower temperatures and higher stresses. At a temperature of 650 °C
and stresses higher than 200 MPa, the 5% niobium alloy has the highest creep resistance.
at a temperature of 850 ◦ C were obtained by interpolation. Two different features follow from the
In this regard,
comparison our results fully agree with the findings of Yildirim et al. [18], whose tests were
of the data:
conducted at room temperature and strain rate 10−4 s−1. They observed a similar weakening of the
(i) At higher
heat-treated temperatures
eutectic alloy andand lower stresses,
attributed the creep resistance
lower compressive strengthofand
the fracture
10% niobium
strainalloy is higher
of this alloy
than that of the lower niobium alloys. At a temperature of 850 ◦ C, the creep resistance of the alloy
to the absence of softer Fe-Al-based primary dendrites. From the point of view of the present results,
withcan
the effect 10% beof niobium as
envisaged is the best over
follows: the entire
the eutectic stress
alloy withrange
10% studied.
of niobium is weaker at high strain
(ii) This effect is reversed at lower temperatures and higher stresses. Atstress
a temperature ◦ and
rates, but shows a steeper dependence of creep rate on stress, i.e., higher exponentofn,650
suchCthat
stresses
the alloy higher
maintains itsthan 200 MPa,
strength betterthe
at 5%
slow niobium alloy has the highest creep resistance.
strain rates.

Figure
Figure10.
10.Comparison
Comparisonofofthe
thecreep
creeprate
ratevariation
variationwith
withthe
theapplied
appliedstress
stressfor
forthe
thepresent
presentalloys
alloysand
and
Fe-Al-based
Fe-Al-basedeutectic
eutecticalloy
alloycontaining
containing10%
10%NbNbaddition
addition[17].
[17].

In this regard, our results fully agree with the findings of Yildirim et al. [18], whose tests were
5. Conclusions
conducted at room temperature and strain rate 10−4 s−1 . They observed a similar weakening of the
The creep rates of the two Fe-27 at. % Al-based alloys with additions of niobium was studied in
heat-treated eutectic alloy and attributed lower compressive strength and fracture strain of this alloy to
the temperature range from 650 °C to 900 °C. The stress exponent and the apparent activation energy
the absence of softer Fe-Al-based primary dendrites. From the point of view of the present results,
were estimated. The following conclusions regarding the creep resistance of the alloy could be
the effect can be envisaged as follows: the eutectic alloy with 10% of niobium is weaker at high strain
drawn:
rates, but shows a steeper dependence of creep rate on stress, i.e., higher stress exponent n, such that
•the alloy
The studied
maintains range of temperatures
its strength better at could be divided
slow strain rates. into two areas: below and above 700 °C.
This division follows the existence of different crystal lattices at lower and higher temperatures.
•5. Conclusions
The stress exponent n decreases with increasing temperature at temperatures up to 700 °C and
increases
The creepatrates
higher
of temperatures.
the two Fe-27 at. % Al-based alloys with additions of niobium was studied in
•the temperature
The apparentrange activation
from 650energy
◦ C toof
900the creep
◦ C. is close
The stress to 335 and
exponent kJ/molthe and is comparable
apparent activation to the
energy
wereactivation
estimated. enthalpy of niobium
The following diffusion
conclusions in Fe(Al).
regarding the creep resistance of the alloy could be drawn:
• At higher temperatures and lower stresses, the creep resistance of both alloys is worse than that
• ofThe studied
a 10% niobiumrange of temperatures
eutectic alloy. could be divided into two areas: below and above 700 ◦ C.
• This
At division follows
a temperature of 650 the
°Cexistence
and stressesof different crystal
higher than 200lattices at lower
MPa, the and higher
5% niobium alloytemperatures.
has the best
• creep
The stress exponent
resistance. n decreases with increasing temperature at temperatures up to 700 ◦ C and
increases at higher temperatures.
Author
• Contributions:
The F.D. performed
apparent activation energy the of
creep
thetests andiswrote
creep closethetopaper, P.D. performed
335 kJ/mol the creep tests,
and is comparable toand
the
M.F. conceived the research.
activation enthalpy of niobium diffusion in Fe(Al).
• At higher
Funding: temperatures
This research was fundedandbylower stresses,
the Czech the creep
Science resistance
Foundation, grantofnumber
both alloys is worse than that of
17-22139S.
a 10% niobium eutectic alloy.
• At a temperature of 650 ◦ C and stresses higher than 200 MPa, the 5% niobium alloy has the best
creep resistance.
Metals 2019, 9, 739 8 of 9

Author Contributions: F.D. performed the creep tests and wrote the paper, P.D. performed the creep tests, and
M.F. conceived the research.
Funding: This research was funded by the Czech Science Foundation, grant number 17-22139S.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank P. Kratochvíl (Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic) and
V. Vodičková (Technical University, Liberec, Czech Republic) for the supply of the experimental alloys.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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