Building Construction oe seeenennnaareecnnenennnnmnemeenenietenmnenn 434 FOUNDATION ‘The lowest part of a structure which transmits the weight ofthe structure together with live loads, seismic and find pressure to the ground surface on which the structure fests, ensuring its safe bearing capacity, is called foundation, Mp increase the stability of the structure, foundations are generally placed below the ground level, 32 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATIONS Following are the main functions of foundations : 1, To transmit and distribute the total load of the struc- ture to a larger area of underlying support. 2, To prevent differential settlement of the structure, 83, To provide stability to the structure. 33TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS ‘The following are the main types of foundations : 1.Spread Foundation. The total load of the structure ‘ransmitted to the base of the structure is spread over a large area by a spread foundation. The width of the wall is constructed thicker at the base in a stepped fashion. 2.Pile Foundation. A pile isa long vertical load trans fering member composed of either timber, steel or concrete. Inpile foundation, a number of piles are driven in the base of ‘the structure. The piles are of two types i.e. (i) Friction pile; (i) End bearing pile. ( Friction pile. The pile which supports the structure ‘bad due to friction between the pile and surrounding soil, is n as friction pile, sng i) E84 bearing pile. The pile whose lower end rests ‘hard rock, is called end bearing pile. @ ot top of various piles are connected by reinforced a | distribute the lad uniformly to the underlying soi File foundations are specially suitable in water-logged, @ or in compressible soil or on steep slopes. & Pier foundation. In this type of foundation, hollow te tha als ate unk up to the hard bed. Hollow portions Snot filled up with inert material such as sand or Tean (2. | secret foundations are specially suitable for heavy struc @ | Mdatreg’® Avovers in sandy soil or soft soil overlying hard. Teasonable depth, @ | Mrvees of 1 Wain SPREAD FOUNDATIONS (FIG. 3.1, 3.2) ey - Wall foot hed, Sn es. Wall footings may be either simple or We loadg phe fotings are provided for walls which camry Mich eae re gePes foottgs are provided for walle 7 b=30 em—4 7 20 om i 60. om———+ Fig. 3-1. Simple wall footing. 20 em fem ie -———— Wom Fig, 82. Stepped wall footing. ‘The concrete for the footings generally consists of 1: 8 ‘P(1-sino :6or 1:4: 8 mix, ( Minimum depth of footings. 2 wi ( + er where P= safe bearing capacity of soil in roman kelm?, W= unit weight of soil in roman kg/m* @ angle of repose of soil in degrees; D= minimum depth of footing in metres. (Width of footing. Width of footing may be computed P According to Rankine’s formula, D by dividing the total load (including live load and wind load) by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil. If B= width of footing in metres; W=load per metre run in kg P= safe bearing capacity of the soil in kg/m? ne. P (ii) Depth of concrete bed. Though c may fail due to crushing, shearing and ae ima generally designed for the maximum. ee ‘bending moment from d=0.775x where, xis an offset of the concrete bed in centimetres, then,ee 9, Isolated footings. (Figs. 3.3 and 3.4) Isolated founda- tions are generally provided under isolated columns to transfer the load of the structure to the soil bed. For brick masonry columns isolated footings are generally provided steps on all the four sides in regular layers with 5 cm offsets. For columns which carry heavy loads, reinforcement is provided in both the directions with 15 om offsets on the sides. 20mm ty column bars 6 mmt strippups_| 12mm tbars Doth ways, Elevation Plan Fig. 8.3. Isolated footing, Te 20mm ‘column bars which is constructed for two or more columns jp combined footing. The shape of a combined fy proportioned that the centre of gravity of the res coincides with the centre of gravity of the coluim ‘The general shape of a combined footin, angular or trapezoidal as shown (Fig. 8.5) 4, Cantilever footings. (ig. 3.6). A cantilever, consists of an eccentric footing for the exterior colar concentric foting forthe interior column and both the na are connected by a strap or a cantilever beam. The las the exterior column is balanced by the interior coluns acting about a fulcrum. The eonnected strap bean ca unequal settlement of the external column, zaternal column] is ca ting tant i loads, 8 i ithe ing (Fig. 3.7). The footing vii} between the piers, is cale!s ise ofthe inverted arches is ab the span. The loads transmits rch footings, are distributed | inverted arch footings are sui! consists of inverted archos inverted arch footing. The ri a ‘one-fifth to one-tenth of = Carre 5 the soil through inverted arch footing __| @larger area and hence, soft soils for bridges, » tanks, etc, Plan Fig. 3.4 Isolated footing. { #1. An inverted are footin, 6. Grillage foundati : re as gs ge foundation, lage foundation. es q | I SOI aee| OIE Elevation Elerion fl | ower see sections | = Plan “a 3.8. A Grillage foundation. Fig. 8.5. Combined footing.ge foundations are used to transfer the heavy struc. E ate from the columns to soils having lbw bearing ty. Grllage foundation is generally constructed with its laced in two tiers. Top tors placed at ight sale he bottom tier. The distance between the flanges sid {1 to 2X the width of the flange or 30 cm whichever i#1°0! ive tiers of R.S.J. are completely embedded in rich ‘s}* to protect the steel from corrosion, "Raft foundations (Fig. 3.9.) The foundation which disofa thick R.C.C. slab covering the whole area in the sf» mat is known as raft foundation. Raft foundation is fr flarge isolated footings are required to support the ere ite required are of footing exceeds half the total Se fthestructure, then araft foundation, is generally used. wg Zy Bg “T WAI rk Fig. 39. Raft foundation. Reft foundations are used for increasing the area of fandstion, to cover soft or loose pockets in the soil and to seutrlise the hydrostatic uplift pressure. & Stepped foundations (Fig. 3.10). The foundation ‘ving its bed in the form of steps of concrete, is known as ‘teped foundation, Such foundations are provided when ‘ural ground has steep slope, to avoid deep excavations. Fig. 3.10. A stepped foundation. #SPILE FOUNDATION 1 used inthe foundations may be classified as under : ‘nadine tits Piles. Bearing piles transfer the superim- 2 rit ‘them to hard strata at considerable depth. oad ‘on piles, Friction piles transfer the superim- “oper et them to the sot soil by the frictional forces MRathercg th round soil and the surface ofthe pile. "Sed iorege Piles. Battered piles are used to resist the tg Sheet pies, sheet op ‘nha Sart Sheet piles consist of thin members of c piles. Under-ream piles are provided x satatteams, to increase the bearing capacity u Ce EARING PILES ast ethan Piles. Cast iron piles are hollow tubes of nt Ths eg 201040 cm and wal thickness "anesthe are inet ‘metres in length and for Material Jnedby.a suitable device. Cast iron } these piles are provided with helical Hiss ea Screws at the lower end and the whole assembly is rotated to drive the pile inside the soil. Piles with helical screws are Benerally known as screw piles. Cast iron piles are suitable for shallow foundations and are suitably employed for the foundations of marine strue- tures, light weight bridges and buoys anchors. 2. Cement conerete piles. These are of the following types A Cast-in-situ piles, These piles are cast with cement conerete at the place where these have to carry superimposed load. For casting the pile, a hole is driven by excavating with an Auger or driving a casing. The hole is then filled up with cement concrete, As these piles are generally driven vertically, no reinforcement is needed. If the casting is left in position, the pile is known as cased cast in-situ concrete pile and if the case is withdrawn, the pile is known as uncased cast-in-situ concrete pile. ‘The uncased cast-in-situ concrete piles are of the fol- lowing types: () Simplex pile (Fig. 8.11). A hollow cylindrical steel casing with one pointed iron shoe attached to its bottom is driven into the ground to the desired depth. Concrete is then poured into the easing pipe for a depth of about one metre and compacted. The casing pipe is lifted up for a distance of one metre. In this way entire length of the hole is filled up with compacted concrete which acts as a pile, G iH Fig. 8.11. Simplex piles. (i Frankie pile (Fig. 8.12). It consists of an enlarged base and corrugated stem, Initially 60 cm to 90 cm bottom portion of the easing pipe is filled with concrete and compacted ‘by dropping a hammer to provide a solid plug at the end. The casing is then driven in by hammering the concrete plug till it reaches the desired depth. Now the casing is lifted to a small distance and the concrete is forced by the hammer blows. Successive layers of concrete are then poured and compacted, and simultaneously the casing is lifted. . 8.12, Franki pile, (ii) Pedestal pile. A concrete pile with a pedestal at the bottom end is known as pedestal pile, The pile may consist of plain cement concrete or reinforced cement concrete, Gv) Pressure pile, A pile which is made by pouring cement concrete inside a casing pipe in layers of 30.¢m, andSSE SS by compressed air, is called a ach layer being compacted fae pile. ‘The casing is gradually lifted. Such piles can reist shocks and vibrations to a greater extent. (0) Vibro pil. A hollow steel tube with a cast iron shoe at ite bottom, is driven into the ground to the desired depth, ‘The casing is filled with fresh cement concrete. The casing is then removed by pulling upward and hammering downward. Such piles are cast with a rapid speed and generally these consist of dense and uniform concrete, (vi) Under-reamed pile. In soils which experience al- ‘ternate swelling and shrinkage due to changes in its moisture content, under-reamed piles are used for transferring heavy loads. Under-reams are provided at distances 1.5 $ apart, vwhere, 4 is the diameter of the bulb, The number of under reams, is decided according to the load the foundations are ‘supposed to carry. B, Cased east-in-situ concrete piles. The cast-in-situ conorete ples in which easing is left in the ground, are ofthe wing types ¢ (@ Raymond pile, In this type of pile: aig temo tee li «cern a collapsible steel mandrel inside it, to a desired depth. The reinforcement cage is inserted into the sheet and cement ee These ples are suitable for lengths (®) Monutube pile. In this type of e e of piles, tapered steel shell without any mandrel is used as casing. It is driven into the ground to desired depth. Reinforcement case is inserted ‘nto the shell and cement conerete is then poured into __ (©Mac-Arthur pile. In such piles heavy steel casing is ‘riven into the ground with acore insideit toa desired depth, he rote pullout ans coud so shel inserted Finally coment. ‘is poured and outer casing sl ane eh tan ds wer enc el casing which is driven into ground toa desired depth. A corrugated steel shell is lowered into the steel casing, The stoel casing is removed and cement concrete is poured into the shell Advantages and disadvantages of eastin-stu concrete piles ‘The following are the advantages ofeastin-sita conereto piles : (@ Less wastage of the material Gi) Saving in reinforcement because extra reinforcement required to withstand stresses of handling and driv. ing, is minimised, (iii) Less curing time is required. (jv) More strength in the absence of hammer blows (@) Saving in transportation of pre-cast piles. ‘The following are few disadvantages of cast-in-situ conerete piles. (@ Noproper compaction. (ii) No proper alignment or reinforcement. (ii) Not suitable for areas flooded with water. Gio) Loss of water from cement concrete in dry sil, whi affects water cement ratio. ara (o) The unreinforced piles generally break due toate ml movement of the soil. 3, Sand piles. In this type of piles, holes are drive, ground to desired depth and sand is filled in the holes «4 piles improve the bearing capacity of the soil If ina sand, gravels are used, the piles are called gravel pile, 44. Timber piles. In this type of pile, piles of hang strong timber pile carries a cast iron shoe and upper ,\ provided with a steel plate to receive hammering stres 1 number of timber piles are used, their tops are provides ,. a concrete cap known as pile cap. ‘i 5.Steel piles. Steel piles may be either H-piles, boxy or circular tube piles. (@) H-piles. These piles are suitably used in hardy driving to desired depth by hammering. These are gensn used in retaining walls, 7 (® Box piles. These piles are generally rectangly square or octagonal in shape. These consist of deep bean which offer adequate frictional resistance and end resistae| (© Circular tube piles. These piles consist of crs steel tubes driven into ground to desired depth. From the pa ended pile, soil is removed and cement concrete is pourei |‘ 6. Wrought iron piles. These piles are generally «ii and circular, having diameter ranging from 80 to 200 ms|_ 0 Their normal length is between 4 to 6 metres. These are pecially suitable as shafts for screw piles. 4 7. Composite piles. These piles are a combination bored pile and a driven pile or of driven piles of two difierd) ise: materials. A combination of timber and cement concrete i generally preferred to. seg ‘3.7 COFFER DAMS ‘The temporary enclosures built in round the wort] be area in water for the purpose of keeping water off from ane Fortec’ dry conditions for construction works.#| tw Coffer dams. are of the following types : ed, 1, Cantilever sheet pile. : 3. a eae ah . Embankment protected _ 4. Double wall coffer dam. a = 1 5. Cellular coffer dam. z 3.8 CAUSES OF FOUNDATION FAILURE Stag A foundation may fail due to following causes : u 1. Unequal sotslement ofthe subsoil ag 2. Unequal settlement of the ‘structure. By 8. Lateral horizontal earth pressure on the structut 1 4. Shrinkage of eub-oi strata due to temperature ™| a ation. 5 5 Escaping of soil from the sub-soil of foundation. i; i Penetration of the roots of trees below founda‘? 3 3.9 BRICK MASONRY {de ‘The arrangement of laying bricks an sn - mortar properly ta frm a une eae ee the superimposed load safely to the foundation, is kno" | 2 brick masonry. 3.10 TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN BRICK MASON” 1. Course, The layer of bricks laid on the same PS] known as a cours, The thickness ofthe curse is La ee actual thickness of the brick plus thickness ofone mort” Aig fas Se 4.ema key with mortar and to reduce the Gpiscalled froz 9, Bed. The bottom surface of the brick when laid fat, a3 bed. ij Stretcher. The side surface of the brick when laid fudinelly and visible in elevation is called as stretcher, ,Header. The end surface of the brick when laid trans- {ely and visible in elevation, is called as header. g,Arrises. The edges formed by the intersection of plane ces ofa brick, are called arrises, 7. Perpends. The vertical joints between bricks either {ptongitudinal or cross-sections, are called perpends. 4 Bats or Closers. The bricks cut to the reduced sizes, apcalled bats or closers. ‘Type of closers. The closers are of two types : {9 Queen closer. The half brick cut-across the width of the standard brick, is called queen closer. |G Ring closer. The brick whose one portion extending ‘bom half width to half length is removed, is called king closer, 9. The quoin. The angle of a wall surface at the corner, ‘scaled quoin. 10. Facing. The exposed surface of a wall or structure, ‘scaled facing, 11. Backing. The internal surface of a wall or structure, ‘scaled backing, 12, Hearting. The portion of the wall or the structure ‘inbetween backing and facing, is called hearting or filling. __.'&-Lap. The horizontal distance between two perpends ‘two successive courses, is called lap. \ Bull nose. The bricks having one or two edges round- “ecaled single Bull nose and double bull nose Att NOMINAL At OF MODULAR Ricks ND ACTUAL SIZES weight of the The normal size 20 x10 x 10 cm; ‘The setual size: 19 x 9 x 9 em. ‘28ND. emg ttEement of bricks in order to tie them together owing » is called bonding. L Stet we the types of bonds ‘pee 2. Header bond oo 4, Single flemish bond 1. Facing eetth bond 6, Garden wall bond 8. Dutch bond 10, Zig-rag bond “ossbond 12. Brick on edge bond Pay All the bricks when laid with their : ont direction of the wall, are said to be eg er Reams for halfbrick walls only. a ¢ bricks when laid with their ‘ee the face ‘the | of the wall, are said to be Taid in aly patible for onebrck wall ony, Ry E SC. Engg. Services Exam. 1988) cilled Engiicnntetaate courses of stretches and i ate, gelish bond. Tn English bonds. a queen der course to stagger the vertical - (ig. 8.13), 9. Frog. The depression provided on the face ofthe brick Fig. 3.13. An English bond 4, Single Flemish bond. The bond in which headers and stretchers are laid alternately in the same course, is called Single Flemish bond (Fig. 3.14), Fig. 3.14 Flemish bond In this type of bond, the facing of the wall consists of fiemish bond and the filling as well as backing consists of English bond in each course. 5, Double Flemish bond. In this type of bonds, both the facing and backing of the structure consists of Flemish bonds, and the filling consists of either stretchers of headers. 6. Garden wall bond. These bonds may be either English garden wall bond or flemish garden wall bond, (@ English garden wall bond. Tt consists of one course of headers to three to five courses of stretchers. For staggering the vertical joints, a queen closer is Iaid next to the queen header of header course and the middle course of stretchers, is started with a header. (i) Flemish garden wall bond. It consists of courses in which one header and three to five stretchers are laid, 2 4 bats are laid in every alternate course next to quoin header. 3.12.1 Comparison between English Bond and flemish Bond (UPS.C. Engg. Services Exam., 1979; 1983) English bond Flemish bond 1, Headers and stretchers are | 1. Headers and stretchers aro laid in alternate courses. __| laid alternately in each course, 2, Strongest of the type of | 9. Comparatively less strong for bonds, walls more than 30 em thiek,B, Provides good appearance. 3, Provides rough appearance. “4. Partly continuous vertical joints appear in the structure. “4 Absence of vertical joints in the structure G. Special attention is not re-| 5. Special attention is required guired for this bond. for bond. 6. Progress of work is more. | 6, Progress of work is less. 7, Economical, as brick bats 7. Costly, no brick bats are| 7 used. are used, 3.13 BRICK COPINGS ‘These are provided on the top of garden walls, boundary walls and parapets to protect them from rain water. 3.14 BRICK CORBELS ‘The projecting bricks from a wall constructed to support beams, trusses, ete. are called brick corbels. ‘The maximum. projection of the corbel, is limited to thickness of the wall. 3.15 THICKNESS OF THE BRICK WALLS If, T = roman thicknoss of the wall man length of the wall roman weight on the wall man allowable compressive strength Ww PxL 3.16 STONE MASONRY. ‘Then, 7: BRICK MASONRY. Stone Masonry, Brick Masonry 1, Bricks are artificial material ‘manufactured by moulding and bringing in the form of| T, Stones are natural mal obtained from quarries, rectangular blocks. 2, Dressing of stones is re-| 2: Dressing of bricks is not quired, required. 3, Bonding is not good but | 3, Bondingis good butstrength strength is more is less. 7, Skilled labour and care 4 Less skilled labourandecare z required. required. a G. Difficulty im lifting and] 5. Convenient in lifting and) laying. Tying. @. For desited strength com paratively weak and less quan- tity of mortar needed. @, For desired strength rich and more quantity of mortar needed. 7, Mortar joints are seldom eats continuous. and continuous. @. Plastering ofstone masonry is not done. @. Plastering of brick masonry is done on inside faces. nce. to fire and simple appearance. fire and good appearance. To Thies can be ves toider = heap and eno fo oh Het ornmental orks [io- Thickness to be more than asem., Fin, Cost and diteul to eon-| struct ornamental works 3.18 TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN STONE Maggy, ‘The following terms are generally used in stone m,, 1. Natural bed of a stone. The original surface," by a stone during its formation, is called natural beds." are placed in a structure so that superimposed load ac, pendicular to the natural bed of stones. my 2, Bedding plane. The plane along which «soy, be separated easily, is called bedding plane. Stones a in a structure so that load acts perpendicular to their plane. 3, String course. The course of stone masonry pig at floor level and roof level projecting horizontally outs wall of a building, is called string course. 4, Cornice. The course of a masonry provided et ci level of the roof projecting outside the surface of the wal building, is called cornice, It is provided to throw rain» away from the wall and also to add architectural appear) 5, Throating. A small groove cut on the under st ‘a projecting chhaijja, comnice, coping, to discharge rain wx ‘without trickling to walls, is called throating. 6. Reveals. The exposed vertical surfaces perpentii to window or door frame, are called reveals. 7. Drip stone. A projecting dressed stone having its surface throated, is called drip stone. 3.19 CLASSIFICATION OF STONE MASONRY Stone masonry may be either rubble masonry or masonry, 1. Rubble Masonry Fi 15). oe 11 5 24 Fig. 3.15 Rubble masonry. 3, - ‘The stone masonry in which roughly dressed of! cA dressed stones are laid in a suitable mortar, is called rv 41) Db Rubble masonry may further be divided into three! oat) types: al (9 Caco random rable masonry. 4 (i) Coursed random rubble masonry. (it) Dry rubble masonry. i a (@Uncoursed random rubble masonry. Them age in which stone blocks not properly dressed are used as o a gt from the quarry, is called uncoursed random rubble Qu In this type, vertical joints are not constructed in pus to, fle (ii) Coursed random rubble masonry. The ™**yf ta in which 5 to 20 em sized stones of equal height are 0 Ty, Bag every cours, i called coursed random rubble mas0™ The (ii Dry rubble masonry, The structure mad! fg 1a, Pag} stones laid in diferent courses, without any mori. “ we dry rubble masonry. | a, 2, Ashlar masonry (Fig, 316), The stone 20% the wich properly cut in uniform size and dressed with ia a ac laid with a mortar of uniform tiekDee 48, Bout ‘ashlar masonvy. he,ig- 3.16 Ashlar masonry ‘Ashlar masonry is further classified as under : ()Ashlar fine. In this type of stone masonry, the stone locks are finely chisel-dressed and their faces are made lly true in shape. In construction, proper bonds are pro. Pied and joints are kept less than 3 mm. The face stones are iylaidas headers and stretchers in alternate courses, Me height of stones used in masonry should never be less than their breadth. (i Ashlar rock or quarry faced, In this type of stone susonry, the exposed faces of facing stones, are used as ob. ‘sind from the quarry, Ifthe stone projection is more than 8 nit is hammered to provide a rough surface. (i Asblar chamferred. It is similar to the quarry {ued masonry with a difference that edges round the exposed faces ofeach stone, are levelled at an angle of 45° for a depth 25m. (id) Ashlar facing. In this type, the exposed face is easructed with stone masonry and backing is constructed ia brick masonry, rubble masonry or conerete masonry. The ‘eckingand facing are constructed simultaneously. The com- Priteconstruction reduces the expenditure to a great extent. ‘20GENERAL PRINCIPLE FOR SUPERVISION OF STONE MASONRY ae Bo Thefollowing are the general principles of supervision : 1 The stone used in masonry should be durable and 2 All stones should be well-watered before laying, to 2 tpitsbtorption of moisture from mortar. { Teetaues should be properly dressed. Stones should be laid on their natural bed so that 5 Tenure ets normal to their bed. sifferent sized stones should be placed so that 8. The easy St¥ertical joints, is broken in the structure. bond with aie besa faces should make proper a o irleht of stones should never be greater than qnitimum horizontal dimension. gave chips should never be tised in bed joint buld be laid as stretcher and header in 1a [gaat courses, ‘der tomes sed as No tye gtd of be ing Cf beams, girders et. ig Red with sorte masonry should be properly a : uy ips to avoid hollows, ig rena ittee of od structure must be cleaned Trejonnte fresh mortar, 4, Beep ee ‘Surface should be raked at least 2.5 1, Double afford With rich coment mortar. ti masons should be used, 2103 weet, ds it should be cured for a period a 8 bed plates should be provided sees ea z 3.21 PURPOSE OF PLASTERING The plastering of building parts ided fe - 5 ring of building parts is provided for the fol lowing purposes ap 1. To provide an even, smooth and durable finished surface ‘To improve the appearance of building. To protect the surface from the effects of weathering agents i.e. water, temperature, ete. ‘To conceal the defective workmanship and inferior quality of materials used in construction. ‘Toprovide a smooth base for colour washing, painting or distempering ‘To protect the internal surfaces against dust, dirt and vermin nuisance. To protect porous materials and faulty joints. ‘Toprovide satisfactory insulation against sand and fire. 3.22 TYPES OF PLASTER Following are the types of plaster 1, Lime plaster. Lime mortar contains equal volume of lime and sand. The mixture is finely ground in @ mortar mill 2. Cement plaster. Cement mortar contains one part of cement and 3 to 4 parts of clean, coarse and angular sand. ‘The mixture is thoroughly mixed in dry conditions on a wa- ter-tight platform. 8. Stuceo plaster. Stucco plaster is a decorative type of plaster with elegant finish like that of marble. 4: Water proof plaster. It consists of one part of cement two parts of sand and pulverised alum 12 kg per cubic metre of sand. Water containing 75 g of soft soap per litre is used for preparing the mortar. 5. Plaster on lath. Lath is used as a base to the plaster 2. 3, 7 8 work. 3.23 DEFECTS IN PLASTERING Defects in plastering are : 1. Cracks, 8. Blistering, 3.24 POINTING ‘The process of finishing the mortar joints with separate ‘material in bricks or stone masonry, is called pointing. It is provided to protect the joints from rain water, and also to impart better appearance to the exposed surface. ‘The following are the types of pointings : 1. Flush pointing. 2. Recessed pointing. 8, Struck pointing. 4, Tuck pointing. 5, Keyed, grooved or rubbed pointing, 6, V-groove pointing. 7, Weathered pointing, 8, Beaded pointing, 3.25 CAVITY WALLS ‘The wall consisting of two separate walls space in between, is called a cavity wall. ‘The advantages of cavity walls are : 1. Prevention of dampness, 2. Eflorescence, 4, Falling off. with a hollow 2. Heat insulation.3, Sound insulation 44. Economy in construction cost. 3.26 CAUSES OF DAMPNESS ‘The main causes of dampness in the buildings are: 1. Orientation of the building. 2, Rain water. 3, Exposed tops of the walls. 4, Rise of ground water table. 5. Condensation. 6. Poor drainage 7. Bad workmanship. 3.27 MATERIALS USED FOR DAMP-PROOFING ‘The following materials are generally used for damp-proof- ing: 1. Bitumen 2, Mastic asphalt 8, Bituminous felt 4. Mortar 5. Cement concrete 6. Stones 7. Metal sheets, 3.28 ARCHES ‘The various parts of an arch are shown in Fig. 3.17, Abutment Fig. 8.17. Parts of an arch 1, Abutment. The part of the wall on which the arch rests, is called abutment. 2, Span. The clear horizontal distance between two supports of an arch, is called span. 3. Intrados. The inner curved surface of the arch,is called intrados. 4, Extrados. The external curved surface of the arch, ig ealled extrados. '5, Crown. The highest point of the extrados, is called own . 6, Rise. The vertical distance between the highest point on tne inteadoa andthe springing lines called arise 1 -Soringing point. The point of intersection of the Fe oertokew back, is called springing pont a soirs. Wedge shaped masonry forming the arch fs, Voussol rolled rr ghet central wig shaped money Jed ey stone used nthe ar aapendiular distance Iseween the pth The perpen een Uo icaled depth of he ach 11, Spandril. The triangular space between the the arch ring i., the space between the tangent atthe .§ and the extrados, is called spandri " 12, Haunch. The bottom half portion ofthe arch by, the skew back and the crown, is called haunch. 13, Skew back. The splayed surface ofthe abutmen which the end of the arch rests, is called skew back 3.29 LINTELS ‘The horizontal structural member spanning an o, to support the load of the structure coming over it, is cls a lintel. ‘The following types of lintels are in common use, 1, Wooden lintel. A sound and hard timber plank used to span over the opening and over the wooden lin masonry is constructed, 2. Brick lintel. Brick lintels are used for openings y to one metre spans. 3, Stone lintel. A single piece of stone is used over tte opening. 3.30 CLASSIFICATION OF DOORS ACCORDING TO THER | MOVEMENTS ‘The doors may be classified according to their moves! as under th Swinging doors. This type of door may be sinsi swinging or double swinging. sted ReVel¥ine doors. This type of door is centrally 4. Rolling shutter doors. olling shutte This type of door may rolled easily whenever required, ° 400". __ 5. Folding doors. Ths typeof door jn used to over large opening” 6, Collapsible doors. This eeralle slong: channels fixed at the top. a. % es 3:31 CLASSIFICATION CONSTRUCTION ‘The doors may be classified asunder: 1. Ledged doors, A ledged door is made up of timbe! sds ante no A nie er tn tn stn yh ee OF DOORS BASED ON THEA 3, Framed and nnelled door ‘ tae ofa frame work in which oasolo use eee eae 4, Glazed or sash doors. This ia made cine or part ese dor t. Latwceg ae aa Be iene i my bepress wk ine soap ape ae lat 7. Revolving doors "This type of door is made of 20!" supporting shaft and four radiating shutters are ateacbed®TYPES OF FLOORS ‘The commonly used floors are : Basement or ground timber floors. This consists of cnber of dwarf walls constructed 1.5 m apart over which $oyerfoot is supported. Under the timber, sand is filled over af cement concrete. These are suitable for theatres, 9, Biller joist floor. This consists of small sections of ste! joists encased in the concrete. The joists are sup- don walls or on beams. 3, Jackarch floor. This consists of bricks or concrete ‘which are supported on arches provided between the jeer fiange ofrolled steel joists, placed 1.5 m apart. The rise fis arch is generally Kept 1/12 of the span, ‘4, Double flag stone floor. This consists of steel beams od 3 m apart and joists are placed over beams at right thges. Flag stones are placed on the lower flanges and also trapper flanges. The empty space between flag stones is filed with sand, 5, R.C.C. floor. Reinforced cement concrete slab is used in RCC. floor, thickness being guided by the superimposed lads on span and the concrete mix. 6, Flat slab floor. This type of floor consists of flat slab ‘vhich is directly supported on the columns without any in- ‘termediate beam. 1. Hollow tiled ribbed floor. This type of floor is made ‘hollow tiled ribbed floor for reducing the weight. It is suit- ‘he for fre proofing and damp proofing. ASSREQUIREMENTS OF GOOD STAIRS ‘Asood stair should provide an easy, quick and safe mode ‘conmunication between the various floors of the building. 332 ® ‘ t requirements of good stairs are Pe, |. Location. It should preferably be located centrally, Sufficient light and ventilation. pee of stair. The width of stairs for public buildings a wee ‘m and for residential buildings 0.9 m. ‘venaantth: The fight of the stairs should be restricted rs 12 and minimum of 3 steps. fate by nhaoe tait-The pitch of long stairs should be made Mand 3 i landings. The slope should not exceed 3. Heat at be less than 25°, the ee ‘The distance between the tread and Men 2 45, tht immediately above it, should not be less st Ps. atee later . oot P eee Fire resisting materials should be used. 7 ‘ustrades, jc AlLopen well stairs should be provided or Ds Shan 8 av0id accidents a eh a sridth ofthe landing should not be less le st f tua. Winders, i » “nay pepe tete should be avoided and,if found nec- ‘be provig 4, Step mond at lower end of the flight. ee ald he eth oe The Fatio of the going and the rise Page ‘Stair way, PoTtioned to ensure a comfortable ingen Tra t™itical rules may be followed : : nc ¥ 2 (rise in em) = 60 ise inem) = 400 ‘to 410 Appx. *8 : tread 30 cm, rise 14 cm. Generally adopted sizes of steps are : (@) Public buildings: (27 em x 16 em) to (30 x 14 em) (®) Residential buildings: 25 om x 16 em. 3.34 TYPES OF STAIRS The stairs may be of the following types 1. Straight flight stairs. This type of stair consists of single flight with or without landings in between. 2. Quarter turn stairs. This type of stairs is provided 90° turn by introducing a quarter space landing or winders at the junction, 3. Half turn stairs. The stairs which change their di- rection through 180° are called half turn stairs. These may be further divided into two types : (® Dog-legged stairs. It consists of two straight flights of steps with an abrupt turn between them. Usually, a level landing is placed across the two flights at the changes of direction. This type of stairs are useful where width of the stair case is sufficient to accommodate two widths of stairs. (ii) Open-newel stairs. It consists of two or more straight flights arranged in such a manner that a clear space, called, ‘a well’, is provided between the backward and the forward flights. If the size of stairs case does not permit to accommodate the number of stairs in two flights, without ‘exceeding the permissible maximum limit of steps in each ‘light, a short flight consisting of 8 to 5 steps may be provided along the width of the stair case. Quarter landing spaces are provided at each end of the short flight. 4, Geometrical stairs. This type of stairs is similar to the open-newel stair with the difference that the open well between the forward and the backward flight is curved. In such stairs the change in direction is obtained by providing winders. Better skill is needed to construct geometrical stairs. ‘These are weaker than open newel stairs. 6, Bifurcating stairs. This type of stair consists of a wide flight at the start and is divided into two narrow fights at the midlanding, The two narrow flights begin from either side of the mid-landing, 6. Circular or spiral stairs. This type of stair consists of steps radiating from a newel post, in the form of winders. 3.35 IMPORTANT TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN STAIRS 1, Stringers. The sloping wooden members which are provided to support the ends of steps, are called stringers. For stairs of average width, two stringers are provided one adjacent to the wall and other outside. For wider stains, an additional stringer may be provided in the middle. 2, Baluster. The wooden, metal or masonry vertical member which is provided to support a hand rail, is called a baluster. 3. Hand rail. The wooden or metallic rail, generally provided on the side of stairs at about waist height, to help the users, is called hand rail. 4, Balustrade. The combined frame work of hand-rail and balusters, provided to perform the function of a fence for the users, is called balustrade. 5, Winders. The angular or radiating steps whi, provided for changing the direction of a stain, are cei winders.a 6. Head room, The minimum clear distance of 2.14 m between the tread and soffit of the flight immediately above it, is called head room. 7. Nosing. The outer projection of a tread, is known as nosing. 8. Newel post. The vertical member placed at the ends. of flights to join the ends of stringers and hand roils, is called newel post. 9. Tread. The horizontal upper part of a step which is used to rest the foot while ascending or descending the stairs, is called tread, 10. Rise. The vertical distance between the surfaces of two consecutive steps, is called rise. 11. Pitch, The angle of inclination of the flight of the stair, with the floor, is called the pitch. 12. Scotia, The moulding provided under nosing to beautify the elevation of the step, is called scotia, 18. Soffit. The under surface of a stair, is called soffit 3.36 SHORING ‘The arrangement employed to prevent a damaged struc- ture due to either foundation settlement or other reasons from collapse, is called shoring, It is also used for providing ‘Yemporary support to a structure which is being remodelled ‘The shores are of three types : 1. Racking shore: walls of| employed to § demolishing th a 3. Vertical or dead sht support walls temporarily are called Vertical or dead 3.37 UNDER PINNING ‘The operation of providing new is known as under pinning. ‘The under pinning may be done by the following mothods, 1. Pit under pinning. In this method a pit is dug to expose the foundation to be remodelled, the old foundation is either removed completely or strengthened suitably. 2. Pier under pinning. In this method of inder-pinning, piers under foundations of structures, ae installed, filled with ETS a EE at method is most suitable in dry ground. In pier under pinning, proper care must be taken to prevent loss of ground installing the sheeting, otherwise the building structure may sink, The Teast size of the under pinning pits to provide working place, for workers is 1m x 1.3 m. The pits are sunk to a stratum strong enough to support the desired load. as 3. Pile under pinning, In this method, pls are jack into the ground with ease for under pinning building where ‘underlying ground has water bearing strata “3,38 SCAFFOLDING : eee “Tho temporary erection provided to support a numberof “platforms at different levels for the conve is called scaffolding. s ‘The commonly used scaffolds are : Permanent foundation, are connected together by ledgers, the horizontal men every 1.3 to 1.6 m. The ledgers carry put logs, transverse my at right angles to the walls, to support the working 2. Double scaffold. In this type double scafy provided with ledgers and braces, one close to the waa the other at a distance of 1.5 m from the first, bs 8, Cantilever seaffold, In this type, the seat cantilevered and supported by a number of needle are provided at floor level or through holes made in th, 7 ji Suspended scaffold. This type of scaffold nia yer light. consists ofa working platform suspended fre roof with the help of ropes, chains or wires. This may Dera or lowered according to the working area. 5. Trestle scaffold. This type of scaffold consi. ladder or tripod carrying a working platform on its op 6. Steel scaffold. The scaffold in which sted pps is ld. Phese can be erected reply are less deterioted. 3.39 PURPOSES OF PLASTERING Plastering is done for the following purposes (® Toprovide an even, smooth clean, regular and dur finished surface, (i) To conseal the defective worksmanship, Gi) To protect the surface from the effects of wath agents, (We) To cover the inferior quality of the materials us the construction, (©) To protect the surface against dust, dirt and veri uissance in case of internal plastering. ‘Toprovide a smooth base for decorative surface fn REQUIREMENTS OF AN IDEAL PLASTER “ ied following are the essential requirements of ani ( It should adhere firmly to the surface, ( Te should not experience any change it volume» ___ drying and setting. (ii) Te should resist the effets of wheathering agents Gv) It should offer good resistance against fis (©) Itshould provide smooth, washable and nov abso surface, (i) Te should provide a surface of good decorative I 3.41 LIME PLASTERING A fine paste or mortar made by mixing fat lime and! with sufficient quantity of water is called lime plaster: ‘The proportioning of the ingredients of a lime pt is adopted according to the number of coats to be appl detailed below : For one coat of sand, For two coat plaster. First sat containing 1 lime and 14. 102 part ofsand, For second coat 2 part 1 plaster. 1partoflime and 13 027 and one part of sand. et, For three coat plaster. For frst coat contain sit of lime and 1% to2 parts of sand, For second cost" i 1 members ingle scaffolding. It consist of vertical “firmly fixed in round at 2.6m to 8.0m apart. Those standardsepesolime and one part of sand. For third coat 4 parts of fp ire of sand. STEPS OF PLASTERING { Preparation of the surface. Before applying the ta, the joints of the masonry are properly raked to a Heth 10 to 151m to provide proper key to the plaster. The tories then thoroughly wetted with water to wach wen ai gept wet fr 6 hours before plastering. On the prepared joe plaster is then applied, sat reed work for plaster. In order to obtain uniform pnts and true surface of plaster, wooden screeds 7.5 om ime and of the required thickness of the plaster are fixed iy25 m to 3 m apart, using a plumb bob. Wi Application of different coats : First coat of plaster. Between the screeds, ime plaster jsdashed against the wall surface with the help of a trowel tolpressed well nto the joints, The average thickness of the tcatis kept 10 to 12 mm. This coat is applied to fil all the ‘eemlarities ofthe surface. The first coat is left to dry for 3 ‘p days before applying the second coat, Second coat of plaster. After 3 to 4 days of application cite fist coat, the second coat is applied, Before applying tisoat the surface of the first coat is washed and scratched ovenith the edge ofa trowel. The lime plaster of second coat isthin pressed against the wall surface with the help of a ‘tel and rubbed with a straight edge. The average thickness «tks nt varies from 5 mm to 8 mm, ‘Third coat of plaster. The plaster of third coat usually ‘nuit of fat lime which is called lime putty. It is evenly ap- elon the surface ofthe second coat and rubbed first with a ‘halen foat and finally with a steel float to obtain a polished Tuts The thickness of the third coat varie from 3to5mm. Teita fitihed surface is allowed to dry for two days and cared for 7010 days, FINCTIONS OF SAND IN MORTAR AND CONCRETE ceron’ lt functions of sand in concrete and mortar are 4a Uti . 2 1 gw the lowing property of mortar and concrete ott Teste aa ny of concrete with same ve PCa git the shrinkage in the binding material. sets an adultrant to make the mortar and Sie gnet economical. wD att Wide of cores agerogates in concrete ia Tanpie pte © harden by making it porous We | Mig 1, ab tea consecutive courses ofa Te junction : uefa ona wall and a 1 brick cross wall of & Use English bond, ation, yg (UPC. Civil Servi : on tig, 9 AP'S: Cie Services Exam. 1986) Bonding rick rick 3.44 NORMAL TIC EFFECT For obtaining normal S REQUIREMENTS FOR OPTIMUM ACOUS- 6 optimum acoustic effect, the following requirements are required : 1. Undesirable sound originating from either inside or outside of the auditorium should be reduced to such an extent that these do not interfere with the hearing of music or speech by the audience. . The initial sound should be amplified to adequate intensity so that it can be heared throughout the auditorium. ‘The sound should be evenly distributed over the entire area covered by the audience. In the auditorium, the initial sound should reach the audience with the same frequency and intensity. 3.45 REVERBERATION TIME Prolongation of the sound after the source ceases, is called reverberation. The time required for a sound to decrease to one millionth of its original intensity after stopping the source, is called reverberation time. Sabine’s formula for reverberation time. According to Sabine's formula, 7= 226V where 1'= reverberation time in seconds lume of the hall in m? roman total sound absorption = a, 8, + a» ¢, + a4 83 being coefficients of sound absorption of respective surfaces a3, dy dy n- dy 3.46 TYPICAL TRUSSES USED IN PUBLIC PLACES. (@ Bow string truss; (i) Vaulted ceiling truss. (iii) Arched truss, (@ Bow string truss (Fig. 3.19) ML, Fig. 8.19. Bow string truss, (i) Vaulted ceiling truss (Fig. 3.20) Fig. 8.20, Valulted celling truss, Specificatio: a steel version of the timber Belfast truss, Its internal members are subject to very small loale ‘Whereas the loads in the rafter and bottom tie are fairly ant, form throughout their length. ‘Span : These are used for large spans, Specifications : These trusses are used to support a Fig. 3.18, ceiling and hence thetr bottom ties used in conformityto theshape of the ceiling. A large gusset plate is provided at the shoe because the depth of the truss is all at this point. The (@ Straight fights stairs (© Quarter turn stairs members which carry the ceiling are of increased size to carry (O Half turn staira the local bending in addition to the direct bending. (Gif) Arched truss (Fig. 3.21) Fig. 3.21, Arched truss. i Specifications : These are designed together with the | Puilding are shown in Fig. 3.22 stanchions which support them, These are made from stan, (@) Straight fight stair dard beams welded up at the angles of the eaves and ridge. (©) Quarter turn stairs with quarter turn spaces A ATENUMERATE THE VARIOUS TYPES OF STAIRS USED {© Quatter turn saic with winders I BUILDING CONSTRUCTION. DRAW NEAT SKETCH, 1G) Dog lenemintaines 5S BUILDING AND A PUBLIC BUILDING. Solution. The classification of stairs are as under (© According to the layout a @ 0 Fig, 3.22. Stairs in building. USED IN A RESIDENTIAL (©) Open well stair @ Geometrical stairs (©) Circular stairs () Bifurcating stairs (Wi) According to material of construction ; (@) Wooden stairs (©) Stone stairs (© Brick stairs @ Metal stairs (©) Concrete stairs ‘he sketches of stairs used in a residential andj ) Open Newel stair with two quarter space lands @) Geometrical stair 89. m. 4g. per cu. m. The total dead and ti As ial id live loas (UPS.C. Civil Services Exam. 1% Solution, Weight ofthe masonry wall per metre length = 122 Self weight of the foundation @ 10% of the weigh! 4 wall 1.2268 t 4 ‘Total load ‘W,’ per metre Jength on the soil = 13.498" 13.51. say Bearing capacity ‘p’ ofthe so Men, ie foundation 3, Width ofthe foundat “ eee From the consideration of concrete block projection mois, where T= wall thickness and j=block proect” Sy Mog, 6=2%30+2%15=90em By ‘Adopt a width of foundation equal to 100 em. ie Depth of foundation 6, * & By Rankine’s formula, SIGigss SiEK eoting style __ Hanging style 40x100 1 Post 60%100 pet Poet 60% 4 ‘Section at A-A peep Fe rail 4-100) S F700 —Horn bie style 40100 style 405100. Toek Rail ‘0x15 Meeting. 150 Ponel Panel Baton Rail a0 Fif.8.25.A 1/23 panelted ad 2/3 glazed door os W fe - AWilinsing) Where, Wis weight of soil. ...() ing the values in eqn. (i), we get Sf concrete bloc ea (1:3 lime concrete), ee Vales in ean, (i) we get. 5 24.25 em 30 em, s sees TOO en: Fig. 324 ‘The diagram of the foundation is shown in Fig. 9.24. Example 8.2. A lecture hall for public use is 8 m long, 6m wide and § m mean high. The plastered area of the walls cand jambs, ete, isitalie 100 m4, of the wooden doors is 10 m?, of the glass-windows is 35 m?, of the false ceiling as well as the concrete floor is italic 47 m® each. There are 50 seats all of lain plywood. The respective absorption coefficients in metric tunits are: plastered walls 0.009, wooden doors 0.015, glazing 0.03, ceiling 0.086, conerete floor 0.005 and seats 0.09 each. The halt is half oceupied and the absorption coefficient per person is 1.4 metric units. What is the minimum reverberation time of the hall? Solution, ‘Surface | Area Absorption | Absorption unite in or coeff. m? sabines no. er-no. Plaster 100 | _ 0.009 0.900. Wooden doors | 10 | 0.015 0.150) Glass windows | 35 | 0.030 1.050 False ceiling | 47 | 0.035 1.645 Gonerete floor | 47 [0.005 (0.235) Seats 50 [0.090 4.500 ‘Absorption power inm?— 197 Sabine per adult .40 (given) ‘Net increase in absorption power per adult 40-0.09= 1.81 and net increase in absorption power for 26 adults 31 X25 = 82.75 ‘Total absorption power = 1.23 Sabines Volume of the hall = 8 x 6 x 5= 240 m? Substituting the values in the equation 48+ 92.75 0.98 seconds Ans,pacity of soil is that of (8) loose fine sandy soil 3.1, The maximum bearing ea] (©) Black cation soil () dry coarse sandy so 6 pee (© soft clay sol 3.2, The least bearing capacity of soil is that of (@ hard rock (©) moist clay (© soft rock (@ laminated (© coarse sandy soil. 8.3. The bearing capacity of granite is generally (@ StoWkeem2 (0) 15 to 20 kglem2 (© 30t0.35 kelem2 —(@) 40 to 45 kelem2. 3.4, Bearing capacity of soils cannot be improved by (@) draining sub-soil water (6) ramming crushed stone in soil (© driving sand piles @) watering surface of {© none of the: 3.5. Depth of lean concrete bed plaved at the bottom of a wall (2) (@) and (¢) ofthe above © ©) and (© of the above. : 8.7. In grillage foundations, distance between flanges of gril- lage beams, is kept (@ 40cm (6) equal to lange width (© twice the flange width (@) maximum of (a) (6) and (0). 8.8, In grillage foundations a minimum 15 em eover is pro- videdon F = upper flange of top tier (©) lower beam of lower tier (© ends of external beams (@ none to these. 8.9. To ensure that supporting area of an offset footing of a Boundary wall is fully compressive, the C.G. of load must act (@) atthe centre of the base (©) within the middle third of the base (©) within the middle fifth of the base (@ neither (a), (2) and (), © (2) 3.12, Pick up the correct statement from the following (@ Accombined footing is so proportioned that ce gravity of supporting area coincides with cen, gravity of two column loads I (6) A combined footing may be either rectangul trapezoidal in shape (©) Rectangular footings are provided if two columa are equal or interior column carries relatively load any ke (© Allthe above. — 8.15. The foundation which consists of a thick reinlur!e ‘menteslab oo. a (@) bearing capacity is low (©) permeability is uncertain (©) particles are cohesive @ property to undergo a volumetric ston of moisture content, ange ae 8.16. Raft foundation are gener: ferret “| ‘equiped or indvidal esting ie are ee (@) 25% of total area (6) 30% of total arva (© 40% of total area _(d) 50% of total area. 3.17. To support a heavy structure i | fundaton general ued ne tnd tl he (@) combined footing (©) peir footing (©) none of these, 8.18, Pile foundation (@ compressible © made up 3.19, Suitable 5 (@) 50cm © Tem (®) raft footing @) strap footing generally provided if soil is (©) water logged (@) all the above. acing of timber niles, is ©) 600m (@ 80cm © 90cm,Best type of piles for soft soil having little resistance to he flow of concrete, is (a) Simplex pile (®) Vibro pile ~ © Raymond pile @ Franki pile. 1321. In case of Raymond pile (@) lengths vary from 6 m to 12 m {) diameter of top of piles varies from 40 em to 60.em {6 diameter of pile at bottom varies from 20.em to 28cm {@) thickness of outer shell depends upon pile diameter (@) all the above, {922 The pile which is provided with bu filled with concrete its lower end, is known as (@) Simplex pile (®) Mac-Arthur pile © Raymond pile @ Franki pile 123, A pre-stressed concrete pile is (@) easy to handle (0) lighter in weight (© extremely durable (d) suitable for heavy load (6 all the above. | The pile which supports the load due to friction between face and surrounding soil, is generally known as (@) bearing pile () friction pile (0 sheet pile (@ battered pile. 425. Tho pile which supports the load partly by friction and partly by resting on hard stratum, is called (@ friction pile (©) bearing pil (friction bearing pile (@) rough pile. “2.25. The steel pile which is generally sunk in soft clay or loose ‘oflow bearing eapacity, is (@ Hpile ® pipe pile © screw pile @ disc pile (© none of these. 827. The depth of excavation of foundations, is generally with a -(@ ranging rod (@) steel tape © levelling stalt (@) bonning rod. ap The cca, ome logged soil, may be mprove aol singe i : wes") $29. Safe bearing capacity of black cotton soil varies from © 2tosumt (©) 5 t07.5 tim? © 8t0 10 em? @ 10 to 12 Um. ‘The foundations are placed below ground level, to increase (0) strengths (©) workability 0, ability of structure (2 all the above tions, ia SES Att) co 2 (ane (res) eee SH According to Rankine’s formula, minimum depth of 2. Ths ThE single stage well point system of dewatering an ex: © 16m © 25m. single stage well points to be @ 5 @3 6. sible differential settlement, (@ 16mm (©) 35mm, (©) 55 mm, case of foundations in clayey (@) 10mm ©30mm © 50mm, () No timbering is requi (©) Shallow foundations soil tion 43,87, Stability of an existing (@) rising of water table (@ all the above. (@ column footing (© raft footing (© all the above. (a) water logged soils (©) compact soils (©) none of these. of foundation provided, is (@) strap footing (© combined footing (© none of these. generally used, 18 (@) Hpi (©) aise pile (© raking pile. (@) construction pile (©) eccentric piles ation can be used i i 3¢ used ifthe depth of excavation does notexceed | (@) none of these. (®) 10m @ 20m 8,83. If the depth of an excavation is 20 metres, number of installed at various levels, is (4 @2 3.34. In case of foundations on sandy soil, maximum permis- is usually limited to (b) 25 mm (@ 45mm 3.95. The maximum permissible differential settlement, in soil, is usually limited to (@) 20 mm (@) 40mm 3,96. Pick up the incorrect statement from the following (@) The function of foundation is to distribute the load of superstructure over a large bearing area jired for shallow trenches ‘can be constructed on made-up (@ Grillage foundation is classified as a shallow founda- (© Black cotton soil is very good for foundation bed. structure may be disturbed by (®) vibrations caused by traffic movements (©) mining in the neighbourhood (@ excavation in the neighbourhood 3.88, In soils possessing low bearing capacity, the type of foundation generally provided, is (0) grillage footing (@) mat footing 8.99, Pile foundations are suitable for () soft rocks (@) multistoreyed buildings 3.40. For the construction of flyovers in sandy soils, the type ( raft footing @ pier footing ‘8.41, In soft clay of low bearing capacity, the type of steel pile ®) screw pile @ pipe pile 3.42. The additional piles which are driven to increase the ‘capacity of supporting loads on vertical piles, are known (b) raking piles @ sinking piles