Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10163-020-01034-1

REVIEW

Food wastes from hospitality sector as versatile bioresources

for bio‑products: an overview
Paras Gandhi1 · Monika Yadav1 · Kunwar Paritosh1 · Nidhi Pareek2 · Javier Lizasoain3 · Alexander Bauer3 ·
Vivekanand Vivekanand1

Received: 24 January 2020 / Accepted: 6 April 2020

© Springer Japan KK, part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Non-scientific food waste management and lack of effective measures are causing environmental distress around the world.
Due to this, local authorities are under stress for its proper disposal. However, scientific as well as collaborative approach
may help not only for the proper disposal of food waste, but also in biobased coproduct recovery from food waste. This
review principally focuses on the drivers and patterns of food waste production in hospitality industry along with reviewing
the current researches and challenges for managing the food waste through main and coproduct recovery. In this regard, the
study summarizes the scientific understandings of anaerobic digestion of food waste and the technical complications arise
in operating the digesters for this purpose.

Keywords Biogas · Anaerobic digestion · Food waste · Hotel sector

Introduction

The Joint Hospitality Industry Congress (JHIC) refers hos-

pitality as ‘The provision of food and drink and/or accom-
modation away from home’ [1]. In general, it includes the
* Vivekanand Vivekanand businesses viz. bars, hotels and restaurants that provide
vivekanand.cee@mnit.ac.in
drinks, food or place to sleep. Out of two divisions of hos-
Paras Gandhi pitality sector such as profit and non-profit divisions, profit
2015pcv5098@mnit.ac.in
divisions were taken into consideration for the review [2].
Monika Yadav The hospitality sector is predicted to evolve at substantial
2016ren9012@mnit.ac.in
rates in the upcoming years. The growth of revenue per
Kunwar Paritosh available room (RevPAR) in the USA reached up to 6% in
2017ren9030@mnit.ac.in
2014 [3] and in European countries, it extended up to 5%
Nidhi Pareek during 2014–2015 [4]. For India, the revenue was expected
nidhipareek@curaj.ac.inss
to grow 9–10% in 2017 [5]. During 2015–2019, a 10.2%
Javier Lizasoain increase in RevPAR was observed for USA, while for India
javier.lizasoain@boku.ac.at
it was 9.2% [6]. These developments in the hospitality sec-
Alexander Bauer tor have also accompanied by increase in food waste (FW)
alexander.bauer@boku.ac.at
generation during the quest of fulfilling costumer demands.
1
Centre for Energy and Environment, Malaviya National Waste generally leads into a larger environmental footprint
Institute of Technology, Jaipur 302017, Rajasthan, India and consequently causes more damage to public health and
2
Department of Microbiology, School of Life Sciences, hygiene [7]. On average, 1 kg/day of FW is generated by
Central University of Rajasthan, Bandarsindri, Kishangarh, a hotel guest [8] and this brings a total waste generation
Ajmer 305801, Rajasthan, India to about millions of tonnes worldwide annually. Therefore,
3
Division of Agricultural Engineering, University of Natural being a huge generator of waste, this sector requires to be
Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna Gregor‑Mendel‑Straße explored much intensively than any other sector.
33, 1180 Vienna, Austria

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

Till 1990, hospitality industries that had not consid-
ered the severe environmental impact of FW had later on
emerged much aware by showing voluntary participation
in acquiring ecolabels. The ecolabels act as means of cer-
tification for being an eco-friendly service [9]. Adoption of
various similar waste management strategies in hospitality
sectors resulted in a four fold reduction in waste generation
in a short span of years.
Despite these initiatives, the hospitality sector still lags
behind in adopting efficient FW management approaches
due to various cost factors such as waste transportation and
its disposal, as well as the labour cost [10].
As per definitions defined by FAO [11], food losses are
losses that occur during the early stages of food supply
chain covering the period from cultivation to industrial
processing. Non-consumed food by humans is FW and
may be generated at any stage within the food chain [12].
It may be generated during food preparation, processing,
serving and consumption [13]. Approximately 33% of the
total food served in the hospitality industry is wasted [14,
15]. This generated FW may be utilized for production
of bio-products such as biogas, bioethanol, biofertilizers,
value-added products such as organic acids, etc. through
the processes of anaerobic digestion (AD), fermentation
and composting (aerobic decomposition) [16–18].
There are plenty of research reports available regard-
ing the management of kitchen FW, household waste, etc.
However, the review of FW challenge in hospitality sector,
its quantification and utilization for producing bio-prod-
ucts have not been specifically explored intensively. There-
fore, the present study has been undertaken to deliver a
widespread review to understand how the FW is generated,
Fig. 1  Contribution of each 60
commodity to carbon footprint
and food wastage [22]
50
Percentage (%)
40 33
30
20
24
10
0
Cereals Vegetables
13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
quantified and managed in the hospitality sector nowadays
and the possible remedies for efficient FW management.
Food waste quantification in the hospitality
sector
Globally, a large volume of FW is produced in hospital-
ity sector in which 56% is contributed by restaurants and
28% by hotels [19]. In the UK alone, wastage of food is
estimated to reach 920,000 tonnes/year at hospitality and
outlets of food service divisions, 75% of which is avoidable
[2]. In Beijing alone, there are 60,000 restaurants wasting
1700 tonne/day of food in 2009 [20, 21]. These data show
that significant amount of food is being wasted all around the
globe. Therefore, policies regarding FW management and
its treatment are needed for using its potential in the form
of energy or as a resource. It is important to note that all the
different constituents of FW account for different shares in
producing carbon footprints, as shown in Fig. 1 [22].
For example, fruits and vegetables have 41% contribution
in the total FW generated due to the presence of more non
edible parts i.e., outer peels, seeds, shoots of leafy vegeta-
bles, etc. On the other hand, the meat is accountable for only
4% of total FW. Much data are available, which shows the
huge amount of FW wasted every year. It was projected that
30–50% of all produced food around the world is lost before
it reaches for the human consumption [23].
The quantification of FW is generally accomplished by
two approaches of data collection in which the first con-
sists of daily FW measurement and the second is based
on the analysis of material flow during the chain of food
service. The generated amount of FW in any hospitality
22
6
6
21
25
7 19
16 5
7 2
4 4 4
Meat Milk & Fruits Starchy Seafood Pulses &
eggs roots oil crops
Food comodity
Food waste Carbon footprint
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
sector is the sum of waste produced at various levels (e.g.,
preparation, processing, serving, plate leftovers, etc.) as
mentioned in Fig. 2 [24]. Proper segregation and use of
garbage bags are necessary so that only food and no other
type of waste (i.e., packaging waste, straw waste and tis-
sue waste from the plates) is being weighed. The FW
value obtained from these sources of FW represented the
uncooked FW and cooked FW referring to pre- and post-
consumer FW (i.e., all the un-consumed and consumed
food including leftovers generated at the beginning and
end of a meal service). Also, as per a report, the FW quan-
tification is performed only after the consumption and its
production and preparation are neglected [25]. For the cal-
culation of per person waste generation, number of people
to whom the food was served, must be known. Study con-
ducted by Pirani and Arafat [24] concluded that serving
dishes contributed significantly in the generation of FW in
hotels and strategies should be implemented accordingly
on the basis of on-site and off-site options to manage the
Fig. 2  Illustrated food chain and
management processes for food
service
FW. AD, fermentation and composting are some of the
main methods for recycling of FW for production of bio-
products viz. biogas, ethanol, organic acids, etc. as shown
in Fig. 2. The AD process utilizes the organic waste and
converts it into biogas by the action of anaerobic micro-
bial community. On the other hand, the FW may also
be used for aerobic composting as well as production of
bio-solvents i.e., ethanol, butanol, etc. through fermen-
tation process. These food management processes have
been discussed in detail in “Approaches for food waste
management”
Various studies have been reported regarding genera-
tion of FW. Data mentioned in these studies from different
countries are summarised below in Table 1.
In some studies, formulae/calculators/estimations were
presented which consist constants and variables giving a
sign of the large variety of testified values for different FW
quantities [24].
13
 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

Table 1  Results from assorted Study place Food waste composition/generation Source of data References
studies on quantifiers and
composition of hospitality waste Sweden 20% of total food served 2 schools and 2 restaurants [26]
UK 65% preparation waste, 30% customers’ 10 restaurants [27]
plates, 5% unusable items
Sri Lanka 46.2% FW of total MSW 20 hotels [28]
USA 5–50% of all ready to eat food Restaurants [29]
Finland One-fifth of all food prepared is wasted 51 food service outlets [30]
South Africa 46% of MSW 25 hotels [31]
India 61.29% of MSW 8 hotels [32]
Vietnam 41.6% of MSW 40 hotels [33]
UK 41% 138 food service institutions [14]

Reasons of FW generation in hotel
and service industry
Before discussing waste to energy techniques, first, it is
important to understand the various factors that cause
wastage of food in the hotel industry during various steps
of food chain. The drivers of FW generation can be cul-
tural, economical as well as psychological (associated with
behaviour, awareness and personal preferences of the con-
sumers) [13]. A number of reasons are listed in Table 2,
which is mentioned below. As mentioned in the table, the
FW can be generated both before and after preparation.
The improper storage of raw food can be resulted into
the spoilage of food which become unsuitable for human
consumption [34]. Further, the non-edible parts of food
such as onion skins, radish tops, banana skins, cabbage
covering, etc. also contribute to FW. In hospitality sec-
tor, major portion of FW is generated after preparation of
food and serving. Over portioning by the hotels and over
ordering by costumers are the common incidents leading
to food wastage [35]. Further, the buffet system for food
serving often leads to plate leftovers. Plate waste is the
major wastage of food caused by all-you-can-eat facilities
[36]. Customer often rejects the food due to unsuitable
flavour according to their personal preferences.
Heikkilä et al. [39] presented eight factors which influ-
ence the production and reduction of FW, which further
expands the understanding of complex waste issues. Out
of these eight factors, professional skills and diners affect
the FW directly while competitors, society, business con-
cepts, development of product as well as its procurement
and management have an unforeseen effect.
Approaches for food waste management
It is well established that the primary goal of waste reduction
and management is to protect the interest of public health
and hygiene as well as the environment. Therefore, before
designing and planning of any waste management system,
the metabolism of the anthroposphere must be understood
[40]. This knowledge can be used to anticipate the amount
of waste and its composition that further aids the selection
of particular management system. Apart from management
of generated FW, the reduction of food losses itself in food
services and households can proved to be a key factor for
achieving more sustainable and efficient food system [41].
The diverse chemical composition of FW solely depends
on the origin of its production and different eating habits.
Therefore, chemical composition will vary according to
the components such as rice, vegetables, fruits, dairy prod-
ucts, meat, eggs, etc. It may contain carbohydrates (starch,

Table 2  Reasons of food waste Stages Reasons

generation in hotels
Before preparation Spoilage of food due to improper stock and inventory handling [34]
After preparation Food parts that are non-edible e.g., radish tops, onion skins, banana skins
Over portioning and over ordering [35]
While preparing new dishes and experimenting with food recipes, the food is
thrown out if it does not turn out as good and tasty as expected
Service styles like buffet system also generate a significant amount of FW [37, 38]
During a busy service, food is left out too long on prep benches
Customer returns the food due to unsuitable flavouring or over-seasoning

13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
cellulose, hemicellulose), organic acids, proteins, lipids and
minor presence of inorganic components in different ranges
depending on the mixture of FW [42]. Hydrolysis of carbo-
hydrate present in the FW may lead to the breaking of glyco-
side bonds. The released oligosaccharides and monosaccha-
rides after hydrolysis are more favorable for fermentation.
FW may be employed as the sole substrate for the produc-
tion of hydrogen, ethanol, methane, enzymes, biopolymers,
organic acids, bio-plastics, etc. The various approaches for
management and conversion of FW are reviewed in the fol-
lowing section:
Food waste for composting
On site composting of hotel FW may be attempted in aero-
bic environment as value-added product for plantation at or
nearby hotels. Also, composting has a long history with gar-
den or green waste. Chen et al. [43] reported that increased
limitation in landfill sites pushed the concept of on-site
aerobic composting of FW. As per the report of Cesero
et al. [44], 33% of total compost produced in European
Union were from FW. Reduction in the volume of the FW,
good quality soil conditioner, high nutrient rich manure for
farm-field application, reduced presence of pathogens and
eliminated foul odor are reported to be benefits of compost-
ing of FW [45]. During the aerobic composting, microbial
action releases heat which could be up to 75 ℃ and this
heat causes the removal of pathogen. Humic acid, a short
chain chemical, formed during aerobic composting of FW
by the bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. Aerobic compost-
ing of FW may be performed in aerobic pile system, a wind
row system or aerobic vessel [46]. Green waste may be co-
composted with FW as FW generally has high moisture
content and an imbalance in nutrient [47]. Rice husk saw
dust and wood chips are common example of green waste
which could be composed along with FW. As per the report
of Fernandez-Hernandez et al. [48]; FW such as olive mill
waste usually has low C/N ratio, might be composted with
manure or slurry for better output. As per reported study
on aerobic composting of FW with other organic materials,
typical nutrient value of phosphorus, nitrogen and ammo-
nia nitrogen were discovered to be 0.3–0.7%; 0.9–3.0% and
0.5–0.6 g/kg, respectively [48–50].
Food waste for solvent extraction
Solvent production from FW is an attractive idea as sol-
vents from non-biological sources involve high econom-
ics and environmental impacts. Huang et al. [51] reported
that biological source-based solvent such as bioethanol and
biobutanol could replace chemical-based solvent. Anaero-
bic consortia may be utilized for the conversion of FW into
bioethanol and biobutanol as byproduct in fermentation
process. A decrease in the environmental pollution of around
80% due to FW might be experienced by producing bio-
based solvents from FW [52]. In 2015, the demand of etha-
nol was more than 26 billion gallon which showed a need
to shift towards biological sources of ethanol from fossil
fuel. In present, corn and sugarcane are the main sources of
bioethanol. In an experiment performed by Huang et al. [51],
vacuum fermentation technique was used for bioethanol pro-
duction from FW. As per the results, per kg of FW resulted
in 360 g of bioethanol. Walker et al. [53] performed one- and
two-stage fermentation of FW for bioethanol production.
In single- and two-stage fermentation process, bioethanol
production was 0.31 and 0.43 g ethanol/g TS, respectively.
Food waste for biomethane
AD has been the largely recognised and applied solution for
handling a large amount of organic waste such as FW con-
taining high moisture with low calorific value. During the
AD process, organic material is fragmented to form energy
in the form of biogas in an oxygen nil atmosphere. The pro-
cess is considered as a better alternative for the traditional
approach of FW management through incineration which
is suffered with the disadvantages of energy loss as well as
the severe environmental impact. Biogas consists of meth-
ane (50–70%), carbon dioxide (25–50%) and other traces of
gases such as hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, etc.
Organic wastes from different origins like industry, agricul-
ture and municipalities may be treated alone or be blended
to get useful energy out of them. The biogas produced from
FW can be utilised for production of (a) heat and power,
through combustion engine (b) natural gas (methane content
of at least 97%) for grid/vehicle (c) digestate as fertilisers
after adding required soil additives etc.
The primary requirement for effective biogas production
is the well-working active biomass; however, factors influ-
encing bacterial growth are vital to obtaining stable pro-
cesses at the highest possible organic loading rate/lowest
possible hydraulic retention time.
In a single-stage system, AD of FW is an intricate process
in which all organic substrates should be digested. Tempera-
ture, VFA, pH, carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio, organic loading
rate (OLR), ammonia, etc. are the key parameters on which
the occurrence of AD process depends. Besides all these
parameters, an unchanging environment is also required for
the growth of microbes [54].
Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD), in which several feed-
stocks can be digested at a time, can also be employed for
FW to energy conversion. AcoD offers several advantages
over AD such as improvement of nutrients balancing, etc.
and, therefore, enhances the digestibility of substrates. Many
studies have been dedicated investigating the different com-
binations of co-digestion [55–57]. AcoD has numerous
13
 Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management

benefits mentioned as follows: (a) more stable process
(b) lesser inhibition (c) balanced nutrients (d) fulfill the
needed moisture content (e) reduced greenhouse emission
(f) increased microbial activity (g) synergetic load of bio-
degradable organic matter (h) economic benefits. However,
one-stage systems are having difficulties in enhancing the
digestive systems because of different metabolic activities,
required nutrients, growth rate and operational factors [58,
59]. For the last 11 years, a dramatic increment has been
seen in the publications regarding AcoD of FW for biogas
production. This validates the viability and practicability of
AcoD technique for augmenting the biogas production and
environmental sustainability.
The crucial parameters for optimization of biogas pro-
duction via AcoD process are as follows: the operating
parameters (temperature, pH, loading rate, etc.), the chemi-
cal composition, biodegradability, bioaccessibility and sub-
strates characteristics. Substrates containing a high amount
of protein are rich in energy and provide high-quality biogas
(60–65% methane) [60]. However, proteins release ammo-
nium ions and ammonia after degradation which inhibit the
methanogenesis process [61]. Fat-rich FW is also easily bio-
degradable. However, the lipids present in this type of FW
often cause complications including mass transfer problems,
blocking and microbial inhibition. Therefore, in the presence
of long-chain fatty acids (LCFA), the AD process results in
impaired functioning. It also produces toxic compounds viz.
oleate,palmitate, etc. which act as inhibitors [62]. Hence,
appropriate mixing of the materials rich in different macro-
molecules (carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) is essential to
accumulate fewer inhibitors, enhance stability of the process
and biogas yield.
The AcoD is the process in which various feedstock with
complementary characteristics are combined. For example,
co-digestion of FW with agricultural by-products is a good
biogas yielding process witnessed by researchers [63, 64].
Due to differences in chemical composition and avail-
ability, the appropriate selection of suitable substrates for
co-digestion is not an easy task. To overcome the problem
of inhibition during single digestion, the FW is often co-
digested with other organic/inorganic substrates viz. cattle
manure, sewage sludge, wastewater, green waste and agri-
cultural waste (wheat straw and bagasse etc.) [65]. Table 3
summarizes the studies reported co-digestion of FW with
other substrates at both batch and continuous scale. The FW
has been co-digested with green waste, wastewater, cattle
manure, chicken manure, swine manure, etc. [66–68]. Due
to its low C/N ratio, FW may also be co-digested with paper/
cardboard waste which have high C/N ratio and negligible N
content [69, 70]. Study reported by Capson-Tojo et al. [70]
showed that maximum methane production was observed on
co-digesting FW with cardboard at low substrate/inoculum
ratio i.e., 0.25 gVS/gVS. Kim et al. [71] reported an increase
in the specific methane production per influent CODs by
1.3–1.8 folds for co-digestion of mixed FW and municipal
biosolids. The first-order COD degradation kinetic constants
for co-digestion were more than that of mono-digestion. Li
et al. [72] studied the co-digestion of kitchen waste with
corn stover and chicken manure which resulted in signifi-
cant increase of specific methane production pertaining to
a proper C/N ratio.
Nutrient recovery from food waste
To limit the accumulation of FW, the food needs to be used
or reused as much as possible. The earlier described pro-
cess of AD provides biogas or biomethane which is ben-
eficial from energy perspective. However, it is considered

Table 3  Co-digestion of FW with other organic substrates for improving performance of AD

S. No Waste type Reactor configuration Biogas yield Conditions maintained Reference

1 Mixed FW Batch 472 mL/gVS Mesophilic [73]

2.1 Liquor FW + green waste Batch 716 mL/gVS Thermophilic [54]
2.2 Institutional FW + green waste Batch 272 mL/gVS Mesophilic [66]
3 Canteens leftovers FW + wastewater (RS-rawsludge) Batch 0.36 m3/kgVS Mesophilic [67]
4 Institutional canteen FW + landfill leachate Batch 466 mL/gVS Mesophilic [55]
5 Institutional FW + cattle manure Continuous 0.6 m3/kgVS Mesophilic [68]
6 FW + chicken manure Continuous 0.42 m3/kgVS Mesophilic [56]
7 Press water + food service institutions FW Continuous 3.89 + 2.51 m3/m3 d Mesophilic [74]
8 FW (beans, corn, carrots and broccoli) + card pack- Continuous 0.345 L/gVS Mesophilic [69]
aging
9 Apple waste + swine manure Continuous 260–317 mL/g TCOD Mesophilic [75]
10 University FW + chicken manure Semi-continuous 507.58 mL/gVS Mesophilic [76]
11 Institutional FW + de-oiled grease trap waste Continuous 2.86 L/L/d Mesophilic [77]
12 Institutional FW + mixed microalgae Batch 639.8 ± 1.3 mL/gVS Mesophilic [78]

13
Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management
as a low-value product. However, the FW may also be used
for the recovery of important and high-value biological
molecules which may find applications in various fields
such as agriculture, health, pharmacy, etc. [79, 80]. Animal
waste such as fish and other seafood waste are rich in chitin,
protein, gelatin, glycosaminoglycan, carotenoids, miner-
als, enzymes, antioxidants and other bioactive molecules.
Several of these biomolecules can be used in food industry
itself. For example, chitosan can be employed as anti-brown-
ing agent [80]. It can also be used as bioactive ingredient for
preservation of food [81]. Protein hydrolysate is the most
important product recovered form fish waste which can fur-
ther degraded to obtain bioactive peptides [80]. The protein
hydrolysates obtained from fish waste can be employed in
food industry for applications such as protein supplements,
stabilizers for beverages, milk replacers, flavorings agents,
etc. Similarly, marine shells rich in calcium carbonate can
also be used for recovery of calcium carbonate as well as
its conversion to value-added products such as calcium
phosphate and calcium citrate which are commonly used in
biomedical as well as food industry [82]. Likewise, carot-
enoids such as astaxanthin and β-carotene which are used
as coloring additive in food industry can also be recovered
from shrimp cells [83]. Gmoser et al. [84] utilized wheat
bread waste to produce carotenoids using Neurospora inter-
media. Moreover, plant-based FW is also a rich resource of
biomolecules such as cellulose, starch, proteins, citric acid,
etc. Recently, Sepulveda et al. [85] carried out microbial
fermentation through Aspergillus fumigatus for production
of ellagic acid from orange peel waste.
The methods of nutrient recovery are often based on either
physical, chemical and biological processes as shown in Fig. 3.
For example, protein hydrolysate and peptides are recovered
through chemical hydrolysis of FW material. On the other
hand, biological process involves enzymatic hydrolysis by
employing enzymes such as pepsin, chymotrypsin, papain,
Fig. 3  Nutrient recovery from food waste of plant and animal origin
trypsin, etc. New technologies such as nano filtration and
ultrafiltration are also employed for fractionation of fish pro-
tein hydrolysate [86]. On the other hand, electric treatment is
employed for lipid extraction from FW [87]. Similarly, micro-
bial fermentation is also used to obtain value-added chemicals
such as ferulic acid, citric acid, etc. Depending upon the physi-
cal state of substrate, the microbial fermentation may be used
in form of solid-state fermentation or submerged fermentation.
Due to the low cost and simplicity of the sterilization process,
the submerged fermentation is the most commonly used fer-
mentation method for enzyme production on commercial scale
[88]. In addition, the electro-fermentation is also employed
now-a-days for bioconversion of organic waste in which
electrode are incorporated during the microbial fermentation
process to enhance the metabolic rate and electron kinetics.
Sravan et al. [89] suggested electro-fermentation as a feasible
process for improved conversion of FW to value-added prod-
ucts through improved biocatalytic activity.
Circular economy and food waste
Circular economy refers to reuse, refurbish and recycle the
existing materials [90]. This infer that the materials which
are considered as waste in the linear economic system (pro-
duce, consume and discard), become resources in circular
economy. It focuses on circular flow of matter to maximize
the resource utilization efficiency with minimum environ-
mental impact due to waste generation [91]. Circular econ-
omy of food system implies minimization of FW generation,
recycling and reuse of nutrients, utilization of by products
and changes in human behavior and diet to achieve more
efficient food consumption patterns [92, 93].
Recently, an increasing interest towards the concept of
circular economy in food system has been witnessed with a
number of reports [91–93]. Jurgilevich et al. [94] defined the
three stages of circular food system and the associated chal-
lenges. The three stages are food production, consumption
and waste management. The waste management involves
the technologies discussed in earlier sections including AD,
composting and nutrient recovery which serves in directing
the nutrient flow back to the system and thus making it a
closed circular loop. In this regard, the biorefineries based
on utilization and recycling of FW aligning with the ongoing
global trend of circular economy may be proved path break-
ing in addressing the challenge of FW management [95]
Conclusions
Effective as well as efficient management of FW is required
for a sustainable society. Hospitality sector will grow by
leaps and bound sin near future and so is the FW generation.
Installing small-scale readymade biogas units and composter
13

will help to reduce the load on the competent authority for
its disposal with municipal solid waste. Also, the new start-
up working on the waste management may be collaborated
with the hospitality sector for FW management. Other novel
techniques may be clubbed with ongoing technologies such
as solvent extraction, bioplastic production and animal feed
generation. A holistic approach of product and coproduct
recovery form hospitality sector food waste not only boosts
economy, but also attracts foreign reserve.
Future perspective
Current international laws and policies on FW need to be
modified to reduce FW generation and to endorse its proper
management, particularly in the hospitality sector. FW
reduction policies should also consider the circumstances
and behaviours that lead to wastage of food. Food prepara-
tion during parties/events organised at luxury hotels should
also be monitored by governmental agencies. The concept
of penalty to hotels is the best way to mitigate the careless
generation and disposal of FW. De-centralised AD plants
need to be established especially for these giant generators
of waste to reduce the cost of transportation and to treat
more waste in less time.
Renewable energy generation from FW is now considered
as the most appropriate way to tackle the issue of uncon-
trolled FW generation. Pretreatment technique readjusts the
nutrient concentration of FW to improvise the AD and AcoD
process in the most efficient way. For the future develop-
ment perspective, further research is necessary to study the
effect of co-substrates properties on the system performance
related to OLR and inhibition mechanism.
Acknowledgements Authors are thankful to Department of Science
and Technology, (Grant no: INT/AUSTRIA/BMWF/P-01/2017)
Department of Biotechnology (Grant no. BT/RLF/Re-entry/04/2013);
Government of India and WTZ-BMWF Austria for financial support.
Compliance with ethical standards
Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest. The authors alone are responsible for the content and writing
of the paper.
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