Chandan Sir Notes

Relation between radius and mass number of a nucleus:

We know, the volume of a nucleus ( 𝜋 𝑅 ) is directly
proportional to the number of nucleons or mass number (A) of the element.
Hence we have
4
𝜋𝑅 ∞𝐴
3
𝑂𝑟 𝑅 ∞ 𝐴
 𝑅=𝑅 𝑅
Here 𝑅 is named fermi constant and its value is 𝑅 = 1.2 × 10 𝑚 = 1.2 𝑓𝑚

Binding energy model (Liquid drop model):

There are four major effects that influence Binding energy of a Nucleus according to Liquid drop model
i) Volume effect
ii) Surface effect
iii) Coulomb Repulsion effect
iv) Symmetry effect
Volume effect:
A nucleon interacts with few nearest neighbour nucleons through Nuclear force. So due to this effect Binding
energy directly proportional to the no. of Nucleons.
BE∝ 𝐴
Or 𝐵𝐸 = 𝐶 𝐴
Since 𝑅 = 𝑅 𝐴
So volume ∝ 𝐴
Surface effect:
Nucleons on the surface have less nos. of neighbours than those in the interior so surface Nucleons reduce
the binding energy by an amount proportional to their number.
This number ∝ 𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐵𝐸 ∝ 𝑅
𝐵𝐸 ∝ 𝐴 /
𝐵𝐸 = −𝐶 𝐴 /
Coulomb Repulsion effect:
Electric repulsion between each pair of protons in the nucleus contributes towards decrease in Binding
energy.
Potential energy of one pair =
( )
No. of pairs if there are Z protons =
( )
So total potential energy =
Here r will depend on R.
Chandan sir Notes
 Chandan Sir Notes

So binding energy due to Coulomb repulsion effect

𝑍(𝑍 − 1)
𝐵𝐸 = −𝐶
𝐴/

Symmetry effect:
For a given value of A if Z=N then nucleus is very stable. For heavy nucleus N>Z but this difference between N
and Z should not be too much. So difference between N and Z contributes towards decreasing Binding energy.
(𝑁 − 𝑍)
𝐵𝐸 ∝
𝐴
( )
 𝐵𝐸 ∝
( )
 𝐵𝐸 = −𝐶
𝟐 𝑍(𝑍 − 1) (𝐴 − 2𝑍)
𝑩𝑬 = 𝑪𝟏 𝑨 − 𝑪𝟐 𝑨𝟑 − 𝑪𝟑 − 𝐶
𝐴/ 𝐴

Distance of Closest Approach (Nuclear size):

It is the distance between an 𝛼 particle and nucleus from
where 𝛼 particle is repelled back on its path in a head on
collision. At this point or distance, the kinetic energy of α-
particle is completely converted into electric potential energy
of the system.
So by conservation law of energy
𝐸 =𝑈
.
Or 𝐸 = or 𝑑 =

Impact Parameter (b):

It is the perpendicular distance of line of velocity vector of
an 𝛼 particle before it is deflected from its path and the
centre line of the scattering nucleus.
It is denoted by b.
Rutherford derived the following expression for the impact
parameter in terms of the atomic number Z and the angle
of scattering 𝜃.
𝜃
1 𝑍𝑒 cot 2 𝑍𝑒 𝜃
𝑏= =( ) cot
4𝜋𝜀 𝐸 4𝜋𝜀 𝐸 2
Where 𝐸 is the initial energy of 𝛼 particle.

Chandan sir Notes

 Chandan Sir Notes

Mass defect:
The difference in the experimental mass of the nucleus and sum of the masses of nucleons is known as mass
defect.
If we consider a nucleus 𝑋 of atom X, it contains Z protons and (A-Z) neutrons. The mass defect is ∆𝑚 =
𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 − 𝑀
Here 𝑚 = mass of proton, 𝑚 = mass of neutron
During the formation of nucleus, certain amount of energy is released from the system. This energy is
obtained at the cost of a very small amount of mass. This is the reason of mass defect.
Binding energy:
It is the minimum energy required to break the nucleus into its constituent particles.
or
Amount of energy released during the formation of nucleus by its constituent particles and bringing them
from infinite separation.
Actually energy equivalent to mass defect is binding energy because this amount of energy is to be supplied to
the system in order to separate out all the nucleons from each other.
The binding energy of the nucleus is
𝐸 = ∆𝑚 𝑐 = 𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 − 𝑀 𝑐
If binding energy per nucleon is more for a nucleus then it is more stable.
For example, if > then nucleus 1 would be more stable.

Binding energy per nucleon:

The average energy required to extract one nucleon from nucleus is known as binding energy per nucleon.
𝐵𝐸 𝑍 𝑚 + (𝐴 − 𝑍)𝑚 − 𝑀 𝑐
𝐵= =
𝐴 𝐴
For nuclei with mass number, A < 20 have large binding energy per nucleon than their neighbour e.g.
𝐻𝑒 , 𝐵𝑒 , 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝑒
BE per nucleon is maximum of 𝐹𝑒 i.e. 8.8MeV

Chandan sir Notes

 Chandan Sir Notes

Features:
I)B.E. per nucleon increases with mass number and shows maximum around Fe (𝐹𝑒 ) . 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 B.E.
Per nucleon decreases with mass number A.
ii) Some spikes are obtained at 𝐻𝑒 , 𝑁 , 𝑂 . Its meaning is that somehow these are very stable nucleus.
iii) Below A=56, combination of smaller nuclei will give rise to release of energy (fusion process)
iv)Above 56, if a heavier nucleus is fragmented, energy will be released (fission process).
v) Larger the binding energy per nucleon, the greater the work that must be done to remove the nucleon from
the nucleus. So greater the binding energy per nucleon the more stable is the nucleus.
vi) Nuclei with very low or very high mass number have lesser binding energy per nucleon and are less stable
because lesser the binding energy per nucleon, the easier it is to separate the nucleus into its constituents
nucleons.
vii) Nuclei with low mass number may undergo nuclear fusion, where light nuclei are joined together under
certain conditions so that final product may have a greater binding energy per nucleon to achieve more
stability.
viii) Nuclei with high mass number may undergo nuclear fission, where nucleus split to given two daughter
nuclei. The daughter nuclei will possess a greater binding energy per nucleon to achieve more stability.

Q-value of a nuclear reaction:

Consider a nuclear reaction in which a target nucleus X is bombarded by a particle ‘a’ resulting in a daughter
nucleus Y and a particle b.
a+X=Y+b
Sometimes this reaction is written as X (a, b)Y

Chandan sir Notes

 Chandan Sir Notes

The reaction energy Q associated with a nuclear reaction is defined as the total energy released as a result of
the reaction.
Thus, 𝑄 = (𝑀 + 𝑀 − 𝑀 − 𝑀 )𝑐 = Δ𝑚 𝑐
If Δ𝑚 is in atomic mass unit then 𝑄 = Δ𝑚 × 931.5 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Q value can also be calculated as
𝑄 = (𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦) − (𝐵𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦)
If Q > 0, energy release
If Q < 0 , energy supplied.
A reaction for which Q is positive is called exothermic. A reaction for which Q is negative is called
endothermic.
In an exothermic reaction, the total mass of incoming particles is greater than that of the outgoing particles
and the Q-value is positive. If the total mass of the incoming particles is less than that of the outgoing
particles, energy is required for reaction to take place and the reaction is said to be endothermic. Thus, an
endothermic reaction does not occur unless the bombarding particle has a kinetic energy greater than |Q|.
Endoergic reaction or Endothermic Reaction:
If energy is absorbed in a nuclear reaction
Q= - Ve → Endoergic reaction
Q= +Ve → Exoergic reaction
The minimum kinetic energy that the particle should passes to initiate the nuclear reaction is known as
threshold Energy.
𝑚 , 𝑉 = mass and initial velocity of projectile
𝑚 , 𝑉 = mass and initial velocity of compound nucleus
Using conservation law of linear momentum
𝑚 𝑉 =𝑚 𝑉
𝑚 𝑉
𝑉 =
𝑚
Therefore, kinetic energy of compound nucleus
1 1 𝑚 𝑉
𝑚 𝑉 = 𝑚
2 2 𝑚
1 1
−𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑣 − 𝑚 𝑉
2 2

 −𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑣 − 𝑚

 −𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑣 − = 𝑚 𝑣 [1 − ]

 −𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑣 [1 − ]

 −𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑣 [ ]

 𝑚 𝑣 = −𝑄 [ ]

Chandan sir Notes

 Chandan Sir Notes

 𝐸 = |𝑄|

For 𝛾-rays as projectile 𝑚 = 0 so 𝐸 = −𝑄

- Ve sign indicates that energy must be supplied from external source or from outside to start the
nuclear reaction.

Nuclear Fission:

Nuclear fission:

It is the phenomenon of splitting a heavy nucleus into two or more smaller nuclei due to bombardment by a
particle. Mass defect in this process appears in the form of energy.

i) It is a decay process in which a very heavy

nucleus (like 𝑈 ) splits into two nucleus of
comparable mass.

ii) Natural uranium contains 99.3 % of 𝑈

and 0.7% of 𝑈

iii) For fission 𝑈 is hit with a slow moving

Neutron (thermal neutron).

Energy of thermal neutron a room

temperature = 𝑘𝑇 = 0.04 𝑒𝑉

iv) 𝑈 has large probability to absorb slow moving Neutrons.

The fission of 𝑈 by thermal neutrons is represented as:

𝑈 + 𝑛 → 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 +3𝑛 +𝑄

The mass of the components after fission is smaller than mass before fission. This difference of mass is
converted to energy following mass energy relation 𝐸 = ∆𝑚 𝑐

Energy released Q= {(Mu + Mn) – (MBa +MKr +3 Mn)} c2

The Q value of the reaction is 200 MeV.

Nuclear fusion:

It is the phenomenon of fusing of two or more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus. Mass defect in
the process appears as energy.
Chandan sir Notes
 Chandan Sir Notes

4 𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒 + 2𝑒 + 26.7 𝑀𝑒𝑉

The temperature of the order of 107 K are required for fusion to take place.

Nuclear fusion is a basis of hydrogen bomb.

As an example, we consider the increase in temperature of H2 gas. At a certain temperature, it breaks up into
atom.

H2 → H + H

At further very high temperature, electrons are detached from shell in various atoms. So we get a mixture of
proton and electron, moving randomly with high speed. This state of matter is called plasma.

If plasma temperature is raised to a value of the order of 106 K, protons can come close to each other within a
distance smaller than 10 -15 m by overcoming electrostatic repulsion. This is the range of nuclear force.

Following a number of steps, 4 protons may combine to form 𝐻𝑒 , two positrons and 2 neutrinos.

The steps are as follows:

2𝐻 +2𝐻 = 2𝐻 +2𝑒 +2𝜈

2𝐻 + 2𝐻 = 2𝐻

𝐻 + 𝐻 = 𝐻𝑒 + 2 𝐻

Combining above equation we get,

4 𝐻 → 𝐻𝑒 + 2𝑒 + 2 𝜈 + 𝑄

Thermal neutrons:

Experiment shows that a nucleus always behaves as

a liquid drop. If a nucleus is bombarded by energetic
neutron, it penetrates through the nucleus and the
nucleus cannot breakdown into fragments. If it is
bombarded with a slow neutron, the neutron is
absorbed by the nucleus and the nucleus starts
oscillating. Due to oscillations it takes ellipsoidal
shape. In some nucleus, contraction may occur near the middle region due to vibration. Again, in some cases,
mutual separation r between two segments may be greater than 10-15 m, so nuclear force may disappear
between these two parts. Due to strong electrostatic repulsion, two segments fly away from each other. The
slow neutrons or low energetic neutrons required for fission are called thermal neutrons.

What is thermalisation?
Chandan sir Notes
 Chandan Sir Notes

The process of conversion of energetic neutron to thermal neutrons by allowing them to collide with suitable
nuclei is called thermalisation.

In a nuclear reactor, graphite or heavy water (D2O) are used to thermalize energetic neutrons. In this
case, graphite and heavy water are called moderator.

What is Critical mass?

In order to have sustained chain reaction, amount of Uranium should have a minimum value. Otherwise chain
reaction does not occur. The minimum mass of U required to have sustained chain reaction is called critical
mass.

Nuclear chain reaction;

Chain reaction is a process of sequence occurrence of nuclear
fission. Fission is initiated with neutron and after fission, we
get a number of more neutrons. These neutrons are energetic
neutrons. After thermalizing them, they can be further used
for fission and the process is carried out one after another.
The whole process is called chain reaction.
The equation of fission of 𝑈 is

𝑈 + 𝑛 → 𝐵𝑎 + 𝐾𝑟 +3𝑛 +𝑄

These three secondary neutrons produced in the reaction

may causes of fission of three more 𝑈 and give 9 neutrons, which in turn, may cause of nine more fission
of 𝑈 and so on. Thus a continuous nuclear chain reaction would start.
If there is no control on chain reaction then in a short time ( 10 -6 sec) a huge amount of energy will be
released. This is the principle of atom bomb.

Chandan sir Notes