LESSON 1

ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC)

CIRCUITS
DC/AC : BASIC PRINCIPLES
Types of Electrical Current
 Direct Current (DC). It is electric current which flows in one direction only.

 Alternating Current (AC). It is electric current that reverses direction

periodically usually many times per second.

The abbreviations AC and DC are often used to mean simply alternating and direct, as
when they modify current or voltage.

Examples of AC Waveforms:

π 2π
0

Sinusoidal wave Square Wave Triangular wave

 AC vs. DC
An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power. Direct current
has many uses, from the charging of batteries to large power supplies for
electronic systems, motors, and more. Very large quantities of electrical
energy provided via direct-current are used in smelting of aluminum and
other electrochemical processes.

AC is the form in which electric power is delivered to businesses and residences.

The usual waveform of alternating current in most electric power circuits is a
sine wave. In certain applications, different waveforms are used, such as
triangular or square waves.

Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are also examples of
alternating current. These types of alternating current carry information
encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal, such as sound (audio) or images
(video). These currents typically alternate at higher frequencies than those used
in power transmission. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternating_current
DC Source
• DC Source: voltage POLARITY of the source and current DIRECTION do not
change over time.
Voltage

I
V 1 ohm
time

Fig.1

Fig.1 illustrates a basic DC circuit, representing a battery as the source and a load as a resistor.
Electrons leave the negative terminal, travel through the circuit, and return to the positive terminal,
continuing until a complete electrical circuit exists.
AC SOURCE
• AC source: Voltage polarity changes therefore the current
changes direction.
V(1.25s)
I 2v
= +2v

0 time
1 ohm (sec)
-2v

V(3.75s) 123 4
= -2v
Fig 2. The energy source generates a positive voltage, pushing electrons
through a circuit. As the voltage falls off, it reverses polarity, causing the
1 ohm current to flow in the opposite direction. This cycle repeats endlessly, creating
I
an alternating current, where the current reverses direction repeatedly.
Generation of Alternating Current and Voltages
Alternating voltage may be generated by:
● Rotating a coil in a magnetic field
● Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil
● Altering the direction of the magnetic field
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction

First Law. An emf is induced in a coil whenever the flux linking

the coil changes with time

Second Law. The magnitude of the induced emf in an N-turn

coil is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux
through it.

=
Where: einduced
emf
in volts
d =
Nnumber
of
turns
of
the
coil
e=N
dt d
=
rate
of
change
of
flux
in Weber
per
sec
dt
Basic Alternating Current Generator

The Basic AC Generation

- The process is called ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION.
- As the coil (wire) cuts the flux, an induced emf (voltage) is generated.

http://images.google.com.ph/imgres?imgurl=http://www.tpub.com/neets/book2/32NE0197.GIF&imgrefurl
AC GENERATION USING ELEMENTARY GENERATOR
VARIOUS SOURCES OF AC POWER

1. Electric Generating power plant

http://images.google.com.ph/imgres
 2. Portable ac generator
http://www.builderdepot.com/wincoinc/prodimg/DL5000H.jpg

3. Wind turbines power stations

http://blogs.business2.com/greenwombat/images/2007/07/27/oregon_wind_farm.jpg
4.

http://www.barden-uk.com/images/HowSolarWorks.jpg
5. Function Generator

http://images.google.com.ph/
VOLTAGE WAVEFORMS
• A WAVEFORM is the pattern formed when
these variations in amplitude with respect to
time are plotted on graph paper.
• Figure 1-1. - Voltage waveforms: (A). Direct
voltage; (B) Alternating voltage.

• Figure 1-1 view A shows the graph depicting

the amplitude of a DC voltage across the
terminals of a battery with respect to time.
The amplitude of the DC voltage is
demonstrated to be constant.
• Figure 1-1, view B, depicts several common
electrical waveforms which exhibit periodic
amplitude fluctuations. Of those illustrated,
the sine wave will be dealt with the most
frequently.
Generation of Alternating Current Sine Wave
Circular motion produces a sine wave naturally: -

It's just a very natural and fundamental thing to do and trying to produce waveforms that
are different is either more complicated or leads to unwanted side effects.

http://i.imgur.com/c9P9FPl.gif
Generation of Alternating Current Sine Wave
AC SINEWAVE
CYCLE
➢ the portion of a waveform contained in one period of
time.

1 cycle 1 cycle 1 cycle

FREQUENCY

• Frequency: Number of cycles in per second of a

waveform
• Symbol: f

1
• Measured in hertz (Hz)
• 1 hertz = 1 cycle

f =
T
Example 1
(a) 1 cycle 1 cycle
1 cycle (b)

1 second
1 second

f=1 Hz f=2 Hz
Example 2

60 cycles
1 cycle

?
1 second
Example 3
Find the frequency of the waveform from the figure

0 5 15 25 35ms
PERIOD
• Period: Time/duration to complete one complete cycle
• Symbol: T
• Inverse of frequency 1
• Measure in second (s) T=
f
• The period of a waveform can be measured between any two
corresponding point.
• Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace
 T
(between peaks)

T T
(between zero (Any two
points) identical points)
Example 4
• Determine the period and frequency of the waveform
of the figure above.

T2 = 10 ms

T1 = 8 ms
Solution

• Time interval T1 does not represent a period

as it is not measured between corresponding
points. Interval T2, however, is. Thus, T = 10
ms and,

1
f = −3
= 100Hz
10 10 s
Example 5
Find the period of a periodic waveform with a frequency of
a) 60Hz
b) 1000Hz
When dealing with sine waves in the time domain and especially
current related sine waves the unit of measurement used along the
horizontal axis of the waveform can be either time, degrees or
radians. In electrical engineering it is more common to use
the Radian as the angular measurement of the angle along the
horizontal axis rather than degrees. For example, ω = 100 rad/s, or
500 rad/s.

Radians

The Radian, (rad) is defined mathematically as a quadrant of a

circle where the distance subtended on the circumference equals
the radius (r) of the circle. Since the circumference of a circle is
equal to 2π x radius, there must be 2π radians around a
360o circle, so 1 radian = 360o/2π = 57.3o. In electrical engineering
the use of radians is very common so it is important to remember
the following formula.
Definition of a Radian
Relationship between Degrees and Radians

Applying these two equations to various points along the

waveform gives us.
The conversion between degrees and radians for the more
common equivalents used in sinusoidal analysis are given in the
following table.
ANGULAR VELOCITY (ω)

➢ is a measurement of the rate of change of the angular position of

an object over a period of time. It is a vector quantity. It is
denoted by ω.

➢ the velocity at which the radius vector rotates about the center.

distance
(radians
or
degre
ω=
time
(second
2  radian

ω = 2f or  
T  sec 
PROBLEM SET 1
1. Determine the period of the following waveforms
1 sec 1 sec

T T

(a) (b)
1 sec

T (c)
2. Determine the frequency and T of (a) and (b)

The value of ω depends on the values of fand T

a) ω = 100 rad/sec

b) ω = 500 rad/sec

3. Given ω = 500 rad/sec, how long will it take the sinusoidal

waveform to pass through an angle of 90 o?

4. Find the angle (in degrees) through which a sinusoidal

waveform of 60cycle will pass in a period of 5msec.
5. a) Determine the angle at which the magnitude of the
Sinusoidal function v = 10sin377t is 4V.
b) Determine the times at which this magnitude is attained.