1.

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Research design is the process of structuring techniques and strategies that help
researchers solve their problems or answer their inquiry. The five major research designs are
ethnography, grounded theory, phenomenology, historical or narrative approach, and case
study.

1.Ethnography

It involves studying a particular group or population in the natural setting or their

habitat. It aims to describe, analyze, and interpret behavior patterns, belief systems, and unique
language of people in a particular culture and ethnicity. It is best used in studying culture-
sharing groups in their natural environment. The culture sharing group may be a school, family,
or a community.

ETHNOGRAPHY
Focus Describing and interpreting a culture-sharing
group
Type of problem Describing and interpreting the shared patterns
best suited for of culture of a group
design
Unit of analysis Studying a group that shares the same culture
Data collection Using primarily observations, and interviews,
forms but collecting other sources during extended
time of field
Data analysis Analyzing data through description of culture-
strategies sharing group; themes about groups
Written report Describing how a culture-sharing group works

2.Grounded Theory
It is commonly used to elicit ideas, opinions, or beliefs from the respondents when a
unified theoretical explanation is needed about an event, action, or a process that fits the
situation or actual work in practice which involves a series of data gathering procedure to
validate the information gathered from the participants. It is particularly useful in investigating
social processes including causes, effects, and the conditions that influence them. Social
processes refer to activities and interactions among people. In utilizing this design, the
researcher has not predetermined theory, hypothesis, or expectations with the data. Instead, he
or she allows the theory to emerge from data. Thus, it adopts a neutral view of a phenomenon
and is less likely to be affected by any bias.
 GROUNDED THEORY
Focus Developing a theory grounded in data from field
Type of problem Grounding a theory in the views of participants
best suited for
design
Unit of analysis Studying a process, action, or interaction
involving many individuals
Data collection Using primarily interviews with 20-60
forms individuals
Data analysis Analyzing data through open coding, axial
strategies coding, and selective coding.
Written report Generating a theory illustrated in a figure
3.Phenomenology
It develops a clear and accurate description and understanding of human
experiences. It provides a detailed description of the participants’ experiences and what theses
mean to them. Phenomenology does not require immersion or observation. Instead, it uses
interviews for data collection. In these interviews, the researcher needs to encourage
participants to fully describe their experiences and situation, their emotions, the images they
encounter or imagine, their thoughts, memories, and sensations.

PHENOMENOLOGY
Focus Understanding the essence of an experience
Type of problem Needing to describe the essence of a lived
best suited for phenomenon
design
Unit of analysis Studying several individuals having the same
experience
Data collection Using primarily interviews with individual, although
forms documents, observations, and art may also be
considered
Data analysis Analyzing data for significant statements, meaning
strategies units, textual and structural description of the
“essence”
Written report Describing the “essence” of an experience

4.Historical/Narrative Approach
It involves weaving together a series of events to form a cohesive story. It is a
systematic collection and evaluation of information which may include documents, stories, and
artifacts to describe, explain, and eventually understand events and actions that happened in
the past. It reconciles past conflicts in society and highlights challenges which can be used as a
basis for creating innovations.
Although it is not appropriate for large sample size due to the time it requires, and is prone to
the researcher’s subjective impression of data, historical approach provides a holistic picture of
a phenomenon and it allows the researcher to continually revisit data using different
perspective.

NARRATIVE
Focus Exploring the life of an individual
Type of problem Needing to tell stories of individual experiences
best suited for
design
Unit of analysis Studying one or more individuals
Data collection Using primarily interviews and documents
forms
Data analysis Analyzing for stories, “restoring” stories, developing
strategies themes, often using a chronology
Written report Developing a narrative about the stories of an
individual’s life

5.Case Study
This is done when a researcher wants to know the deeper details about a certain
situation, event, activity, process, and even a group of individuals. The analysis in this
approach may be a single case or multi-cases, resulting to a within-site research or a multisite
study, respectively. A series of thorough and in-depth data collection procedures from multiple
sources of information is done. Over a consistent period of time, researchers employ variety of
data gathering techniques such as observation, interviews and anecdotal documentation to
address the research objectives.

CASE STUDY
Focus Developing an in-depth description and analysis of a
case or multiple case
Type of problem Providing an in-depth understanding of a case/s
best suited for
design
Unit of analysis Studying an event, program, or activity
Data collection Using multiple sources such as interviews,
forms observation, documents, artifacts
Data analysis Analyzing data through description of the case and
strategies themes of the case as well as cross-case themes
Written report Developing a detailed analysis or one or more cases
2. SAMPLING AND SAMPLING METHODS
Sampling refers to the process of systematically selecting individuals, units, or
settings to be examined in your study. Sampling helps you select the right participants for your
study and draw conclusions about the population where the selected samples belong. A
population is a large collection of objects or individuals who are the focus of your research.

There are no fixed rules in determining the sample size for a qualitative study. It
is ultimately a matter of judgment on the part of the research. However, there are points you
need to consider, one of which is data saturation. Data saturation is a point reached when the
data are sufficient that additional data will no long longer affect the patterns observed.

Qualitative research usually utilize smaller sample size as the intention of this
type of research is to describe a phenomenon and not to make generalization about it.
Generally, the suggested number of participants in a qualitative study ranger from 10-30
people or until your data is saturated. For a case study, it usually ranges from 1-15
participants depending on your research questions. For focus group discussion, the typical
number of participants is from 5 to 10 people per group.

Nonprobability Sampling-The samples are selected through the researcher’s

subjective judgment without any intention to make generalizations about a wider population. The
four most common non-probability sampling methods include purposive sampling, snowball
sampling, quota sampling, and convenience sampling.
Purposive Sampling or
Criterion- based Sampling
 Participants are selected using
pre-determined criteria related to
your research questions.
 Example: If you want to
understand the struggles of LRT
commuters, you need to select
people who have frequently
taken the LRT for several years.
 Quota Sampling
 It uses a set of criteria for selecting
samples.
 However, quota sampling also
considers the size and proportion
of each subgroup to ensure that
the selected samples represent
the different segments of the
population

Snowball Sampling
 Researchers identify a member of
a target population and asks him
or her to identify other members
of the population who possess
the characteristics relevant to
your research. These members
will be asked to refer another
possible participant of the study.
This method is most useful when
participants are difficult to locate.

Convenience Sampling
It involves the selection of
participants based on ease of
finding them. Although it saves
the researcher time, energy, and
money, it is considered the
sampling method with the
weakest rationale and lowest
credibility.

3. PLANNING THE DATA COLLECTION AND

ANALYSIS PROCEDURE
Data collection is an activity where the researcher obtains relevant
information to address the specific research questions or objectives of the study.
Qualitative research typically uses multiple sources of evidence or methods in
data collection. This technique is known as triangulation. Through triangulation,
you can establish the reliability of the data you have collected. Reliability refers to
the consistency of the results with the data. This means that you get the same
findings from your various sources. A related measure to reliability is validity,
which refers to the ability of the data to address the research questions of a
study.
The four most common methods of data collection in qualitative research are
participant observation, interview, focus group discussion, and document
analysis.
the researcher sees how people behave and
interact with one another, either in a
OBSERVATION controlled or natural setting

most beneficial when you want to collect

non- readily observable data. These include
INTERVIEW experiences, opinions, values, feelings, and
knowledge

another type of interview which is useful for

FOCUSED researching on cultural norms, shared
GROUP experiences, and issues experiences by a
specific cultural group or subgroup

involves the examination of documents or

records relevant to your study. These
FOCUSED
documents include archival records
GROUP
(historical records), and physical artifacts
(tools or artworks)

The tools used in collecting data in qualitative studies are called research
instruments. In qualitative research, research instruments are also known as
guides, which contain the topics to be covered or questions to be answered in
the data collection.

Types of Data According to Sources

1.Primary Data- gathered directly from the participants of your study
collected using interviews, focus group discussion, observation and
surveys
2.Secondary Data- collected by someone besides the researcher, e.g.
media reports, published research, public documents, and internet
materials
4. DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE AND
ANALYSIS
Data collection procedure is a section in the methodology that details the
specific steps that the researcher took in order to gather the needed data. This
section explains who collected the data and how he/she did it. This section also
presents all the process or activities the participants have engaged in and where
these took place.

Data Analysis is the process of transcribing, examining, classifying,

tabulating, testing, and recombining data. Through data analysis, you are able to
make conclusions about your findings or understand a phenomenon.13

Structure of the Methodology

Methodology
Research Design
 Explain why you are using qualitative design in your study
 Explain the specific qualitative research design or approach used in your study and
why this is chosen
Context and Participants
 Explain the context of the study or the time and place where the study is
conducted
 Explain relevant details about the participants. These include the number of
participants and their demographic characteristics such as age, gender,
socioeconomic status, and other relevant information
Instrument
 Describe the instrument and justify its use. Explain how it was validated and
revised if applicable. If it is adopted, explain its reliability and the reason for its
adoption.
Data Collection
 Explain specific steps that you will undertake to complete the data collection phase
of your study.
Data Analysis
 Provide an overview of the steps you will undertake to complete the data analysis
phase of your study.
1.DATA COLLECTION
INSTRUMENTS
A good research instrument may elicit an organized data
that would help him/her in finding answers to the research
problems.

Characteristics of a Good Data Collection Instrument

1. It should be brief but effective.

2. It must be able to gather information other than
what is available.
3. The arrangement of questions must be sequenced
in increasing difficulty.

A. Interview-the researcher personally asks the key

informants about things or information he/she
needs from the subjects

Types of Interview

1. Structured interview -the researcher prepared and organized questions that

the respondents will answer

2. Semi-structured interview -the researcher prepares a specific set of questions

but could ask follow-up questions to the respondents for them to elaborate their
answers
 3. Unstructured interview -the researcher prepares an outline of the topics that
he/she needs to personally ask from the interviewee in spontaneous and
conversation-like manner

Classification of Questions

The following are six categories of questions that you can ask during interview.
1. Demographic Characteristics-includes questions about the participants’ age,
educational background, religion, civil status, socioeconomic status, etc
2. Behavior-questions under this category are about what the interviewees are
doing or have done
3. Emotions-questions under this category are about what an interviewee feels
about a certain situation or as she is being interviewed
4. Knowledge- questions under this category relate to the interviewee’s
familiarity with a certain subject
5. Opinions or Values- questions under this category elicit information on what the
interviewee thinks about a topic or issue.
6. Sensory Perceptions-questions under this category are about what the
interviewee has heard, seen, smelled, tasted, and touched

Example of interview question scripts:

Title: Resilience Processes Within the School Context of Adolescents with

Sexual Violence History
 Source: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/semi-structured-interview-script_tbl2_318438255
(You can visit the link to know more about the study)

Title: A Qualitative Study of Young Women's Beliefs About Intrauterine Devices:

Fear of Infertility

Source: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/A-Qualitative-Study-of-Young-Women%27s-
Beliefs-About-Payne-Sundstrom/94015379fc249e63c0546d85bd6f3eea23db76b9/figure/0

B. Focus Group Discussion-useful to obtain certain types of information or when

circumstances would make it difficult to collect information using other methods
to data collection
This can be used when:
1. There are limited resources prevent more than a small number of interviews
being undertaken.
2. It is possible to identify a number of individuals who share a common factor and it
is desirable to collect the views of several people within that population/sub
 group.
3. Group interaction among participants has the potential for greater insights to be
developed.

C. Observation-the researcher tracks the subjects’ behavioral change over a

specific period of time

During observation, you can focus on the variables listed on the table.

Categories of Coverage Points to Note

Variables
Appearance Physical features, age, Features of an individual that are
gender, clothing indicative of his or her membership
in a group or subgroup, profession,
religion, ethnicity, and
socioeconomic status
Behavior during Interaction among people, the Social rank, gender, age,
communication length of their communication profession, use of body language
and or interactions, languages
interactions used, nonverbal cues
Personal Space Physical proximity of one People’s preferences
person to another regarding personal space

Human Flow The number of people who Frequency of flow, length of stay,
enter and exit a particular the number of people
community accompanying a person entering
or exiting a community
People Individuals who stand Characteristics of the “star’ members
out among group of of the group, how other people
people interact with them

Behavior during communication and

interactions
Behavior during communication and Types of
Observation
Natural or Unstructured Observation -The researcher observes the
subjects in the natural setting or in their actual environment. The observation is
done from outside of the environment.
 1. Participant Observation-requires the
researcher to be involved in the usual
activities of the subjects and gives the
researcher direct and first-hand
experience of what the respondents are
experiencing
2. Overt Observation- the participants know
that you are a researcher or observer
3. Covert Observation-the participants are
not aware that you are a researcher or
observer
4. Controlled Observation- “ideal-situation”
observation where the subjects are
taken away from their actual
environment and are subjected to ideal conditions determined by the
researcher

D. Document Analysis-It involves the interpretation of selected documents through

analyzing their content. Documents for analysis include public records, personal
documents, and physical evidence. Examples of public records are annual reports,
policy manuals, laws, curricula, and news articles. Personal documents include
blogs, face book posts, diaries, and reflection logs. Lastly, physical evidence
includes flyers,

ELABORATE

The data collection process is not limited to determining the

instruments and techniques you will use. There are ethical
considerations that you need to
understand before gathering your
data especially when human
participants are involved.

1.Provide the potential participants an informed consent.

2.Inform the participants that they have the right to refuse to
participate in the study.
3.Guarantee the participants that all collected information shall be
treated with utmost confidentiality, and that their anonymity shall be
preserved.
4.Secure your data in a way that will keep them from being accessed
by person not involved in the study.
5.In case you decide to give a token to the participants, be sure that
it is reasonable. This means that the token must not cause undue
influence on the participants’ behavior throughout the data
collection procedure.
 EVALUATE Written Task 2 (30 points)
Summarize what is being said by the respondent, on a line-by-line basis. This means
thinking of a word or a phrase that captures the meaning of each bit of text and noting it
down. You may have several phrases for some lines and no phrases for other lines of
text- that’s fine.
Look at your collection of open codes. Could you group them together in meaningful
categories?
Think about the categories that have emerged. Do they help to illuminate the research
question?
Would it be possible to have other experiences if inpatient care or has this interview
excerpt covered everything? If not, how would you go about gathering as wide a range of
experiences as possible?

Interviewer: So was it better when you saw Ann?

Respondent: Yes. Well, yes and no. It was good to

see someone I knew but I didn’t know
what to think about it all. I mean, she
was in there and I had no idea.
Looking back a little while afterwards I
realized that just because you go into
a psychiatric hospital it does not
mean you are mad. I was not and I
knew she was not. Well, I had not
thought so.
Interviewer: So before you arrived at the hospital,
is that what you thought? That it
would be full of mad people.
 Respondent: Yes. Well you do don’t you? But it
was not. I was scared at first. But Ann
stayed with me after the nurse had
seen me and she talked to me about
where we lived and everything and
the people we knew and it was just
like having a chat anywhere. It did not
feel like we were in hospital.
Interviewer: How do you mean? Didn’t the hospital
Respondent: look like you thought it would?
Not really. But looking back I don’t
know what picture I had of the
hospital, only what the people would
be like. And most of them were like
you and me really. Only one or two
seemed particularly ill. And I felt sorry
for them. Only one chap I did not like.

Performance Check 2 (30 pts)

points)
Direction: Design a simple interview script that will solicit the answers of the
research problem of your chosen topic. Please make sure that you also
include your research title, and research problem and questions in your output.
Implement the instrument and attach a transcript of your interview with 1
respondent. (15pts)
Write your output on the sheet provided at the end of this unit.

Interview Rubric
Rating Score
Category 3 2 1
Purpose Purpose is stated Purpose is stated Purpose is stated
clearly. somewhat clearly. vaguely.
Clarity of Questions are Questions are very Questions are
questions crystal clear and a clear and a person somewhat clear and
person would not might have to ask a person would have
have to ask for clarification. to
for clarification. ask for clarification.
Content All interview Most interview Some interview
questions are questions are questions are
 aligned with the aligned with the aligned with the
research problem. research problem research problem
Spelling/ All words are Most words are Most words are
Grammar spelled correctly. spelled spelled correctly.
Grammar, correctly. Grammar, Grammar,
punctuation, punctuation, spacing punctuation, spacing
spacing and word and word usage are and word usage
usage are mostly appropriate. have some errors.
appropriate.
Utility Easy to use and Easy to follow. Choppy, but gets the
pleasant to look at. job done.
Total Score

Answer Sheet
Written Task 2

1. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
2. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________
3. _____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________

Answer Sheet

Performance Check 2

Research Title:

Research Problems

Interview Script
Module

4 UNIT 1
Analyzing the Meaning of Data,
Drawing Conclusions, Reporting
and Sharing Findings

Learning Competencies

At the end of the module, the

students should be able to:

a. infer and explain

Using a certain method of collecting and
patterns and themes
from data; analyzing data, the researcher will get to
b. analyze and draw out gather varies world perceptions from
patterns and themes different people. Through all these diverse
with intellectual opinions coming from a set of people,
honesty; and
researchers will be able to discover certain
c. relate the findings
with pertinent idea patterns governing the entire data
 ENGAGE

The following are examples of manifestations and reasons behind the

emotions that the students experience. Each column represents the situation for
the students; each column should contain three types of emotion. After arranging
the emotions on the answer sheet provided, come up with a theme for each set
of columns. Write the theme on the blue colored boxes above each situation.


Wining a prize in Receiving failing grades Getting into a fight with a

school contest classmate

Smiling
 Crying
 Frowning
 Screaming
 Being lethargic
 Glowing eyes
 Clenched fists
  Beaming
 Glaring eyes

EXPLORE

After gathering your data, it is now time to write the results and discussion of your study.
This section has two portions and it reports and explains the data you collected. The portions
can be written in two ways. The results and discussion can be combined into one
consolidated section or written as two separate sections in the paper.

One consolidated section Two separate sections

Results and Discussion Results

1. Research Objective/ Question 1 1. Results for Research

a. Results Objective/ Question 1
b. Discussion 2. Results for Research
Objective/ Question 2
3. Results for Research
2. Research Objective/ Question 2 Objective/ Question 3
a. Results
b. Discussion Discussion

1. Discussion of Results for

3. Research Objective/ Question 3 Research Objective 1
a. Results 2. Discussion of Results for
b. Discussion Research Objective 2
3. Discussion of Results for Research
Objective 3

EXPLAIN
1.RESULTS
 The results section is where you report the findings of your study
based upon the methodology [or methodologies] you applied to gather
information. The results section should state the findings of the research
arranged in a logical sequence without bias or interpretation. A section
describing results is particularly necessary if your paper includes data
generated from your own research (Annesley,2010).

Present the results on how the research questions or findings are presented

The presentation of the results shuld correspond to each research question or objetive.
Avoid presenting results that do not answer your research question or objectives.

In your presentation of results, feature direct quotations

Include negative results in your results portion.

Negative results are those data that run contrary to your expected results.

Take caution in featuring sidelights in your presentation of results

Sidelights - findings that do not address the research questions and objectives of your study.
It can also be used for future research and advanced knowledge.
Sidelights can be featured at the end of each subsection corresponding to
a research objectives or question or at the end of the results portion itself.

Use non-prose materails appropriately

Nonprose materials - tables, graph and charts

These are best used in a combination of quantitative and qualitative study.
If used in a qualiative study, the main focus should be on the textual presentation.

Observe the guidelines in creating your non-prose

materials
Your non-prose materials should be understandable on their own.
They should not repeat what is contained in the textual findings but should highlight the
relationship among the data
Avoid providing comments about the findings and interpreting your results

Reserve these comments for the discussion portion in order to

distinguish between this portion and the results portion.

 Below is an example of results portion in a qualitative study Sample

 Results portion:

Master Theme Arising

from
Controlling the impact  Numbers
of the suicide  Avoiding of sharing of feelings
 Protective
 Watching other family members
 Fearful of further suicides
 Responding to suicide attempts
 Changes in communication patterns
 Being careful of what is said and avoiding former
social activities
Making sense of  Searching for reasons why the suicide happened
the suicide  Questioning the prior relationship with the deceased
 Feeling guilt and blame
 Reviewing the deceased character
 Looking for external stressors
 The motive for suicide
 Reviewing the suicide act
Social uneasiness  Needing support but felt let down by friends and
community
 Feeling marked by suicide
 Upset by people’s responses
 Self-imposed social isolation
 Protective about details of suicide when asked
 Feeling understood and safer with others that are
bereaved by suicide
Purposefulness  The death had changed how life is viewed
 A feeling that their lives are totally changed and
that the deceased is now helping them
 Engaging in new activities
 Role in helping others
The first master theme “Controlling the impact of the suicide”
describes the immediate reaction of the participants when they
discovered that their relative had killed themselves. The early months
were at a time of intense pain, distress, fear, and turmoil for both the
individual and family as a whole. The impact of the suicide on the family
system was controlled in two ways. Participants assumed the role of
“protector”, watching for fear of more suicides occurring in the family, while
siblings became “peacekeepers.” Parents said that they need to engage in
“safety behaviors” because they were very frightened and worried about
further suicide occurring among surviving children.

“We walk on eggshells… it’s the fear that’s the worst…” (Donal:
81a, b)They managed this fear by adopting a watchfulness strategy with
their children, Donal kept a nightly vigil.

“for three months every night, at 1:00, 2:00, and 3:00 in the
morning and looking in to see if he was (other son) alright.” (Donal:81c, d)

On the second master theme “making sense of the suicide” described how
participants tried to make sense of the suicide. They achieved this by
ruminating about the pre-death demeanor of the deceased and about the
events that led up to the actual act of suicide. The compelling factor that
was noted in the transcripts was that participants needed to match the
deliberateness of the suicide to what they believed about the world, about
themselves, and their loved one. This task was very difficult for them. The
deliberateness of the suicide act was discrepant with their beliefs about a
predictable world. They tried to integrate the experience of suicide into
their schemas about life by considering how the death fitted into what they
already knew about the cause of suicide:

“But I can accept there was something in [ ] for whatever

reason, depression or something out there that led him to do that. Maybe
something we did’nt know about, something in his personality type, there
was something in { }’s that he went and did it.” (Cathy: 94b ,c)
If you have a stable net connection, you may click the following links for additional information on thematic
analysis: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KUZ6iGvJlGI&list=RDCMUC2oCugzU6W8-
h95W7eBTUEg&start_radio=1&t=99

2.DISCUSSION
The discussion portion provides the interpretation of the results.
This interpretation is linked to the literature and studies you have cited in
your literature review. However, the discussion of your results is not
simply a restating your introduction or related literature. Instead you
should explain how your findings differ from those of other studies, or how
these studies support your findings. You also need to explain how your
findings address your research question or objectives. Doing all of these
will help you provide significant understanding or insights regarding the
data or phenomenon you are investigating.
Anchor your research discussion portion on your
research objectives and questions

Start with restating your research questions or objectives in a declarative form.

Followed by a synopsis of your results.

In organizing your discussion, start from the specific to general

Emphasis the new or important findings from your results, then explain the reason
behind these findings.
Discuss the interpretation of the unexpected results.

Refrain from merely repeating your result or just introducing new results in your
discussion

Provide an alternative explanation for your findings, this enablesyou to

contribute to your field of study.
Avoid making unnecessary speculations that are not sufficiently supported by your
findings.

Link the results to the related literature and research works similar to your
own, as well as the theories and current practices in your field of study

Do previous studies or theories support or contradict your findings and vice versa?
How do your findings contribute to the literature in your field of study?
Review more studies and scholarly works as well in order to explain the results.
Remember to cite all the sources you will be using in your discussion.

Present the potential limitations of your interpretation

For example, you may say that your interpretation can be limited due to small
sample size used in data collection. In explaining these limitations, however, refarin
from being apologetic.
3.DRAWING CONCLUSION
The conclusion is intended to help the reader understand why your
research should matter to them after they have finished reading the paper. A
conclusion is not merely a summary of the main topics covered or a re-
statement of your research problem, but a synthesis of key points and, if
applicable, where you recommend new areas for future research. For most
college-level research papers, one or two well-developed paragraphs is
sufficient for a conclusion, although in some cases, three or more
paragraphs may be required.

 After analyzing the data you have gathered your next step is to draw your
conclusion. This makes you form conclusions that arise from the factual data
you encountered and analyzed.

Any Conclusions drawn or deduced by you from facts or

statements resulting from logical thinking rather than from
another assumption, prediction, or generalization are the only
ones included in the conclusion section of your research paper
(Decilo, 2014).

 Any conclusion that you give about what you found out through your
analysis of data you collected is a “warranted conclusion,” which explains
how the evidence or findings resulting from your data analysis stands to
prove or disprove your conclusion.

The best kind of proof to back up your conclusion is one that is factual
and logical or given by correct reasoning.

 Make your conclusions related to the claims or arguments of varied research

studies and written works you have subjected to your Review of Related
Literature.
Creating a link between your discoveries and your review of
literature indicates the ability of your paper to expand or
enhance any existing knowledge about your research study
(Harding, 2013).
 Confidently state how your conclusions work to debunk or contradict existing
theories, correlative assumptions, and published works.

 Your conclusion must obviously provide sufficient evidence to justify their

alignment with or its support to recent theories and research findings.

Most importantly, your conclusions must present your

judgement of the truthfulness of your findings and your
assessment of their capacity to answer either positively or
negatively your research hypothesis or research question
(Silverman, 2013; Morgan 2014).

Pointers in Writing Conclusion

Explain your point in simple and clear sentences.

Use Expressions that center on the topic rather than on yourself, the
researcher.

Include only necessary items; exclude any piece of information or picture

not closely related to your report.

Have your conclusion contain only valid and supported findings instead of
falsified results.

Practice utmost honesty and objectivity in stating the results of your critical
evaluation of outcomes that you expect to support your conclusion.

4.LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

This refers to the factors that the researcher fails to control or use and
can be addressed by future studies. It puts boundaries or limits to the
extensiveness of your findings and the strength of your conclusions
It should be noted that the limitations of the study are different from the
scope and delimitations of the research. Limitations of the study pertain to the
factors that the researcher failed to control or consider throughout course of the
study. Thus, the scope and delimitation pertains to what you have focused on in
your study as you started it. In contrast, the limitations of the study pertain to the
conditions that emerged in your research as it progressed.

5.RECOMMENDATIONS
The recommendations of your paper has two functions. While the
implications identify the areas of concern that can be addressed based on the
findings, the recommendations provide an actual course of action to address
these areas of concern. Thus, your recommendations may be in terms of
theoretical, practical, or methodological aspects. The second function relates to
how future studies can address the limitations encountered in your research. For
instance, if the sample size is one of the limitations of your study, you may state
that future studies can increase the number of participants involved.

5.REPORTING AND SHARING

FINDINGS
The findings of your research are meant to be reported to or shared
with others because your primary aim in researching is to strengthen existing
knowledge or discover new ones for the improvement of the world. Hence, you
have to bring your findings out to the readers in a way that you must
communicate things you procedurally performed and things you found out
through your principled data collecting and analysis methods.

Take into consideration your listeners/ readers and their extent of

knowledge about the subject area you intend to discuss. Listeners/ readers get
more interested in a certain topic when they can benefit from it or even relate to
it. Usually the sharing of information can be more interesting and easily
understood if you go into detail.

Presenting Qualitative Data

Qualitative is usually expressed in words, and this results in a large

quantity of written material, through which you must guide your reader.
Structure is therefore very important. Try to make your sections and
subsections reflect the themes that have emerged from your analysis of the
data, and to make sure your reader knows how these themes evolved.

The reporting of qualitative data usually consists of words, from

written documents or interview transcripts (but may include images), which
have been analyzed in some way, often into themes. In reporting the data,
it is generally important to convey both the themes and some of the flavor
of the actual words.

Discussing results and drawing conclusions involves making

claims about interpretation, significance and applicability. This is done
within a research tradition where existing knowledge is always being
modified in the light of new results.
 Draw together your research question and your own research
results.
Research question Summarize the major findings that come from the research and
relate them to what you originally proposed to find out.

Show how your results fit in with other work that has been done in
your field.
Point out the agreements and disagreements between your data
Relation to other and that of others.
In presenting your own interpretation of the results, consider the
research strengths and weaknesses of alternative interpretations from the
literature.
It is also important to point out the limitations of your study as
recommendation for future researchers.

Using cautious Knowledge you are sure of because you have reliable evidence for it
Other knowledge you are less sure of
language Other knowledge you think is only within the realms of possibility

ELABORATE

Referencing your Research (RECALL)

Referencing your research means directing your readers

to exact sources of data or information stated in your report,
particularly those stated in the review of related literature. This is
easy for you if the moment you collect your data, you begin
practicing a systematic, accurate, and complete recording of the
identities of the sources of data. Without proper referencing,
readers might question the validity of the contents of your
research paper.

Two commonly used referencing style

I. MLA Style – Modern Language Association

 This referencing style is often used in literature, history, and arts.
 Under the MLA system, the items in the bibliography are arranged
alphabetically, you do not need to number them.
 Documentary notes follow the same entry as bibliography except for
the name wherein the first name precedes the family name. (base it on
example one under Bibliography; Josie, Cruz A.)
 For bibliography entry, write the book information in this order:
Full author's surname and first name (optional middle name
initial), title of the book or periodical, place of publication,
publisher, and date of publication.

Examples:
 One author:
Cruz, Josie A. Mt. Pinatubo Lahar.(Quezon City:GB Press.
2016).
 Two authors:
Oteza, Nina C. and David, Jose L. Climate Change.(Baguio City:KLM
Co.2018)
 Three authors: (List names in order they appear on the
title page.)
Ramos, Celso A., Bautista, Cora C. and Vinluan, Gloria F. Energy-
giving Foods.(Pasay City:ABC Press. 2016)
 Three or more authors: (Use the first name in the list)
Samson, Esther N. et al. Philippine Trial Courts. (Quezon
City: Rex Book Store, Inc. 2016).
 Thesis, Dissertations and other Unpublished Works Example:
Villar, Rosalina. D.”Modern Language Theories” (Ph.D dizz., U.P.
Diliman, 2016).
 Citation or In-text Citation – Family name of the author and page
number of info.
Examples:
 (Lizardo 257)
 (Decena, Obeza, Jurado (120-130)
 (Fortun et al. 234 – 250)
 (Gregorio: 1:56 – 80

II. APA Style - American Psychological Association

• This is also called "Author-Date Style." This is often used by
researchers in the field of natural science and social sciences.
• References are arranged alphabetically.
  Full author’s surname and first name - Initials and middle initials
(optional middle initials), date of publication, title of the book or
periodical - Italicized, place of publication, and the publisher.
Examples:
 One author:
Fajardo, J. A. (2016). The ebola virus. Quezon City: GB press.
 Two authors:
Oropesa, N. C. & David, J. L. (2017). Palawan Penal colony. Baguio
City: KLM Company.
 Three authors: (List names in order they appear on the title
page.)
Revilla, C. A., Bautista, C. C., & Vinuya, G. F. (2017). Boy scout
jamborees. Pasay City: ABC Press.
 Three or more authors: (Use the first name in the list)
Sonora, E. N. et al. (2016). Regional trial courts. Quezon City: Rex
Book Store, Inc.

APA for online materials

 Slides and films/Videos Examples:

Guadencio, K. C. (2016). “Family
planning.” Quezon City:
Palmal Press. Slides.
Arenas, E. A. (2017). “Philippine rental
laws.” Manila: SSG Press.
Filmstrip.
 Online Books Example:
Litchten, F. D. (2016). American pragmatics.
http:AMPRA 2etext2014/14w0310txtz.

 Citation or In-text citation – Family name of the author

and year of pubication
Example:
 (Lizardo, 2016)
 (Decena, Obeza, Jurado 2016, pp. 120-130)
 (Fortun et al, 2016)
 According to Gregorio(2017)
 Olivares (2016) maintains that… - Family name, date and
phrase.
* A study of the Yolanda Tent House is a “doable research
work” (Aquino, 2016, p.78) 19

If you have a stable net connection, you may look for the following links for additional information:
 https://sscc.libguides.com/citations/mlavsapa
 https://www.youtube.co m/watch?v=qPODFCNIJeA
 Structure/Format of a Research Report
I. Title
The title gives information about the research, short and catchy that
should attract the reader.
II. Abstract
It concisely contains all essential components of the research all
summed up in 150 to 200 words.
III. Introduction
This part explains the background of the research problem, and
states a set of specific research questions and of optional hypotheses or
assumptions.
IV. Method
This section explains the types and sources of data as well as the
method you used in collecting and analyzing the data you have gathered.
V. Findings
This part contains your analyzed findings that can be presented in
several ways such as: graphical presentation, statistical method or written
discussion.
VI. Discussion & Conclusion
Findings resulting from thematically or theoretically gathered and
analyzed data with the capacity of leading you to a valid conclusion are
explained in this section.
VII. Recommendations
To broaden the readers' knowledge and understanding of the
area covered by the research, recommend or let the readers positively
consider some activities they can possibly do to extend, modify, replicate,
or validate the findings of your research work.
VIII. References
Alphabetize, identify, and list in this section all sources of
knowledge you used in carrying out your study.
IX. Appendix
This contains copies of the table, questionnaires, interview rates,
observation checklist, and other materials that are indispensable or
necessary in completing your research study.18
 EVALUATE Performance Check 3: 30 PTS

Following the structure of Methodology indicated on page 77, write your

“Methodology” section. Make sure that you accurately paraphrase, summarize, or
directly quote the information you have borrowed from your sources, and that you
cite them properly.

10
The qualitative research design,
sampling method, and
instruments are appropriate and
well justified.
The sample size is sufficient and
Content the participants are described
clearly.
5
The ideas are correctly
patterned and the flow of ideas
is smooth and easy to
understand.
Organization
Cohesive
devices are effectively used.
5 1
The work uses language
appropriate to context. The work
eliminates
Style wordiness and ambiguity.
5 3
The work observes the
grammatical conventions in
standard English. Word choice
is appropriate and sentences
Mechanics are
well-structured.
5 3
The work uses an appropriate
citation and reference
Sources format.
Total
8 6
The qualitative research
The qualitative research design, sampling method,
design, sampling and instruments are not
method, and instruments appropriate and not justified.
are appropriate and The sample size is not
justified. The sample size sufficient and the participants
is sufficient and the are not described.
participants are
described.
3 1
The ideas are patterned
and the flow of ideas is The ideas are patterned. The
smooth and easy to flow of ideas is ambiguous.
understand.
Cohesive devices are
used.
3
The work is uses
language appropriate to The work uses language
context but it is wordy inappropriate to context.
and ambiguous.
1
The work observes the The work does not observe
grammatical conventions grammatical conventions in
in standard English. standard English.
1
The work did not use citation
The work used citation
and reference format. and reference format.
 CULMINATING PERFORMANCE
TASK : 30 PTS

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