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Cellulosic Ethanol
Cellulosic Ethanol
Cellulosic Ethanol
Ian O’Hara
BE (Chem), MBA
Doctor of Philosophy
in the Faculty of Science and Technology
Queensland University of Technology
according to QUT requirements
2011
ii
Keywords
Abstract
This thesis explores the feasibility of a new cellulosic ethanol industry in Australia
based on the large sugarcane fibre (bagasse) resource available. The research
explores industry feasibility from multiple angles including the challenges of
integrating ethanol production into an established sugarcane processing system,
scoping the economic drivers and key variables relating to bioethanol projects and
considering the impact of emerging technologies in improving industry feasibility.
The opportunities available from pilot scale technology demonstration are also
addressed.
Systems analysis techniques are used to explore the interrelationships between the
existing sugarcane industry and the developing cellulosic biofuels industry. This
analysis has resulted in the development of a conceptual framework for a bagasse-
based cellulosic ethanol industry in Australia and uses this framework to assess the
uncertainty in key project factors and investment risk. The analysis showed that the
fundamental issue affecting investment in a cellulosic ethanol industry from
iv
The conceptual design and development of a novel pilot scale cellulosic ethanol
research and development facility is also reported in this thesis. The establishment
of this facility enables the technical and economic feasibility of new technologies to
be assessed in a multi-partner, collaborative environment. As a key outcome of this
work, this study has delivered a facility that will enable novel cellulosic ethanol
technologies to be assessed in a low investment risk environment, reducing the
potential risks associated with early stage investment in commercial projects and
hence promoting more rapid technology uptake.
Contents
Keywords ii
Abstract iii
Contents v
Figures ix
Tables x
Authorship xi
Acknowledgements xii
Chapter 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Aims and objectives of the research 2
1.3 Research and communication methodology 3
1.4 Thesis outline 4
1.5 Original contributions 7
1.6 Conclusion 8
Systems analysis
Chapter 2
Introduction to biofuels and the Australian sugar industry 11
2.1 Transportation fuels in the early 21st century 11
2.1.1 The use of crude oil as a transportation fuel 11
2.1.2 The contribution of transport fuels to climate change 12
2.1.3 Peak oil and future oil price 13
2.1.4 Energy security and development 14
2.2 Bioethanol – a renewable transport fuel 14
2.2.1 Ethanol as a transportation fuel 14
2.2.2 First-generation ethanol 15
2.2.3 Second-generation bioethanol 16
2.2.4 The global biomass resource 17
2.3 Sugarcane as a bio-energy resource 18
2.3.1 The global sugar industry 18
2.3.2 The sugarcane biomass resource 19
2.3.3 The Australian sugar industry 20
vi
Chapter 3
Pretreatment technologies for ethanol production from
sugarcane bagasse 31
3.1 Introduction 31
3.2 The objectives of the pretreatment process 31
3.3 Chemical pretreatments 34
3.3.1 Concentrated acid hydrolysis 34
3.3.2 Dilute acid hydrolysis and pretreatment 34
3.3.3 Alkaline pretreatments 38
3.3.4 Oxidative pretreatments 40
3.3.5 Solvent pretreatments 41
3.3.6 Ionic liquid pretreatments 43
3.4 Physical pretreatments 43
3.4.1 Steam explosion pretreatment 43
3.4.2 Other explosive pretreatments 44
3.4.3 Liquid hot water pretreatments 45
3.4.4 Mechanical pretreatments 46
3.4.5 Ultrasonic and radiation pretreatments 47
3.5 Biological pretreatments 47
3.5.1 Microbiological degradation 47
3.6 Conclusion 49
Chapter 4
Commercialising cellulosic ethanol from sugarcane bagasse:
use of systems analysis to reduce the risk and
uncertainty associated with early stage investment 51
4.1 Introduction 51
4.2 Systems analysis 52
4.3 Scoping and exploring the problem space 54
4.4 Defining the system purpose and CONOPS 58
vii
Techno-economic assessment
Chapter 5
The potential for ethanol production from sugarcane in
Australia 77
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Transport fuel use in Australia 77
5.3 The capacity of the Australian sugarcane industry 78
5.4 Ethanol production from sugarcane juice and molasses 79
5.5 Ethanol production from bagasse and sugarcane trash 80
5.6 Scenario analysis 83
5.7 Discussion 86
5.8 Conclusion 89
Chapter 6
Economic feasibility of a soda-based biorefinery at
Racecourse Mill 91
Chapter 7
Feasibility assessment of in-planta cellulolytic enzyme
expression for the production of biofuels from sugarcane
bagasse in Australia 93
Discussion
Chapter 9
Discussion 109
9.1 Introduction 109
9.2 Achievement of research objectives and key findings 109
9.3 Importance of research 112
9.4 Recommendations for future work 112
Bibliography 115
Appendices
APPENDIX A
Supplementary data for Chapter 6 145
APPENDIX B
The Mackay Renewable Biocommodities Pilot Plant –
photographic record of construction and equipment
installation 147
ix
Figures
Figure 2.1 Leading sugarcane producing countries 2006 [32] ................................. 18
Figure 2.2 Map of the Australian sugar industry [39] .............................................. 21
Figure 2.3 Australian No.1 sugar pool price 1990-91 to 2005-06 and QSL
seasonal pool price 2006-07 to 2010-11 (AU$/t) [38, 41] ..................... 22
Figure 2.4 An overview of current and potential products from sugarcane in
Australia – current products shown in black and potential products
shown in red ........................................................................................ 24
Figure 2.5 Simple schematic of the key processes required for the ethanol
from sugarcane bagasse ...................................................................... 30
Figure 4.1 Issues impacting the commercialisation of bioethanol technologies
viewed through economic, technical, sustainability and public
policy lenses ........................................................................................ 53
Figure 4.2 Conceptual map of a sugarcane processing system in Australia ............. 55
Figure 4.3 Objectives tree for the sugarcane bioethanol system ............................ 60
Figure 4.4 Schematic representation of the sugarcane bioethanol system ............. 61
Figure 4.5 Techno-economic model of the sugarcane bioethanol system (the
sugarcane bioethanol model) based upon the common
methodological framework [194] ......................................................... 64
Figure 4.6 Sensitivity of the key factors in bagasse based ethanol project
viability (net present value) to the project assumptions....................... 68
Figure 4.7 Sensitivity of the major factors in bagasse based ethanol project
viability (net present value) to the assumptions in the techno-
economic model .................................................................................. 69
Figure 5.1 Schematic representation of the QUT techno-economic model of an
integrated sugar factory, juice and molasses distillery and
cellulosic ethanol production facility .................................................... 83
Figure 8.1 Typical biorefinery process diagram .....................................................102
x
Tables
Table 2.1 Typical constitutive analysis of Australian sugarcane bagasse ................. 26
Table 4.1 Summary of the key issues relating to bagasse-based bioethanol
commercialisation in the sugarcane industry in Australia..................... 57
Table 4.2 Summary purpose, concept of operations (CONOPS) and key
measures of effectiveness of the integrated sugar – ethanol
system ................................................................................................. 63
Table 4.3 Key variable inputs to the sugarcane bioethanol model .......................... 66
Table 4.4 Key fixed inputs to the sugarcane bioethanol model ............................... 67
Table 5.1 Consumption of petroleum products in Australia, Queensland and
NSW 2007-08 [198] .............................................................................. 78
Table 5.2 Approximate ethanol yields per tonne of product................................... 80
Table 5.3 Common input data for scenario analysis ............................................... 87
Table 5.4 Input data for the scenario analysis ........................................................ 87
Table 5.5 Results from scenario analysis ................................................................ 88
xi
Authorship
The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to
meet the requirements for an award at this or any other higher
education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the
thesis contains no material previously published or written by another
person except where due reference is made.
Signature
Date
xii
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my Supervisors Dr Les Edye and Dr Geoff Kent for their support
throughout the research program and their invaluable advice and feedback on the
various aspects of the work.
The author of this thesis is not a partner, joint venturer, employee or agent of SRDC
and has no authority to legally bind SRDC, in any publication of substantive details
or results of this Project.
I would also like to acknowledge and thank the QUT Centre for Tropical Crops and
Biocommodities for financial support in this project.
This research program would not have been possible without the strong support of
several research partner organisations. I would like to acknowledge the support of
the partners of the Biorefinery Development Project including the Queensland
Government through the Research Industries Partnership Program (RIPP), Mackay
Sugar Ltd, Sugar Research Ltd, Veridian Chemicals Pty Ltd and Hexion Specialty
Chemicals Inc. I would also like to acknowledge the partners of the Syngenta Centre
for Sugarcane Biofuels Development including the Queensland Government
through the National and International Research Alliances Program (NIRAP),
Syngenta Biotechnology Inc, and Farmacule Bioindustries Pty Ltd.
Queensland Government through the Innovation Building Fund (IBF) and QUT. The
strong support of Mackay Sugar Ltd in the development of the facility has again
been invaluable.
There are many individuals who have contributed to the research program or this
thesis in many ways and your contributions are very much appreciated. In
particular, I would like to acknowledge the contributions and support of Professor
James Dale, Dr William Doherty, Dr Zhanying Zhang, Dr Heng-Ho Wong and Mr
Peter Albertson from the QUT Centre for Tropical Crops and Biocommodities and Dr
Bryan Lavarack from Mackay Sugar Ltd for your support in various aspects of the
work.
Finally I would like to thank my family and in particular my wife Penny for your on-
going patience and support.
xiv
1
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Introduction
This thesis reports the results of a research program exploring the feasibility of
ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse in Australia. The nature of the research
undertaken in this research program acknowledges that overcoming many of the
constraints to early stage investment in biofuels production from sugarcane bagasse
requires a multi-disciplinary approach to the technical, economic and systemic
challenges associated with the transition of established sugar industry structures
from single product agri-businesses to new multi-product, diversified, integrated
biorefineries. These challenges include not only the technical challenges associated
with the novel biofuel technology, but also the integration of new and existing
facilities (site integration), the requirement to produce surplus bagasse (energy
efficiency), changed imperatives for sugarcane variety selection (higher fibre) and
the need to balance agronomic and industrial value-adds (trash collection or field
retention of trash).
Some of the work reported in this thesis was undertaken within research projects at
QUT and funded by several project partners. Of particular note are:
- The work undertaken for Chapter 6 was funded by the partners of the
Biorefinery Development Project including the Queensland Government
through the Research Industries Partnership Program (RIPP), Mackay Sugar
Ltd, Sugar Research Ltd, Veridian Chemicals Pty Ltd and Hexion Specialty
Chemicals Inc.
- The work undertaken for Chapter 7 was funded by the partners of the
Syngenta Centre for Sugarcane Biofuels Development including the
Queensland Government through the National and International Research
2
- The work undertaken for Chapter 8 was funded by the partners of the
Mackay Renewable Biocommodities Pilot Plant (MRBPP) project including
the Australian Government through the National Collaborative Research
Infrastructure Strategy (NCRIS) and Education Investment Fund (EIF), the
Queensland Government through the Innovation Building Fund (IBF),
Mackay Sugar Ltd and QUT.
- Scholarship funding for the overall PhD project was provided by the Sugar
Research and Development Corporation (SRDC).
The research program aimed to answer key questions relating to the technical and
economic feasibility of ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse in Australia and
the systemic impediments to commercialisation of the technology in Australia.
- Identify the key technical, economic and systemic factors impacting upon
investment in commercial scale facilities for the production of ethanol from
sugarcane bagasse in Australia;
- Model the use of the framework through its application to the design and
construction of a pilot scale facility for demonstration of technology for the
production of ethanol from bagasse; and
3
The systems analysis led to the development of new technical and economic models
of integrated sugarcane processing, sugar production and cellulosic ethanol
production facilities. These models were then used to undertake comprehensive
assessments of technology options that impact on the feasibility of the system.
These models were applied to the development of a pilot plant for research and
demonstration of ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse. Many of the
elements associated with the design and construction of the facility resulted from
the modelling framework developed in the systems analysis and techno-economic
assessments.
Information contained in two of the chapters in this thesis (Chapter 5 and Chapter
8) were presented as peer-reviewed conference papers to the Australian Society of
Sugar Cane Technologists (ASSCT) in 2009 and 2010. Two further papers have been
submitted to the ASSCT conference in 2011. The decision to address aspects of the
reporting for this research project to the ASSCT conference was made on the basis
that:
- The papers addressed to the ASSCT conference will serve to inform and
educate participants in the Australian sugar industry on the technology
and economics of ethanol production from bagasse and, through
engaging in on-going dialogue in the ASSCT forum, promote
consideration of sugar industry investment in this technology; and
This thesis explores the progress toward the feasibility of ethanol from cellulosic
biomass feedstock through three different approaches to understanding and
analysing the biofuels system.
Section 1 contains three chapters that provide an analysis of the sugarcane and
bioethanol systems. These chapters provide an introduction to the national and
global drivers impacting upon ethanol production from cellulosic biomass, describe
the literature underpinning the research and address strategies that promote
investment in the technology.
Section 4 is a critical evaluation of the key themes of the thesis and highlights the
fundamental contributions and key outcomes that have resulted from the overall
research project.
Chapter 9 presents the discussion of the key themes of the thesis and draws
conclusions on the value of this work to the development of a sustainable
cellulosic ethanol industry in Australia.
7
Throughout this thesis, the terms ‘cellulosic ethanol’ and ‘bioethanol’ have been
used to refer to ethanol produced from cellulosic feedstocks. While a purified
ethanol product from cellulosic feedstocks is indistinguishable from ethanol
produced from other feedstocks and processes, the terms are convenient ones to
imply an ethanol product manufactured from a cellulosic feedstock.
- The conceptual design and development of a novel pilot scale facility for
demonstrating the technical and economic feasibility of processes for
the ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse.
Despite sugarcane being perhaps the best biomass feedstock for early stage
cellulosic ethanol production, such an integrated and multi-dimensional analysis for
cellulosic ethanol production from sugarcane has not previously been undertaken in
Australia, and an extensive literature review has not revealed a similar study
elsewhere in the world.
1.6 Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed the key research question, the aims and outcomes of the
research and provided an outline of the thesis. The next section of the thesis
provides a more detailed introduction to the sugarcane and biofuels systems and
analyses the key factors impacting upon early stage investment in cellulosic ethanol
technologies.
9
Systems analysis
11
Chapter 2
Introduction to biofuels and the
Australian sugar industry
In 2006, global demand for petroleum and other liquid fuels was 85.0 million barrels
oil equivalent per day (Mb/d) and this is forecast to grow to 106.6 Mb/d in 2030,
with the growth in transportation fuel use being responsible for 80 % of the higher
total crude oil use [1]. Despite improvements in energy efficiency standards in many
countries and the dampened demand resulting from the global economic recession
experienced in 2008-09, global crude oil consumption continues to increase by over
1 % annually, driven primarily by the increased demand for fuel in developing
countries [2], and particularly by the growth in demand in India and China [2, 3].
The only non-fossil liquid transport fuels currently of significance on a global scale
are biofuels, including bioethanol and biodiesel. World production of biofuels
12
exceeded 0.7 Mb/d in 2007, an increase of 35 % from 2006 and accounting for 1.5 %
of total road transport fuel use [4]. Biofuels production is forecast to grow by about
8.6 % annually to approximately 5.9 Mb/d in 2030, increasing to 5.5 % of total liquid
fuel consumption [2].
The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change [5] concluded that the
scientific evidence on climate change is now overwhelming, a serious and urgent
issue and that the benefits of strong, early action considerably outweigh the costs
of action. Independent reviews from many sources now recognise the majority
scientific opinion that the climate is changing as a result of anthropogenic
greenhouse gas emissions [5-8] and that the energy future we are creating is
unsustainable [9]. In general, these reports conclude that it is economically
advantageous to undertake early action, and that the introduction of deep cuts in
carbon emissions in the first half of the 21st century is not only essential but
achievable and affordable. Emissions reduction actions, however, are likely to
require a high carbon price in an emissions trading scheme depending upon the
stabilisation goal and emissions target trajectory to achieve the goal [10].
Transport fuels account for 14 % (6.5 GtCO2-e) of global greenhouse gas emissions,
with the majority of these from road transport (76 %) and aviation (12 %), without
accounting for non-CO2 effects of aviation or upstream CO2 emissions from fuel
production. These percentages are expected to remain stable although the total
greenhouse gas emissions from the transport sector are projected to grow to 9
GtCO2-e by 2030 and 12 GtCO2-e by 2050 [5].
It is generally recognised that there is no single solution for the challenges that
climate change will bring through the 21st century and beyond, and that multiple
strategies are required to both reduce carbon emissions and to adapt to the climate
change effects that will inevitably occur. Cost effective greenhouse gas emissions
savings in transportation are expected to result from improvements to fuel
efficiency, behavioural change and the increased use of biofuels. A combination of
13
energy efficiency measures in transport fuel use and increased biofuel use are
estimated to have the potential to result in greenhouse gas savings of 7 GtCO2-e
per annum by 2050 at a cost of $25 /tCO2-e [5, 11].
In 1956, M. King Hubbert [12] proposed a state where the production rate of crude
oil in the USA would peak, which would be followed by rapid depletion of the
remaining reserves. He later proposed a similar global state and this point became
known as Hubberts’ peak. Many commentators have since attempted to estimate
the date of this peak, although some commentators doubt the existence of a near
term peak [13].
One of the difficulties in estimating the peak is whether or not to include in the
analysis non-conventional oil deposits such as oil shale and tar sand deposits. While
these deposits are significant, the cost of extraction and environmental concerns
may limit the future viability of these deposits for large scale oil production. The use
of synfuels (liquid fuels produced from coal or gas) also affects the date of the peak.
Synfuels, oil shale and tar sand based fuels have much higher carbon emissions than
conventional crude oil based fuels as a result of emissions released in the
production process [5, 9].
The US Energy Information Agency reference case in 2009 [2] shows the crude oil
price being greater than US$100 /barrel in 2013 and rising to US$130 /barrel in
2030 (2007 dollars). Uncertainty in the projections is evident from the range of
alternative oil price scenarios between US$50 /barrel and US$200 /barrel [2].
14
In their 2009 study, the International Energy Agency [4] reports a reference case
import crude oil price of US$115 per barrel in 2030 (2008 dollars), and also
acknowledge considerable uncertainty in attempting to estimate future oil prices
[9].
Many nations are increasingly concerned with ensuring the security of their future
energy resource and seek to ensure that a sizable portion is able to be produced
domestically. Renewable energy technologies (including renewable transport fuels),
have been reported to have the potential to play a significant role in enhancing
energy security [14] through diversifying energy sources.
Ethanol has been used as an alternate transportation fuel since the introduction of
the very first combustion engines. Although crude oil fuel derivatives became the
primary fuel for transportation, ethanol production spikes occurred during the
1920s and 1930s (following the first world war), and during the 1970s and early
1980s as a result of high petroleum prices [16].
15
Ethanol has been used in combustion engines as a standalone fuel, fuel extender in
petroleum blends and as an additive. As an additive, ethanol increases the octane
rating of the fuel, reducing or eliminating the need for toxic octane enhancing
additives such as benzene [17]. While ethanol has a volumetric energy content
about two-thirds that of petroleum, the higher efficiency of combustion of ethanol
leads to an ethanol volumetric fuel efficiency about 75 - 80 % that of petroleum
[17].
The majority of post-1986 vehicles operating on Australian roads are suitable for
use with ethanol in blends up to 10 % ethanol [19]. In Brazil, vehicles with an
ethanol - petroleum fuel management system, known as flex-fuel vehicles are
capable of using a wide range of ethanol fuel blends. Eighty-five percent of all new
cars sold in Brazil are flex-fuel, capable of utilising any blend of petrol and ethanol
up to ethanol concentrations of 100 % [20].
First generation ethanol has been produced primarily from starch based feedstocks
(grains such as wheat and corn) or sugar based feedstocks including sugarcane juice
and molasses. Both starch and sucrose are readily hydrolysed into simple hexose
sugars that can be fermented at high efficiency using conventional fermentation
organisms [21].
Starch and sucrose based feedstocks, however, are also used for both human
consumption and for livestock feed, and as a result, the price of these feedstocks
may be impacted by their relative value as a food. The impact of the diversion of
food crops such as corn into ethanol has already been linked to higher food prices in
16
some countries including Mexico and the United States of America [22] although
other reports suggest that the increased use of biofuels accounted for only 10 –
30 % of the food price increase evident during 2007 and 2008 [23, 24]. Other factors
such as the effects of drought, higher oil prices and economic growth increasing
global demand for wheat, dairy and protein in Asia and Africa, along with market
speculation and trade barriers, also impacted on the price of grain [24]. As the cost
of first generation feedstocks is typically 60 – 80 % of the ethanol production cost,
factors that act to increase the price of feedstocks used for both ethanol and food
production will have a significant impact on first generation bioethanol viability
during these periods of high feedstock prices.
Cellulose is the most abundant organic material on the earth with natural processes
producing biomass from carbon dioxide and water. As the biomass resource can be
replenished in a short timeframe, the resource is both renewable and carbon
neutral. The continental biomass resource resulting from the growth of plants is
estimated to be 117.5 billion t/y, with 62 % of this resource in tropical rainforests
and other woods [26]. Agricultural crops contribute currently about 9.1 billion t/y
[26], with biomass typically yielding an ethanol volume of 275 - 309 L/t feedstock
(dry basis) [27].
Biomass contributes about 45 EJ/y of the current 467 EJ/y (2004 data) of global
energy demand, supplying up to 10 % of the energy in developed countries and 20 –
30 % in developing countries. Average estimates of global biomass energy farming
potential on current agricultural land are reported typically in the range of 100 - 300
EJ/y, without jeopardising future food supply. The use of organic wastes and
residues are reported to offer the potential of an additional 40 - 170 EJ/y, making
the total potential contribution from biomass this century up to 400 EJ/y [28]. A
review of 17 previous biomass energy studies reported estimates from less than
100 EJ/y to greater than 400 EJ/y [29].
Biofuels currently contribute about 1.5 EJ/y or about 1.5 % of global transportation
fuel use [28]. Production of ethanol in 2006 was 39 billion litres, increasing 18 %
from 2005 [30]. Estimates of the long-term world liquid biofuel production potential
range from 12 - 455 EJ/y, with most studies in the range of 48 - 158 EJ/y [21],
although the economically viable production potential may be significantly lower
than the technical production potential frequently reported. In Australia, up to
140 % of existing transport fuel use could be supplied by biofuels if the industry
develops around second generation biofuel technologies [31].
18
Sugar is one of the major food carbohydrate energy sources in the world. It is
principally produced from two major crops – sugarcane, grown in tropical and sub-
tropical regions of the world, and sugar beet grown in more temperate climates.
In 2006, 1.392 billion tonnes of sugarcane were grown globally at an average yield
of 68.3 t/ha dominated by production in Brazil and India. Sugar beet production in
2006 was 256 million tonnes at an average yield of 47.1 t/ha [32]. The leading
sugarcane producing countries are shown in Figure 2.1.
2006 sugar cane production
500
(million tonnes)
400
300
200
100
0
a
a
nd
o
s
lia
a
a
an
na
SA
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si
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ric
ic
di
bi
az
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la
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ex
In
om
Af
pi
Br
ai
st
ki
C
do
ilip
Th
Pa
Au
h
ol
ut
In
C
Ph
So
The principal use of sugarcane throughout the world is for crystal sugar production
for human consumption. In several countries including Brazil, a sizable portion of
the crop is also used for ethanol production from both sugarcane juice and
molasses. Many other countries including Australia produce lesser quantities of
ethanol from molasses.
19
Over the past decade, global sugarcane production has increased by 8 %, driven by
a 37 % increase in sugarcane production in Brazil [32]. This increased sugarcane
production has resulted in both increased crystal sugar production and increased
ethanol production, and has had a significant impact on the world price of raw
sugar. Land use change enabling this global expansion of sugarcane production has
both direct and indirect sustainability implications and the factors relating to these
implications are diverse and complex [33-35].
Globally, the 1.4 billion tonnes of sugarcane produced annually is grown on about
20.4 million hectares [32] in tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. In
Australia, modern sugarcane varieties are capable of producing in excess of 55 t/ha
of biomass (dry weight). The development of high biomass sugarcane (often
referred to as ‘energy cane’) has the potential to significantly increase the amount
of biomass available.
Traditional sugarcane harvesting processes remove the top of the stalk (tops) and
leaf material, and only the stalk is transported into the factory for extraction and
production of sugar. Tops and leaf material remaining after harvesting are either
left in the field to decompose, acting as mulch and providing organic matter and
nutrient for the soil, or burnt depending upon farming practices. It is likely that only
a portion of this leaf material is of value in the agricultural system, and for
improving soil condition. The remainder of this extraneous matter is potentially
available as a feedstock for biomass value adding processes such as bioethanol
production. The impacts of harvesting and transporting extraneous matter on the
sugar milling process and the economics of the industry are complex and an
integrated modelling approach has been developed to analyse these effects [37].
20
Over the past decade, the Australian sugar industry has harvested approximately 28
– 38 million t/y of sugarcane from approximately 400,000 hectares [38] along the
eastern coast of Australia (Figure 2.2). Approximately 95 % of the sugarcane is
grown in Queensland with the remainder of the industry operating in Northern New
South Wales (NSW). Sugarcane is Queensland’s highest value agricultural crop with
an annual value of approximately $1.5 - $2.5 billion [39].
Sugarcane in Australia is crushed at one of 25 sugar factories and processed into key
products including crystal sugar and molasses. Typically, 4.5 – 5 million tonnes of
raw sugar is produced [39] and 75 % of the sugar produced is exported. While
Australia is only the eighth largest producer of sugarcane [32], Australia is typically
the second or third largest exporter of sugar after Brazil and (in some years)
Thailand.
The average area of sugarcane harvested in Queensland has decreased over the
past decade as a result of economic challenges posed by drought and disease,
extended periods of poor sugar prices and industry restructuring programs. In
particular, low sugar prices during the early 21st century resulted in an industry
restructuring program that led to up to a quarter of the growers in Australia exiting
the industry. A survey of the financial performance of sugarcane growers in 2007-08
[40] determined that the volume of production is relatively stable with a trend
toward a smaller number of larger farms improving the viability of sugarcane
producers. In the period since 2008, higher prices have provided improved financial
conditions for sugarcane growers (Figure 2.3).
For domestic sugar consumption, raw sugar is processed into refined sugar at
refineries in Mackay and Bundaberg (Queensland), Yarraville (Victoria), and
Harwood (NSW).
550
500
450
Seasonal pool price
400
(AU$/t)
350
300
250
200
Figure 2.3 Australian No.1 sugar pool price 1990-91 to 2005-06 and QSL seasonal
pool price 2006-07 to 2010-11 (AU$/t) [38, 41]
In most sugar factories, bagasse from the crushing or diffuser station is burnt in
suspension fired boilers to generate steam for electricity, mechanical power and
process heat requirements for the factory. Historically, sugar factory boilers and
factory production technologies have been designed to be energy inefficient to
ensure that the energy requirements of the factory match the availability of bagasse
from the sugarcane. This approach has ensured that the factories required little if
any supplementary fuels (such as coal or oil) for process energy, while ensuring that
the factories were not left with an expensive bagasse disposal problem. Small
quantities of surplus electricity have been sold to the electricity transmission or
distribution networks.
With increasing value in the market for energy products, sugar factories are
investing in higher efficiency boilers and more efficient process technologies to
23
Around the world, sugarcane bagasse is used for many applications including animal
feed, pulp and paper production, particle and fibre board production and furfural
production. Other potential uses of bagasse include xylitol production, speciality
building products, microcrystalline cellulose production and the production of
furfural and lignin derivatives [44, 45].
Several studies have commented on the need to improve the economics of the
bioethanol production process through the integrated production of multiple co-
products in a biomass biorefinery [46-54]. In a biorefinery, bagasse is typically
fractionated into its components and value is added to each component through
the production of multiple high value co-products. Bioethanol is generally
considered to be a significant (but not the only) revenue stream for a biorefinery.
Renewable Export
Pulp electricity
Filter
Fertiliser
mud
Bagasse
Ethanol,
Bio-crude Waxes
Chemicals Sugar cane Proteins
Plant made products
Chemicals
Bio-plastics
Molasses
Crystal
High value
Juice sugar
chemicals
Ethanol Biofuels
Animal feed Ethanol Pharmaceuticals
Industrial products
Figure 2.4 An overview of current and potential products from sugarcane in Australia –
current products shown in black and potential products shown in red
Bagasse from the sugarcane diffusion and milling processes generally contains 44 –
53 % moisture, 1 – 2 % soluble solids, 1 – 5 % insoluble solids (ash) and the
remainder lignocellulosic fibre [45]. The fibre analysis of bagasse by standard sugar
factory methods [55] includes dirt and other insoluble impurities and these
impurities can vary from quite small quantities to very significant quantities
depending upon the sugarcane supply and processing technologies.
In sugar extraction operations, the structural order of the fibres in the sugarcane
plant is lost [44] and the resultant bagasse is a mixture of fibre components of
varying length and composition. Pith cells are broken into fine particles generally
much less than 1 mm in length, while other fibres may retain a length of up to
25 mm. For the practical measurement of pith, all of the fibres passing through a
fine screen of approximately 1.5 mm aperture are generally considered to be pith
fibres. By this definition, pith constitutes approximately 40 % of the total bagasse
fibres by weight. Pith is chemically similar to the non-pith fibre, although the non-
pith fibre has been reported to have lower hemicellulose concentrations [59] and
higher α-cellulose concentrations [45]. For bagasse fibre pulping operations, the
pith is generally removed prior to digestion as the presence of pith increases
chemical usage and adversely affects fibre drainage.
In lignocellulosic materials such as bagasse, cellulose is ordered into fibrils which are
surrounded by lignin and hemicellulose [60]. The hemicellulose provides an
interpenetrating matrix for the cellulose microfibrils with molecular interactions
including hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces, while lignin is incorporated
into the spaces around the fibrillar elements, forming lignin polysaccharide
complexes [61].
26
Weight
percent
Cellulose 43
Hemicellulose
– xylose 27
– arabinose 4
Lignin 23
Extractives 1
Ash 2
2.4.1 Cellulose
2, C-3 and C-6. The hydroxy group at the C-1 end of the glucose chain has reducing
properties and the hydroxy group at C-6 is non-reducing [62]. The solubility of the
anhydroglucose polymer in water decreases above a degree of polymerisation (DP)
of 6, due to strong intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Sugarcane bagasse celluloses
typically have a molecular weight between 150,000 and 350,000 [44] which equates
to a DP between 800 and 1900.
structural aggregation is not uniform throughout the structure with regions of high
crystalline order and regions of relatively low crystallinity (amorphous) [62].
2.4.2 Hemicelluloses
2.4.3 Lignin
Both the total quantity and structure of the lignin within the plant varies with cell
tissue and these have been shown to affect the recalcitrance of the tissue to
biodegradation. Warm season grasses such as sugarcane are reported to have both
lignified cell walls as well as high levels of phenolic acid esters linked to arabinose
[71]. In addition, warm season grasses contain ferulic acid esterified with
hemicelluloses and etherified with lignin while p-coumaric acid is esterified with
lignin [72]. Each of these linkages, in addition to the structure and quantity of lignin
present, has a substantial effect on digestibility for bioethanol production through
both the covalent linkages themselves and the effect they have of physically
reducing access to the carbohydrate polymers [73].
2.5 Overview of the process for ethanol production from sugarcane bagasse
Unlike the starch or sugar feedstocks upon which first generation bioethanol has
been based, the structural rigidity of lignocellulosic materials results in a material
29
Due to the formation of degradation products in the acid hydrolysis of cellulose and
hemicellulose, considerable attention is being given to the development of efficient
enzymatic hydrolysis processes for the conversion of cellulose and hemicellulose
into fermentable sugars. Significant quantities of cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic
enzymes are required for this conversion process to ensure both high yields and
rapid hydrolysis rates.
Despite significant research investment into improved enzyme efficacy, the cost of
the enzymes and the capital required to produce them in the quantities required for
commercial bioethanol facilities remain major cost impediments to the
commercialisation of the technology. In the landmark 2002 study by Aden, et al [76]
on ethanol production from corn stover, cellulase enzyme cost was assessed to be
9 % of the total cost contribution to the process, with pretreatment and
conditioning accounting for 19 % of the total cost contribution (including feedstock
and capital depreciation costs). A later study by Tao and Aden [77] showed an
enzyme cost of 7 % of total operating costs (including feedstock and capital
depreciation costs).
Effective pretreatment strategies reduce the quantity and cost of enzymes required
for hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicellulose. These strategies include hydrolysing
the hemicellulose fraction of the fibre, decreasing the lignin content of the material,
reducing the crystallinity of the cellulose fibrils or modifying the fibre architecture
to enable more rapid transport of the enzyme into the fibre.
A simple schematic of the key processes required for ethanol production from
sugarcane bagasse via a biochemical pathway is shown in Figure 2.5.
30
Figure 2.5 Simple schematic of the key processes required for the ethanol from
sugarcane bagasse
2.6 Conclusion
This chapter has provided an introduction to transportation fuel use and the
challenges associated with commercialising biofuels production from cellulosic
feedstocks. An overview of the global and Australian sugar industries and the
structure of sugarcane bagasse as a bioenergy feedstock have also been provided.
Chapter 3 provides more detail on the technologies for pretreatment of fibre from
sugarcane bagasse.
31
Chapter 3
Pretreatment technologies for
ethanol production from sugarcane
bagasse
3.1 Introduction
- Influencing the fibre particle size, porosity, cell wall thickness or fibre
surface area.
The lignin concentration of the fibre and the degree of cellulose crystallinity have
been shown to have the most significant effect on biomass digestibility by
enzyme and this has been shown to hold true for bagasse [86]. Reducing the
acetyl content has been shown to have a lesser impact on biomass digestibility
although this remains an effective strategy [86]. While effective pretreatment is
critical to bagasse digestion by enzymes, the hydrolytic effectiveness is also
dependent upon digestion conditions including pH, temperature, solids content
and enzyme loading [87].
Concentrated acid hydrolysis has been used commercially (during the Second
World War) for hydrolysing biomass. In the concentrated acid process, sulphuric
acid is typically used at concentrations greater than 40 % at room temperature
for periods of approximately 1 hour [25]. The use of concentrated acids for
hydrolysis at low temperatures results in high yields of both pentoses and
hexoses, with reported yields of 85 – 95 % of theoretical yields and with minimal
production of degradation products [25].
In general, the dilute acid hydrolysis process is a single or double stage process
using sulphuric acid in concentrations of up to 1.5 % acid, with reaction times of
o o
several minutes and temperatures between 180 C and 230 C. Higher
temperatures are mostly used to ensure rapid hydrolysis rates and high glucose
yields during saccharification. The higher temperatures, however, also increase
the rate of generation of pentose degradation products, primarily furfural, and
hexose degradation products, primarily 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) [56, 79].
Furfural and HMF can further degrade to other products including furan, levulinic
acid and formic acid. Several phenolic compounds resulting from lignin
degradation can also be formed under these conditions [25].
35
Glucose yields from the dilute acid hydrolysis process have been mostly reported
between 50 % and 60 % of theoretical glucose yield, however, more recent
studies have reported glucose yields over 80 % and xylose yields above 90 % with
new reactor designs [25]. Despite the improvements in glucose and xylose
yields, significant quantities of inhibitory degradation products are formed and
low hydrolysate sugar concentrations have been achieved [25].
Acetic acid is also formed from the hydrolysis of acetyl groups in the
hemicellulose fraction and can be a further inhibitor to microbial growth in
concentrations as low as 4 g/L [88]. HMF and furfural concentrations as low as
0.5 g/L have been shown to reduce microbial growth substantially in
lignocellulosic materials [88] and in sugarcane bagasse hydrolysates at
concentrations greater than 0.9 g/L [89].
One of the major challenges with mild acid hydrolysis or pretreatment is the
corrosive nature of the process conditions (low pH, elevated temperature and
pressure) resulting in a requirement for pressurised reactors manufactured from
exotic and expensive alloys. Other concerns include the need for neutralisation
chemicals for hydrolysate conditioning and the disposal costs associated with the
salts formed (typically gypsum). The continuing presence of lignin in the solid
residue results in non-productive adsorption of a portion of the enzymes on the
lignin, requiring a higher enzyme usage rate [79].
Studies with sugarcane bagasse have looked at the kinetics of hydrolysis with a
range of mineral acids. A kinetic study [56] of sulphuric acid hydrolysis of bagasse
modelled xylose, glucose, acetic acid and furfural concentrations at
temperatures of 100 - 128 oC and acid concentrations of 2 – 6 %. Up to 90 % of
the hemicelluloses were hydrolysed under these conditions with minimal
hydrolysis of cellulose. Further detailed studies [59, 67] looked at the kinetics of
xylose, arabinose, glucose and furfural production under a large range of
temperature conditions, solid to liquid ratios and bagasse type, comparing both
sulphuric and hydrochloric acids. About 80 % of theoretical xylose yields were
achieved. Bagasse particle size was found to have a negligible effect on the rate
of hydrolysis.
Further studies with sugarcane bagasse have also investigated the kinetics of
hemicellulose hydrolysis in dilute sulphuric acid [91], hydrochloric acid [92],
phosphoric acid [93-96] and nitric acid [97]. The use of sulphur dioxide
impregnated bagasse with steam treatment has been studied and resulted in
sugar yields of 87 % [98].
A study [99] on dilute acid pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse and other biomass
sources (rice hulls, peanut shells and cassava stalks) using dilute sulphuric acid at
122 oC and times up to 1 hour showed that bagasse was the most susceptible of
these materials to hemicellulose hydrolysis, with conversion of the xylan of 73 –
37
Another study of sugarcane bagasse with sulphuric acid pretreatment has shown
that hemicellulose monomer sugar yield is most influenced by acid concentration
and that higher temperatures increase degradation product formation, favouring
the selection of reaction conditions with higher acid concentrations, longer
reaction times and lower reaction temperatures [91]. Despite the hydrolysis and
removal of hemicellulose from the residual solid, the relative increase in lignin in
the solid residue has been shown to restrict the potential gains in susceptibility
of the solid residue to enzymatic hydrolysis [100].
Acid pretreatments under very mild concentrations have also been trialled for
enhancing the digestion characteristics of bagasse feeds for ruminant animals
[102].
Alkaline pretreatments are extensively used in the pulping industry for both
wood and non-wood feedstocks. The pulping industry principally uses the Kraft
process for pulping of wood fibres which combines the use of caustic soda and
sodium sulphite for effective delignification. Non-wood fibres such as bagasse
more readily delignify than fibres from woody plants and as a consequence, for
bagasse, caustic soda is a satisfactory delignifying agent. In the bagasse pulping
soda process, caustic soda is typically used at a concentration of 18 - 26 % NaOH
on dry fibre at temperatures up to 160 oC.
Alkaline pretreatments aim to dissolve a large proportion of the lignin from the
biomass with the rate and extent of dissolution varying with the alkali
concentration, reaction time and reaction temperature [109]. The removal of
lignin from lignocellulosic materials is a key strategy in improving cellulose
digestibility [75, 79, 100]. Pulping processes aim to delignify bagasse to a target
lignin concentration (known in the pulping industry as the Kappa number [110]).
Some dissolution of hemicellulose also occurs in alkaline pretreatments but this
is generally undesirable as this leads to a reduction in pulp yield.
Due to the less corrosive environment, the cost of materials for the fabrication of
pretreatment reactors for alkaline pulping is significantly lower than the cost of
materials required for acidic pretreatments, however, it is reported that the cost
39
of chemicals is likely to be significantly higher with caustic soda being four times
as expensive as sulphuric acid. As the processes operate in aqueous
environments above 100 oC, pressure vessels are required for pretreatment
processing. Little testing of alkaline processes at pilot scale has been reported in
the literature and little information is available on the process economics [80].
Lime pretreatment has been studied for its effectiveness in enhancing enzymatic
digestibility of bagasse and wheat straw [114]. Short pretreatment times (1 - 3
hours) at high temperatures (85 – 135 oC) were effective in achieving high sugar
yields, while lower temperatures (50 – 65 oC) required much longer pretreatment
times (24 hours). Glucans and xylans were not removed in the pretreatment and
a maximum of only 14 % of the lignin was solubilised. Enzymatic hydrolysis of the
lime pretreated bagasse produced 75 % of theoretical sugar yield after 72 hours
[114]. A comparison of lime and alkaline hydrogen peroxide pretreatments
achieved glucose yields of up to 87.5 % for lime and 62.4 % for alkaline hydrogen
peroxide with longer reaction times, higher temperatures and higher lime
loadings all favoured in producing a higher glucose yield [115].
Aqueous ammonia has been trialled for its effectiveness as a pretreatment agent
for enzymatic hydrolysis of bagasse, corn husk and switchgrass [116]. Bagasse
was treated with aqueous ammonia at 120 oC for 20 minutes and glucan and
xylan yields of 72.9 % and 82.4 % respectively were reported. The residual
ammonia was separated from the bagasse by vacuum drying and no washing of
the biomass prior to hydrolysis was required. The enzymatic effectiveness of
various cellulase and hemicellulase preparations and mixtures have also been
studied on aqueous ammonia and ammonia freeze explosion pretreated bagasse
[117].
40
During wet oxidation, both a low temperature hydrolytic reaction and a high
temperature oxidative reaction occur. Wet oxidation of sugarcane bagasse under
alkali conditions has been shown to reduce the formation of toxic formaldehydes
and phenol aldehydes compared to wet oxidation alone [119-121].
Oxidising agents including peracetic acid [94, 122-127], acetic acid and ozone
[128], peroxyacetic acid [129], alkaline hydrogen peroxide [130] and sodium
hypochlorite and hydrogen peroxide [131] have also been used to reduce the
lignin content of lignocellulosic pulps.
41
achieved using bagasse that had been stored for a period prior to treatment
[132].
The DHR – Dedini rapid hydrolysis process uses an organsolv process to delignify
bagasse under mild acid conditions for the subsequent acid hydrolysis of
polysaccharides. Saccharification yields of 82 % and hexose fermentation yields
of 90 % have been reported at the pilot scale [138].
In the search for more environmentally benign pulping chemicals in the paper
industry, acetic acid has been used for delignification [128, 139, 140]. While
acetic acid is an effective solvent of lignin, a variety of catalysts have been used
to enhance the lignin removal characteristics of acetic acid including magnesium
chloride, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetone and oxygen [128]. The
acetosolv process uses a combination of 93 % acetic acid and 0.1 % hydrochloric
acid [139].
Both the kappa number and viscosity of acetosolv and organosolv bagasse pulps
have been shown to decrease following subsequent treatments of both pulps
with commercial xylanase enzymes [141].
Ionic liquids are a class of organic salts that have the ability to either completely
or selectively dissolve the fractional components of bagasse. Little work has been
published to date on the pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse with ionic liquids
for ethanol production although some work has occurred for the production of
bagasse pulp [145]. Most of the work reported has focussed on compounds
based on the imidazolium cation [146].
Steam explosion is a process that involves heating a wet biomass under pressure
to maintain the water in the biomass in a liquid phase and then rapidly
depressurising the fibre to atmospheric pressure. This process improves enzyme
hydrolysis rates by increasing available surface area for enzyme activity, partially
removing hemicellulose and through a minor impact on lignin structure [75].
Typically, the process involves heating the bagasse to a temperature around
200 oC under pressure, holding the biomass under these conditions for a short
period of time and then expelling the material through a valve to a blow tank at
atmospheric pressure. The high temperature steam impregnation into the fibre
solubilises hemicellulose and some lignin, while the rapid depressurisation
dramatically affects the cell integrity and fibre dimensions. A dye may be used at
the exit of the chamber to assist in fibre disruption.
Steam explosion can be carried out in the presence of an acid catalyst (acid
catalysed steam explosion) or without an acid catalyst (autohydrolysed steam
explosion). When no acid catalyst is present, the acid catalysed cleavage of
glycosidic linkages results from acids released from the biomass itself [65]. Steam
exploded sugarcane bagasse without an acid catalyst has been compared to
steam exploded bagasse that was impregnated with sulphur dioxide or sulphuric
acid prior to steaming [147]. The highest hydrolysis glucose yields were achieved
with sulphuric acid impregnated bagasse, however, the hydrolysate from this
44
Steam explosion with bagasse was trialled by steaming for 10 minutes at 205 oC
[121, 149]. A 66.5 % yield of dry matter was achieved with a significant
reduction in hemicellulose content and lignin content. Significant inhibition of
hydrolysis and fermentation of the product was reported, resulting from the
presence of furan aldehydes. Furan aldehydes were reported to be more
significant inhibitory compounds than acetic acid. Hydrolysis and fermentation
rates in the washed residual solid were significantly higher than in the unwashed
slurry [121].
AFEX pretreated sugarcane bagasse has been shown to have higher cellulase and
xylanase hydrolysis rates than aqueous ammonia treated bagasse with a variety
of commercial enzymes [117]. AFEX pretreatment of moist sugarcane bagasse
and trash have been studied with a maximum glucan conversion in hydrolysis of
about 85 % [161].
Carbon dioxide explosion has also been trialled as a pretreatment process with
bagasse [162, 163]. In this process, supercritical carbon dioxide is injected into a
reactor at pressures of 68 - 279 atmospheres and temperatures of 35 – 80 oC and
subsequently depressurised. Cellulolytic enzyme hydrolysis rates and yields
increased as a result of the treatment.
Sugarcane bagasse and leaves have been fractionated in hot compressed liquid
water at 190 – 230 oC in less than 4 minutes at pressures greater than the
saturation pressure of the liquid [164]. Under these conditions, over 50 % of the
biomass was solubilised. This included all of the hemicellulose and greater than
60 % of the acid-insoluble lignin, with less than 10 % of the cellulose solubilised.
Complete recovery of the hemicellulose as monomeric sugars following the
liquid hot water pretreatment at a reaction temperature of 190 oC and a mild
acid hydrolysis is possible. Greater than 90 % recovery of hemicellulose is
possible at a temperature of 220 oC with about 5 % of the hemicellulose
converted into furfural [164].
Significant quantities of lignin are also solubilised in the liquid hot water
pretreatment process. Sugarcane bagasse and leaves showed similar solubility
outcomes [164]. Hemicellulose from liquid hot water pretreated bagasse has
been shown to be readily enzymatically hydrolysed [165].
Liquid hot water pretreated bagasse has been used as a substrate for the
production of cellulases from Trichoderma reesei [168]. The kinetics of
hemicellulose removal from bagasse under hydrothermal conditions at varying
solids concentration identified a trend toward lower xylose yield at higher solids
concentrations [169].
The impacts of ball milling and wet disc milling of sugarcane bagasse were
investigated with ball milled bagasse at optimum conditions achieving a glucose
hydrolysis yield of 78 % and wet disc milled bagasse achieving a glucose
hydrolysis yield of 49 % [172]. The ball milling process was reported to
significantly decrease bagasse crystallinity and particle size, while wet disc milling
was shown to result in defibrillation of the bagasse and reduced particle size
[172]. Other ball milling studies of sugarcane bagasse have also been reported
recently [173].
glucosidic bonds. Higher radiation levels (above 100 MR) appear to lead to
decomposition of oligosaccharides and the glucose ring structure [176].
3.6 Conclusion
This chapter has reviewed the work that has been undertaken on sugarcane
bagasse pretreatment which is a critical process stage in the manufacture of
ethanol from bagasse. The choice of pretreatment technology determines many
of the following process requirements and has the largest impact on overall
process efficiency, capital cost and operating cost.
Chapter 4
Globally, sugarcane is one of the major crop feedstocks for ethanol production via
first generation molasses and juice fermentation technologies. The ready availability
of the fibrous residue from sugarcane processing (bagasse) at existing industrial
facilities, the scale of the sugarcane resource and the existence of established
infrastructure for research, breeding, harvesting, transport and crop processing,
makes sugarcane perhaps the best feedstock for early commercialisation of
cellulosic ethanol technologies.
The science of systems, which includes complex systems theory, the study of
complexity and non-linearity, arose from the recognition that not every problem
could be resolved by taking the more traditional reductionist approach to problem
solving. Many systems, while constituted of separate elements, operate as an
interdependent whole and an analysis of the individual elements in isolation can
lead to incorrect or incomplete understandings of the behaviour of the whole
system.
Economic
Production costs Project hurdle rates
Capital costs Revenue diversification
Biomass transport costs Cash flow
Feedstock price Price risk and sensitivity
Off-take agreements Liquidity
Product price Funding models
Technical Sustainability
Biomass collection Enzyme production Life cycle analysis Land use change
Biomass storage Hydrolysis strategy Carbon efficiency Impact on food production
Chemical usage & recovery Fermentation organism Future energy technologies Greenhouse gas reduction
Pretreatment strategy Process integration Fate of process wastes Farming practices
Co-product options Waste processing Embedded energy Water use
Reactor designs Energy use Fertiliser inputs Fossil fuel use
Public policy
Carbon tax Energy security
Emissions trading Biofuel mandates
Post-Kyoto agreements Rural support
Uni/multi-lateral action Renewable energy policy
Community support Tax incentives
Support for R&D Health benefits
In this study, systems engineering tools have been used for analysing the challenges
associated with developing commercially feasible cellulosic ethanol from sugarcane.
An analysis of the factors affecting the sugarcane bioethanol system has been
undertaken using a systems analysis method [191]. This approach has identified
core understandings related to Identity, Information and Relationships, and the key
issues in the pathway to developing a new sugarcane bioethanol system, from
Intention through to the development of New Contexts, Structures and Strategies
for the industry. A summary of some of the key issues identified in this analysis is
shown in Table 4.1.
The key issues relating to Identity, Information and Relationships reflect existing
states, both real and perceived. For example, while the sugar industry in Australia
has very efficient sugarcane farming and sugar production systems, there has been
56
some change over the past decade towards increased renewable energy production
as a co-product of the sugar production process. That this shift has not been more
pronounced has been the result of challenging investment conditions including low
industry returns, declining sugarcane production, sunk capital in sugar manufacture
and the high capital cost of plant and equipment in Australia.
The issues relating to Intention, Principles and Tensions reflect the opportunities
(and challenges) in the industry that have been presented by the increasing cost of
energy and the community desire for access to low greenhouse gas emission
renewable energy. Assessing financial viability and sustainability is a fundamental
component in the further technology development and investment in renewable
energy.
The imperative for revenue diversification in the sugar industry requires a paradigm
shift for the industry from being primarily a sugar producer to a new context as a
renewable energy provider, producing larger scale electrical energy generation from
biomass combustion (cogeneration) and the production of liquid transport fuels and
co-products. An understanding of this new context is required not just by the
industry where new revenue opportunities emerge, but also by the government and
community to whom many of the environmental and social benefits of this new
investment will flow.
In the sugarcane bioethanol system, the declaration of the purpose of the system
would reference the requirement for both commercial profitability at the business
level and the delivery of significant societal environmental sustainability benefits.
The following is proposed as a possible definition of the purpose of the sugarcane
bioethanol system:
This statement not only defines the purpose of the system, but also infers some of
the key measures of effectiveness of the conceptual system solution. An
understanding of the system purpose can be further developed using an objectives
tree as shown in Figure 4.3.
The objectives tree highlights some of the complexity in understanding the ultimate
purpose of the system, and in particular identifying at which level the ultimate
purpose should be formulated. In the objectives tree, the decision was made to
59
focus the prime directive at the business level, which is ultimately the level at which
investment decisions in new bioethanol facilities will be made.
Within the objectives tree, the sub-objectives provide ever increasing detail on the
means by which the higher level objectives will be met. At the lowest level shown,
the sub-objectives highlight the fundamental drivers of project value, including
maximising economies of scale, minimising capital costs, maximising the revenue
through co-product value adding and integration of the bioethanol system within
existing sugarcane industry structures.
Several public policy objectives were identified that flow from attainment of the
prime directive but which do not necessarily directly relate to the investment
decision at the business level.
As previously stated, the CONOPS describes the way the system is to work, or how
the prime directive is to be achieved. The CONOPS typically addresses strategies,
policies and constraints of the system and the full CONOPS should be demonstrably
realised in the final solution [192].
The proposed CONOPS of the sugarcane bioethanol system is for a system that
identifies as a multi-product renewable energy hub, utilising the existing industry
value chain to produce sugar, ethanol and value-added co-products in a fully
integrated processing environment (Figure 4.4).
Within this environment, process streams flow seamlessly between facilities and
waste or co-product streams are utilised across individual facility boundaries to
maximise overall profitability. The facilities share common utilities and services
including steam and electrical generation infrastructure. Other site services such as
transport infrastructure, waste water and co-product recycling are shared where
possible to minimise capital investment and reduce overall production costs.
60
The harvesting and sugarcane processing season length is optimised to produce the
highest overall system profitability. Intermediate product storage for concentrated
liquor, molasses and bagasse enhance the efficient use of capital in the integrated
facilities by extending the ethanol production processes period beyond the
sugarcane harvesting season.
N
CFt
NPV = å
t =o (1 + r ) t
where t = time of the cashflow in years;
CFt = net cashflow at time t;
r = the opportunity cost of capital (discount rate); and
N = period (years) over which the NPV is calculated.
Table 4.2 Summary purpose, concept of operations (CONOPS) and key measures
of effectiveness of the integrated sugar – ethanol system
The sugarcane bioethanol system
Purpose:
To deliver long-term profitable return on investment and a high level of sustainability
performance including greenhouse gas emission reduction from the production of ethanol
from sugarcane fibre in an integrated sugar – ethanol production facility
Concept of Operations:
Integrate new bioethanol facilities with sugar processing and juice/molasses processing
facilities to reduce capital and operating costs
Utilise shared services, infrastructure and administration
Utilise sugarcane extraneous matter (trash) for extra fibre availability and to improve
economies of scale
Enhance the sustainability of the agricultural system through encouraging and enabling good
agricultural practice including sufficient trash for green sugarcane trash blanketing and
recycling of co-products
Consider the transfer of process streams between sugar and ethanol processing facilities
where this enhances overall profitability
Utilise energy transfers between processes to optimise process energy efficiency
Utilise shared liquid and solid waste treatment facilities
Consider storage of bagasse and molasses for effective use of capital
Generate new revenue streams for revenue diversification
Maximise sustainability outcomes for community benefit
Maximise revenue opportunities from carbon trading
Minimise technology risks for early adopters
Have minimal negative impact on global food availability
Create value from co-products for higher economic viability and resilience
Utilise the value from existing sunk capital in sugar and ethanol production facilities
Utilise existing value and supply chains
Utilise existing industry research and extension infrastructure – plant breeding, processing,
etc
Focus efforts by working with technology leaders
Continually reinforce the paradigm that sugarcane industry is a renewable energy industry
Sensitivity analysis
Unlike the traditional sugarcane production system which utilises well understood
technology and operates in established markets, the sugarcane bioethanol system is
subject to large degrees of uncertainty both in technology outcomes and in the
markets for the products of the process. There is a high degree of uncertainty in the
policy arena with regard to the future price of carbon, emission reduction programs
and renewable fuel production incentives. The common methodological framework
provides a basis for both defining and assessing the impact of this uncertainty on
the model inputs and measuring the effect of this uncertainty on the output of
interest.
Uncertainty is propagated in the model from the input to the output variables. The
key output variable (forecast variable) of the model is the net present value of the
process. Uncertainty in the net present value is represented as a normalised
probability distribution of the forecast variable and the probability of achieving a
predetermined target or range is termed the ‘certainty’. The decision criteria can
then apply a benchmark to the certainty of the forecast variable distribution
function to determine the acceptability of the result. The certainty can be increased
by analysing the sensitivity of the results to the uncertain assumptions and
focussing on reducing assumption uncertainty.
66
Model simulations were based on 10,000 trials using the Monte Carlo simulation
tool in Oracle Crystal Ball. A typical analysis of the sensitivity of the key input
variables to the net present value of the ethanol production process is shown in the
tornado chart in Figure 4.6. The tornado chart represents in descending order the
factors with the greatest sensitivity to project net present value. Sensitivity is
calculated by computing the rank correlation coefficients between every
assumption and forecast variable using the data generated from all of the 10,000
simulations. In calculating sensitivities, data for the assumption variables were
selected according to a triangular probability distribution generated from the
Minimum, Likeliest and Maximum values shown in Table 4.3.
As can be seen from Figure 4.6, the key variables impacting upon the net present
value include:
2. bagasse price;
Other variables including the constituents of the bagasse, hydrolysis yields and
fermentation yields have a much lower impact on net present value. It is worth
noting that much of the on-going technology development is focussing on
incremental gains in these criteria.
68
Ethanol price
-16.3%
35.7%
Bagasse price
Other 0.8%
From this figure it can be clearly seen that both the ethanol price and feedstock
price present the most risk to any commercial project as these variables have a high
assumption uncertainty and a high impact on the net present value of the project.
69
Managing the uncertainty associated with these variables is the most significant
issue in establishing viable commercial projects. While lignin price, capital cost and
enzyme cost have similarly high assumption uncertainties, the impact on the net
present value of the project is less dependent upon variations in the future price of
these factors, although these factors are still significant.
High
Sensitivity: Net present value
6 5 4
Low 10 7
12 11
13 9 8
Low High
Assumption uncertainty
Figure 4.7 Sensitivity of the major factors in bagasse based ethanol project
viability (net present value) to the assumptions in the techno-
economic model
There is a high degree of uncertainty in the future price of fuel grade ethanol and
this uncertainty is the major contributor to investment risk. Future ethanol prices
will be influenced by the complex behaviour of the crude oil market, public demand
for renewable fuels and the presence or absence of national policies promoting the
use of alternate fuels. It is likely though that ethanol prices will be significantly
correlated to traded global crude oil and petroleum prices. For most early stage
commercialisation projects, however, the establishment of long term off-take
agreements will be essential in mitigating the ethanol product demand and price
risks.
The technology risk associated with second generation ethanol facilities increases
the risk associated with the commercialisation of early stage second generation
facilities. Many countries currently have in place ethanol incentive schemes to
encourage the uptake of ethanol technologies. Around the world, and particularly in
Brazil and the USA, biofuel production incentive schemes and mandates have
assisted in underpinning an ethanol price either directly or indirectly at a level that
has encouraged early stage investment in first generation biofuels.
Like other fibrous residues, sugarcane bagasse is a high volume, low value material
and as such is generally considered to only find economic utility within a small
distance of the sugar factory in which it is generated. As a result, there is no
significant national or global market for bagasse, and no commonly traded market
price. The value of bagasse as a feedstock for a bioethanol plant is therefore
dependent upon the region in which it is generated including any local alternative
uses for excess bagasse, such as cogeneration or paper products manufacture.
Historically, bagasse has been combusted in the sugar factory boilers to provide
steam and energy for the process, but as there is significantly more energy in
bagasse than is required for the process, both the boilers and sugar production
processes have been designed to utilise this energy inefficiently to ensure complete
disposal of the bagasse. Increasingly, excess energy from the process is being
72
The value of bagasse to the factory for site energy generation is dependent upon
the energy balance of the factory and the capacity of the factory to generate and
economically utilise additional steam and electricity. In a factory with surplus
bagasse and limited electricity generation infrastructure, the value of bagasse could
be negative as excess bagasse represents a disposal cost to the factory. In a factory
with both surplus bagasse and surplus capacity to generate and export electricity,
the bagasse value is dependent upon the electricity export price including any value
for renewable or low emission energy generation. Where the factory regularly
imports extraneous fuels to supplement bagasse combustion for energy generation,
the bagasse value may be considered to have the value of the extraneous fuel on an
energy equivalent basis [196].
The farming decision to cultivate sugarcane is (in most of the world) a decision
made on the projected revenue from sugar, or as in Brazil, on the revenue from
sugar and ethanol from juice fermentation. A shortage of fibre from bagasse and
sugarcane trash, leading to an increase in fibre price, is unlikely to result in a
significant supply response from sugarcane growers (in the absence of a sugar price
driver). An increase in fibre price, however, may make the import of alternative
sources of fibre into the process more economic such as through the harvesting of
sugarcane trash or the utilisation of complementary feedstocks (green waste or
fibre crops).
This analysis shows that the cost of cellulase for the cellulose hydrolysis stage is the
key operating cost in a bioethanol facility. Cellulase may be supplied to the facility
as an imported product, but given the large quantity of enzyme required for a
commercial process, is likely to be manufactured on-site in many cases. The future
price of cellulase is uncertain at the scale required for commercial facilities but
there exists a high likelihood of significant cost reductions over the next decade.
The risks associated with enzyme supply cost may be mitigated through innovative
plant design and operation to minimise enzyme requirements and through
contractual supply arrangements with enzyme producers. Research toward plant
made cellulases in sugarcane offers opportunities for significantly reducing the cost
of enzymes in the sugarcane bioethanol system [197].
The capital cost of the bioethanol facility is dependent upon many factors including
facility location, scale and process technology choices. The uncertainty in bioethanol
plant capital cost has a significant impact on the uncertainty in net present value of
the facility although for any one project may be defined with greater certainty
through detailed engineering design. Integrating processing operations in co-
located sugar processing and ethanol production facilities offers significant
opportunities for reducing the capital cost of new bioethanol facilities.
This study has analysed the sugarcane bioethanol system as a complex system and
considered the integration of bioethanol production from bagasse into the
sugarcane processing system. The techno-economic analysis of the system
concludes that the key factors which need to be addressed to enable early stage
uptake of the technology and minimise risk for investors in Australia include ethanol
price, bagasse price, ethanol producer subsidy, cellulase price and biorefinery
capital cost.
While to some extent these conclusions appear self-evident, this analysis provides
an assessment of the scale of influence and relative magnitude of importance of
these factors to early stage commercial success. The analysis results in a deeper
understanding of the influence of uncertainty in early stage project investment and
highlights the importance of reducing the uncertainty in these key factors to
encourage project investment.
Uncertainty in the future price of ethanol is the major impediment to early stage
investment in second generation ethanol production from bagasse. Government
policy support which underpins the ethanol price and reduces investment risk
through renewable fuels incentives such as the ethanol producer subsidy in
Australia or through the establishment of a carbon price under an emissions trading
scheme is likely to be necessary to promote early stage commercial investment in
this technology and hence deliver the significant greenhouse gas reduction, health
and community benefits possible from second generation biofuel use.
75
Techno-economic
assessment
77
Chapter 5
The potential for ethanol production
from sugarcane in Australia
5.1 Introduction
The information in this chapter was presented at the Australian Society of Sugar
Cane Technologists annual conference in Bundaberg, Queensland from the 11th
– 14th May 2010. The paper was peer-reviewed and included in the published
proceedings of the conference cited as the Proceedings of the Australian Society
of Sugar Cane Technologists, Volume 32, 2010.
This chapter identifies the current quantum of transport fuel used in Australia
and assesses the options for substituting a portion of this fuel usage by ethanol
produced from components of the sugarcane crop (juice, molasses, bagasse and
trash). The chapter describes the development of a comprehensive and
integrated techno-economic model of a sugarcane processing facility, juice and
molasses-based ethanol distillery and cellulosic ethanol facility, including an
assessment of the energy requirements of the integrated facility. The chapter
compares the potential industry revenues for five scenarios including a base
case, cogeneration scenario and three ethanol options of varying scales.
It seems likely that, unless there is a sustained step change in the world sugar
price or a significant move to high biomass sugarcane cultivation, sugarcane
production in Australia in the short to medium term will continue to average
between 30 and 35 Mt from approximately 400,000 ha. It is recognised that, in
the right business environment, further significant expansion of the sugarcane
industry in Australia is possible particularly through tropical Queensland,
Western Australia and the Northern Territory, however, significant infrastructure
and investment capital is required to support this expansion and as a result this
possible future expansion scenario has not been assessed in this study.
The maximum theoretical yield of ethanol from sucrose is 105.3 % of the ethanol
yield from an equivalent weight of glucose, as a result of a mass increase in the
initial sucrose hydrolysis reaction. Approximate ethanol yields per tonne of
product are shown in Table 5.2.
The production of ethanol from the fibre component of tops and leaf (trash) and
bagasse is significantly more complex than the production of ethanol from
sugarcane juice or molasses as a result of the resilience of the carbohydrates in
the fibre to undergo hydrolysis to their monomer sugars. Pretreatment of the
fibre through physical or chemical processing is required to make the
carbohydrates in the fibre more susceptible to hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is achieved
through the application of hydrolytic enzymes or acids.
the primary monomers from hemicellulose hydrolysis are the pentoses xylose
and arabinose.
The crystalline nature of the cellulose in plant fibres typically restricts the
economically achievable glucose yield from cellulose hydrolysis, although the
glucose released can be readily fermented at very high efficiencies using
conventional fermentation organisms.
fermentation and distillation stages and will account for the different yields from
the cellulose and hemicellulose components of the biomass.
Crystal Sugar
sugar
production Filter mud
Export
molasses
Molasses
Import storage
molasses Juice and
molasses Ethanol
Cane Juice
distillation Vinasse
preparation
Electricity
Sugar and juice CO2
extraction Steam
cane
Bagasse
Cogeneration
boiler Boiler ash
Cellulosic
Solid ethanol Ethanol
Electricity residue facility and
Supplementary Lignin
generation biorefinery
fuel CO2
Import
bagasse
Bagasse Export
Import storage electricity
trash Export
bagasse
Import
Waste water Water
electricity
treatment
Although the model allows for their inclusion, in these scenarios, no value has
been included for renewable energy certificates, carbon credits or ethanol
production incentives. The analysis excludes rum production at the Bundaberg
distillery and other minor ethanol production in small distilleries. It is noted that
there is a considerable market for molasses as an animal feed which is likely to
limit the availability of molasses for ethanol production, but this is not
considered in these scenarios. Likewise, other markets for bagasse or trash
products are not assessed.
Base scenario
This scenario models the approximate sugar, ethanol and electricity production
in the Australian sugar industry using currently installed infrastructure. In this
scenario, no sugarcane juice is utilised for ethanol production and a total of 60
ML of ethanol is produced from final molasses. All of the bagasse is used for
cogeneration and the production of export electricity. Bagasse is assumed to be
combusted in low pressure inefficient boilers and no bagasse is used for
cellulosic ethanol production. No trash is processed in this scenario.
Cogeneration scenario
proportion of the available trash are used for cogeneration and the production of
export electricity. Bagasse is assumed to be combusted in high pressure efficient
boilers and energy efficient process technologies are implemented to maximise
electricity generation and export.
In the low ethanol scenario, no sugarcane juice is utilised for ethanol production.
Ethanol is produced from all of the final molasses generated from the sugar
production process. Bagasse and trash surplus to the energy requirements of the
process are used for cellulosic ethanol production. Bagasse and trash used for
energy production are combusted in high pressure efficient boilers and energy
efficient sugar production process technologies are implemented.
In the high ethanol scenario, no crystal sugar is produced and all of the
sugarcane juice is used for ethanol production. Bagasse and trash surplus to the
energy requirements of the process are used for cellulosic ethanol production.
Bagasse and trash used for energy production are combusted in high pressure
efficient boilers. Key input data for the scenario analyses are shown in Table 5.3
and Table 5.4 and the results are shown in Table 5.5.
86
5.7 Discussion
Based on the assumptions used, the scenario analysis detailed in this report
shows that in a high ethanol scenario, a maximum of 4657 ML of ethanol is able
to be produced which equates to 24 % of Australia’s automotive gasoline
requirement or 104 % of Queensland’s automotive gasoline requirement on a
volumetric basis1. With the quantity of existing crystal sugar production
infrastructure in Australia, however, it is very unlikely at any stage in the future
that this quantity of sugarcane juice will be diverted from crystal sugar
manufacture to ethanol production.
1
Throughout this chapter, ethanol substitution in automotive gasoline is referenced on a
volumetric basis. Reporting on a volumetric basis does not account for the lower energy content of
ethanol compared to gasoline. Ethanol substitution results on an energy content basis can be
calculated by multiplying the result on a volumetric basis by 0.67.
87
The proportion of fibre required for energy generation decreases with a decrease
in the amount of crystal sugar produced, as a result of the lower energy
requirements for ethanol production, increasing the amount of fibre available for
cellulosic ethanol production. An increase in the production of export electricity
is expected even in the high ethanol production scenario as excess high pressure
steam is utilised for electricity generation.
Compared to the base scenario with revenue of $1876 million, the cogeneration
scenario shows that an additional $465 million is able to be generated from
increased electricity production with the installation of efficient high pressure
boilers and generation equipment, energy efficient processing technologies and
the combustion of additional trash. Significantly more income is able to be
generated from the combined use of molasses, juice and bagasse for ethanol
production with an additional $849 million possible in the low ethanol scenario,
$1104 million possible in the moderate ethanol scenario and an additional $1444
million possible in the high ethanol scenario.
5.8 Conclusion
With a sugarcane crop of 35 Mt, ethanol produced from sugarcane has the
potential to meet a very significant proportion of Australia’s current automotive
gasoline requirements. In a possible moderate ethanol production scenario that
includes trash collection and cellulosic ethanol production, sugarcane has the
potential to provide sufficient ethanol to meet 14 % of Australia’s (or 61 % of
Queensland’s) automotive gasoline requirement on a volumetric basis while not
consuming any additional coal or other supplementary fuels.
Chapter 6
This chapter was written as a confidential research report in 2010 for the
partners in the Biorefinery Development Project including Mackay Sugar Ltd,
Sugar Research Ltd, Viridian Chemicals Pty Ltd and Hexion Specialty Chemicals
Inc. Funding for this project was also provided by the Queensland Government
through the Research Industry Partnerships Program (RIPP).
This chapter assesses the technology options for a biorefinery that utilises
caustic soda pulping technology for pretreatment of sugarcane bagasse to
produce ethanol, lignin and co-products. The chapter develops a process for
feasibility analysis, and utilises a comprehensive technical and economic model
to assess the likely revenue, capital and operating costs for a potential facility
located at a sugar factory in the Mackay region of Queensland. The chapter
assesses the feasibility of the proposed facility against benchmark project
indicators, and undertakes a one and two component sensitivity analysis of the
key factors impacting project viability. The chapter also analyses the feasibility of
several process alternatives.
This chapter will not be made publicly available without the consent of the
project partners. Any requests for information relating to this chapter should be
directed to the author of this thesis.
92
.
93
Chapter 7
This chapter explores the feasibility of a novel technology for reducing the cost
of cellulolytic enzymes for the production of ethanol from sugarcane bagasse.
The chapter explores the advantages and disadvantages of several concepts for
in-plant expression of cellulases in sugarcane and investigates the economic
benefits of the two leading concepts.
The analysis of concept feasibility reported in this chapter was undertaken by the
author of this thesis. Dr Zhanying Zhang undertook the protein analysis reported
in this chapter, assisted with the analysis of the project concepts and co-
authored the reports on this work to the project partners.
This chapter will not be made publicly available without the consent of the
project partners. Any requests for information relating to this chapter should be
directed to the author of this thesis.
94
95
Chapter 8
Towards a commercial lignocellulosic
ethanol industry in Australia: the
Mackay Renewable Biocommodities
Pilot Plant
8.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the value of pilot-scale production facilities in the context of
the development of a cellulosic ethanol industry in Australia. The chapter details the
funding, design and construction of a new pilot scale biorefinery facility, the Mackay
Renewable Biocommodities Pilot Plant (MRBPP), the unique capabilities of the
facility and the future opportunities that the facility generates for the Australian
sugar industry.
The author of this thesis was responsible for the conceptual and detailed process
design of the MRBPP, was responsible for the selection and purchasing of
equipment and was the key client representative during the design, construction
and installation phases. The MRBPP is the only facility of its kind in Australia and
one of the only publicly available, flexible pilot scale cellulosic ethanol facilities in
the world, requiring a novel approach to the facility design and the development of
collaborative industry partnerships.
The pilot plant will be utilised for demonstrating the technologies described in
Chapter 6 and Chapter 7 of this thesis and has been designed to be flexible enough
to demonstrate many of the pretreatment processes described in Chapter 3. The
demonstration to be undertaken includes both the technical feasibility and the
economic feasibility of the biofuel production processes.
98
Pilot plants are an essential tool for the development of new technologies, bridging
the gap between laboratory research and commercial application of the technology.
Pilot plants are used to optimise key process parameters such as yield, rate and
efficiency at a scale much larger than that used for laboratory development and in
equipment that mimics large scale industrial facilities. This allows key process
economics to be evaluated and provides information on both the robustness of the
process and scale-up data for the design of the commercial facility. Additionally,
pilot plants also allow production of a significant amount of product for pre-
commercial testing.
Several pilot scale research facilities exist around the world for the production of
ethanol in a biorefinery. Most pilot and demonstration facilities are focussed on a
particular process technology, with only a few facilities capable of demonstrating a
broader range of technologies.
The Mackay Renewable Biocommodities Pilot Plant (MRBPP) was funded jointly by
the Queensland Government through a $3.1 million loan agreement and by the
Australian Government through a $3.4 million grant under the National
Collaborative Research Infrastructure Scheme (NCRIS) and a $1.765 million grant
under the Education Investment Fund (EIF). Further funding of about $1.7 million
was provided by QUT to ensure that the facility meets its objectives and to underpin
the pilot plant as a world class facility.
Funding for the MRBPP was awarded to QUT under NCRIS Capability 5.5
Biotechnology Products. The aim of this program was to “develop research
infrastructure to assist in the production of pre-commercial quantities of
recombinant proteins and biofuels”. A total of $23.5 million of Australian
Government funding was awarded under this capability at 11 sites around Australia.
The overall project value (including other funding sources) totalled $62 million
[202]. NCRIS Capability 5.5 is being managed by AusBiotech Ltd.
The NCRIS funding for the MRBPP facility included $2.85 million for hard
infrastructure (plant and equipment) and an additional $0.6 million for soft
infrastructure (facility labour). Plant and equipment funding under the NCRIS
program includes funding for equipment for the saccharification and fermentation
facilities and for ethanol product purification and concentration. A Mettler Toledo
RCe1 reaction calorimeter with on-line infra-red detection was funded to enable the
development of comprehensive chemical reaction kinetic and thermodynamic
information.
Soft infrastructure funding included salaries for 2 facility employees through to July
2011. The inclusion of the soft infrastructure is a valuable component of the NCRIS
program in ensuring that core skills are developed and maintained in operation of
100
the infrastructure and in ensuring that the access cost is minimised for users of the
facility.
The MRBPP is located at the Mackay Sugar Limited (MSL) Racecourse Mill to the
north-west of the factory boiler station. The facility is built on land leased from MSL
to QUT. Co-location of the facility at the site of a raw sugar factory offers a number
of advantages, with the most significant advantage being the development of the
facility to industrial standards.
Co-location also allowed the facility ready access to large amounts of bagasse and
to utilise essential services from the Racecourse Mill site, reducing the cost of
construction. Services provided by the site include electrical supply, potable and
raw water supply and waste water treatment. The initiative shown by MSL in
supporting the establishment of a long term research facility on-site and in
providing services and personnel support during the design and construction phase
has been invaluable. This support has also ensured that the development of the
facility was undertaken according to industrial standards, including rigorous
consideration of environmental and health and safety requirements.
Separate tenders were issued for the construction of the site infrastructure and the
installation of facility plant and equipment. The tender for the construction of the
site infrastructure was issued in October 2008 and the tender awarded to FK
Gardner and Sons in December 2008. Construction of the MRBPP factory building
commenced in January 2009, and the majority of the site infrastructure including
101
factory building, hazardous chemicals storage, waste capture and storage and truck
loading facilities were completed by July 2009.
The construction of the office, laboratory and amenity areas, which had been
delayed pending the finalisation of costs from the main building contract, was
commenced in July 2009. The office, laboratory and amenity buildings were
supplied as modular buildings from ATCO Structures and Logistics Pty Ltd and
transported to site for installation by FK Gardener & Sons. Practical completion was
achieved on 11th December 2009.
The mechanical installation of plant and equipment commenced in May 2010 and
was undertaken by J&T Mechanical Installation Pty Ltd. Electrical installation of
plant and equipment commenced in September 2010 and was undertaken by MIE
Pty Ltd. Installation of the plant and equipment was completed in November 2010.
Commissioning of the facility was undertaken throughout November and December
2010 and the facility became fully operational in December 2010.
Electrical supply for the facility is fed from a switch room located within Racecourse
Mill which feeds a distribution board located within the MRBPP electrical switch
room. Potable water, raw water and fire water are also provided through a
common services trench from the Racecourse Mill to the MRBPP site. This trench
also returns waste water from the MRBPP site to connect to the mill waste water
treatment system.
Steam for the facility is provided by an on-site LPG steam generator. The steam
generator is a TSG Thermic HPTS30 package water tube boiler capable of providing
470 kg/h steam at a pressure of 27 bar. Compressed air (Champion CSF11 11kW
rotary screw compressor with a capacity of 31 L/s at 7.8 bar) and chilled water are
also provided from on-site units located within the services room of the MRBPP. A
102
control room inside the MRBPP contains the PLC and operator interface stations.
Other services for the facility are either produced on-site or supplied under a supply
of services agreement with Mackay Sugar Ltd.
The facility has designated storage areas for both Class 3 and Class 8 hazardous
goods. The site contains a first flush waste water collection system and a dedicated
truck unloading area with spill containment. Waste water is able to collected and
stored in on-site storage tanks for collection and off-site disposal if required. Solid
wastes are also collected for off-site disposal.
Plant and equipment for the MRBPP facility has been selected to simulate a range
of processes typical of biochemical biorefineries and in particular to demonstrate
the processes required for soda based pretreatments and lignin recovery processes.
A typical biorefinery process is shown in Figure 8.1, in which the major products are
ethanol and lignin.
One of the major considerations in the conceptual design and selection of plant and
equipment for the facility was the need to provide sufficient flexibility to
103
The requirement for flexible processing options and multiple product options
presented challenges in designing a fully integrated process. In particular, the
requirement to be able to undertake a variety of pretreatment processing options
required a novel approach to the design of the pretreatment reactor, as it was
clearly identified that no reactors were currently available on the market with the
capabilities required of the facility.
Results from the uncertainty assessment in the systems analysis and the analysis of
soda-based biorefinery processes clearly identified that the major focus of pilot
scale work needed to be in the areas of pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis and
fermentation. The high energy costs identified in the soda-based biorefinery
assessment highlighted the requirement for high solids concentration processing of
biomass and the need for minimal energy input in mechanical biomass size
reduction prior to pretreatment.
The biomass storage, preparation and weighing systems were constructed by Paxon
Packaging Pty Ltd from Melbourne. The integrated feeding system includes a feed
hopper, clump breaker to loosen large clumps of bagasse, vibrating table and sieve
tray for separating pith and ash if required, conveyor and linear weighing machine.
104
The main pretreatment reactor for the facility was constructed by Andritz Inc in
Glens Falls, NY. The batch pretreatment reactor is constructed mostly from
corrosion resistant Hastelloy C-2000 enabling simulation of many of the leading
pretreatment technologies with up to 25 kg of fibre per batch. The pretreatment
reactor consists of a horizontal pre-hydrolysis reactor with an integrated hydraulic
ram, vertical reactor for steam explosion, blow tank for collecting solid material
expelled from the reactor and a hydrolysate collection vessel. Chemicals and wash
water for the reactor are fed from two purpose built tanks constructed by TSG
Thermic.
- Steriliser; and
The continuous packed bed distillation column was also purchased second hand and
was a Davy McKee design.
A Mettler Toledo RCe1 reaction calorimeter with an integrated infra-red probe was
purchased for use in process development from Mettler Toledo Australia. While an
105
asset of the MRBPP facility, this item is permanently housed at the QUT Gardens
Point Campus in Brisbane.
The control system is a Schneider Electric Modicon TSX Micro PLC processor.
Supervisory control and data acquisition is undertaken using Citect software.
One of the key co-products from the biorefinery is lignin. The economic assessment
of the soda-based biorefinery process highlighted the necessity of producing a
valuable product from the lignin component of the fibre in developing an
economically feasible process. As a result, the extraction, recovery and purification
of lignin became a key focus of the pilot plant design.
The pilot plant includes equipment for both the delignification of biomass
(pretreatment) and the subsequent recovery of lignin from chemical solvents. The
purified lignin can be manufactured and dried in significant quantities to enable
product development and testing and this work aims to reduce the uncertainty in
the future marketability and market value of soda-lignin.
The MRBPP is valuable research and development infrastructure for both the
Australian research community, future biomass-based industries and in particular
the Australian sugar industry. This facility provides unique subsidised infrastructure
106
The infrastructure will provide even greater value over time as it evolves to meet
the product diversification challenges of the next decade. This evolution will be
essential if the facility is to remain relevant to future research challenges. It is
expected that the MRBPP will have sufficient flexibility to undertake pilot trials on
fermentation technologies based on sugar, molasses and bioethanol process
streams to manufacture organic acids and other products.
It is envisaged that the MRBPP will in the future need to incorporate additional
technologies, including thermochemical processing technologies such as gasification
and pyrolysis including downstream catalytic processing. This will assist in ensuring
that the MRBPP remains at the forefront of bioenergy research and one of the
leading tools for facilitating the introduction of new products into Australian
industries.
107
Discussion
109
Chapter 9
Discussion
9.1 Introduction
This section reviews the achievement of the research objectives outlined for this
research project in Chapter 1.
Chapter 3 reviews the leading pretreatment technologies and the scientific work
that has been undertaken globally on sugarcane bagasse pretreatment. The
choice of pretreatment technology is the critical determinant of the style of
facility and determines many of the other technological requirements of the
facility. Chapter 6 analyses the technical and economic feasibility of a soda-based
biorefinery in Australia, producing ethanol and lignin in an integrated facility.
Chapter 7 analyses the economic feasibility of a leading but early stage
technology for reducing the cost of cellulase enzymes through the expression of
cellulase in sugarcane.
These chapters highlight the potential feasibility of this technology and the
conditions under which the technology becomes commercially viable, providing
recommendations relating to the choice of technology for managing project risk.
These chapters identify that ethanol from sugarcane has the potential to
contribute significantly to the transport fuel mix in Australia and that both
cogenerated electricity and ethanol production are complementary products
from integrated facilities. Technology choices that minimise overall energy use
are critical in maximising revenue and minimising process costs.
Chapter 8 relates the details of the design and construction of the Mackay
Renewable Biocommodities Pilot Plant (MRBPP) through to the commencement
of facility commissioning. The process design of this facility, undertaken by the
author and supported by the work of this research program is a key outcome of
this research program and provides an on-going contribution to the further
research, development and techno-economic assessment of this important
technology in Australia.
The construction of the MRBPP has been widely anticipated across the sugar
industry and the author has spoken to many conferences and groups within the
industry about the facility. This engagement has provoked considerable interest
and engagement in cellulosic ethanol technologies across the industry and
further reporting will occur as the MRBPP facility commences operations and
generates research outcomes.
The following recommendations are made for future work in understanding and
promoting the establishment of a viable cellulosic ethanol industry in Australia.
4. Explore the business case for modified sugar milling operations for
integrated ethanol facilities from sugarcane juice and bagasse;
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Appendices
145
APPENDIX A
The supplementary data for Chapter 6 is not available in this version of the
thesis.
147
APPENDIX B
Site infrastructure
The infrastructure for the MRBPP site consists of a three story factory building,
office and laboratory. To the west of the factory building is an outdoor pad
consisting of truck unloading area, Class 3 and Class 8 chemical storage facility, LPG
storage tank and waste water storage tanks.
Appendix Figure B.1 contains a photographic record of the construction of the site
infrastructure.
A Construction signage
B Preparation and levelling of site
C Laying of building foundations
D Concrete base of factory building
E Concrete base of factory building looking west toward Racecourse Mill
F Installation of block work for fermentation room and services rooms
G Framing for the concrete slab and factory building
H Pouring of the concrete slab
I Installation of the ATCO modular laboratory and office buildings
J Factory building looking toward the Racecourse Mill bagasse stockpile
K Factory building looking north-west
L Site photo looking east
M Internal photo of factory building (west)
N Internal photo of factory building (north)
O Top floor of factory building
P Office area during construction
Q Laboratory area during construction
R Completed exterior of factory building
S Site photo looking west
T Site photo looking east toward Racecourse Mill
150
A B
C D
E F
G H
151
I J
K L
M N
152
O P
Q R
S T
The first stage of plant and equipment in the facility includes a biomass feeding and
weighing system supplied by Paxon Packaging Pty Ltd, a two-stage pretreatment
reactor supplied by Andritz Inc and chemical and wash water tanks supplied by
Thermic TSG.
Appendix Figure B.2 contains a photographic record of the plant and equipment
installed in the biomass feeding and pretreatment stages of the MRBPP facility.
C
B
D E
F G
A B
C D
E F
157
G H
I J
K L
158
Appendix Figure B.3 Photographic record of the plant and equipment installed in
the MRBPP facility
159
The official opening of the MRBPP facility was held on the 9th July 2010. The facility
was opened by The Hon Anna Bligh MP, Premier of Queensland and Minister for the
Arts and Senator Kim Carr MP, Minister for Innovation, Industry, Science and
Research and supported by The Hon Tim Mulherin MP, Minister for Primary
Industries, Fisheries and Rural and Regional Queensland and Member for Mackay.
A Opening ceremony
B Mr Andrew Cappello, Chairman, Mackay Sugar Ltd
C The Hon Anna Bligh MP
D Official party with the opening plaque (l – r) – Professor Peter Coaldrake,
Senator Kim Carr MP, The Hon Anna Bligh MP, Distinguished Professor James
Dale, Mr Andrew Cappello
E Senator Kim Carr MP, The Hon Anna Bligh MP and the author during the
official tour of the MRBPP facility
F The Hon Anna Bligh MP, Distinguished Professor James Dale, Senator Kim
Carr MP and the author in front of the Andritz pretreatment reactor during
the official tour of the facility
G Dr William Doherty discusses biorefinery value added products with guests
at the opening
H The MRBPP opening official plaque
160
A B
C D
E F
G H
Appendix Figure B.4 Photographic record of the opening of the MRBPP facility
161
Image credits
Photographs used in this appendix were provided by the author, Erika Fish, Jan
Zhang, Bernard Milford, John Bankie, Barry George, Heng-Ho Wong and Peter
Albertson.