1.

Introduction to Geology

2. Structure of the Earth

GEOLOGY
3. Plate Tectonics

4. Introduction to petrology

5. Stratigraphy and sedimentology

6. Paleontology and the fossil record

7. The shape and size of the Earth

8. Geomorphology

9. Geology of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin

10. Natural resources and hazards

 8. Geomorphology
• Initial and sequential landforms
• Factors responsible for creating and modifying relief
• Soils
• Glaciers and Pleistocene ice sheets
• Karst geomorphology
• Aeolian geomorphology
• Fluvial geomorphology
• Coastal geomorphology
• Marine geomorphology

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 Initial and sequential landforms

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 Factors responsible for creating and
modifying relief
• Tectonic processes. Folds, faults, volcanoes…
• Erosion. Water, Wind, Ice, Gravity…
• Lithology
• Climate (temperature and precipitation: weathering)
• Humans: quarries, dikes, dams…

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Soils
 • Texture

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 • Color

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 • Structure

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• The Soil Profile
 Factors that control soil formation
• Parent material
• Climate

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• Organic activity

Nebel et al. (1998)

 • Topography

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 • Time

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 Pedogenic regimes

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 LATERIZATION
Laterite

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PODZOLIZATION
Podzol

A1

A2

B
 CALCIFICATION
Caliche

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 SALINIZATION

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 GLEIZATION
Gley

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 Glaciers and Pleistocene ice sheets

Exit Glacier in Alaska’s Kenai Fiords National Park.

(Photo by Michael Collier)
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 VALLEY GLACIERS

Piedmont glacier

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Tidewater glacier
 ICE SHEETS

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 GLACIAL ICE FORMATION

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 How fast do glaciers move?

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 Glacial erratics

Yosemite National Park

Central Park (New York)

National Geographic (March, 2012)
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 GLACIAL EROSION
Plucking and abrasion

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 EROSIONAL LANDFORMS PRODUCED BY VALLEY GLACIERS

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 GLACIAL DEPOSITS Glacial drift (all glacial deposits)
Two types of drift: till and stratified drift

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 Landforms composed of till
Moraines

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 Landforms composed of stratified drift
Figure 14.20: (a) A valley train in Alaska made up of
stratified drift. (b) A kettle in a moraine in Alaska. (c) This
small hill in Wisconsin is a kame. (d) This sinuous ridge
near Dahlen, North Dakota, is an esker.

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 PLEISTOCENE ICE SHEETS

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 Relative sea-level trends

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 Postglacial rebound

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Why does Earth's climate change?

© NASA © REUTERS

Steven Earle
 Karst geomorphology

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DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER

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 THE MORPHOLOGY OF ENDOKARST AND EXOKARST

Endokarst
The layer of the karst system beneath the surface
Exokarst
All features on a surface karst landscape
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 LAPIAZ EXOKARST

Partially covered by soil

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 SINKHOLE (DOLINE) EXOKARST

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 POLJE EXOKARST

Disappearing stream

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 SPRING EXOKARST

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 CAVES AND CAVERNS ENDOKARST

Deposits:
By gravitational collapse or carried and deposited by streams

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Cuevas del Drach (Mallorca)

Aeolian geomorphology

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TRANSPORTATION OF SEDIMENT BY WIND
 WIND EROSION

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 WIND DEPOSITS
leeward slope
windward slope

Sand dunes

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 Types of sand dunes

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Loess
Fluvial geomorphology
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www.sepmstrata.org
 COMMON FEATURES OF
STREAM VALLEYS
Headwaters of a river
Valley deepening

Downstream from the headwaters

River near its mouth

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 STREAM EROSION

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TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENT BY STREAMS
 ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION
TERRESTRIAL
• Alluvial fans

• Alluvial channels
– Two common types: braided channels and meandering channels

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 Braided channels

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 Meandering channels

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 Oxbow lake

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Terraces
 ENVIRONMENTS OF DEPOSITION
TRANSITIONAL
• Deltas

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 • Estuaries

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 Coastal geomorphology
TIDES

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 WAVES

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 SHORELINE PROCESSES
Wave erosion

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 SHORELINE PROCESSES
Sand movement on the beach
Swash and backwash

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 SHORELINE PROCESSES
Sand movement on the beach
Wave refraction

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 SHORELINE PROCESSES
Sand movement on the beach
Longshore transport

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 SHORELINE FEATURES
Erosional features
Wave-cut cliffs
Wave-cut platforms
Marine terrace

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SHORELINE FEATURES
Erosional features
Sea cave
Sea arch
Sea stack

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SHORELINE FEATURES
Depositional features
Beaches

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SHORELINE FEATURES
Depositional features
Tombolo

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SHORELINE FEATURES
Depositional features
Spit
Baymouth bar

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SHORELINE FEATURES
Depositional features
Barrier islands

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 TYPES OF COASTS
Depositional and erosional coasts

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 TYPES OF COASTS
Submergent and emergent coasts

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 Marine geomorphology

Kaunana Seamount (Image: NOAA)

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 Global ocean: physicochemical characteristics
AVAILABILITY OF SUNLIGHT

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SALINITY

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TEMPERATURE

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DENSITY MASS PER UNIT VOLUME

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THERMOCLINE, HALOCLINE and PYCNOCLINE

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OCEAN LAYERING

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Carbonate compensation depth (CCD)

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 Ocean circulation
OCEAN SURFACE CIRCULATION

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COASTAL UPWELLING

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DEEP-OCEAN CIRCULATION

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THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION

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 Topography of the ocean floor

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CONTINENTAL MARGINS

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CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Passive continental margin
Continental shelf, continental slope, continental rise

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CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Active continental margin
Ocean trench, accretionary wedge

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 Associated with volcanic activity
• Volcanic island arcs
• Continental volcanic arcs

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DEEP-OCEAN BASIN
OCEAN RIDGES

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 Deep-sea sediments

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 Biogenous sediment

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 A) Calcareous ooze: foraminifera

50 µm

~400 µm

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 Calcareous ooze: coccolithophores

20 µm
20 µm

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 B) Siliceous ooze: radiolaria

50 µm

100 µm
Radiolaria

Foraminifera

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 Diatom
Siliceous ooze: diatoms

20 µm

© The Open University

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 Terrigenous sediment

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 SHALLOW WATER CORAL REEFS

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