Michael J. Reiss (Editor), Mark Winterbottom (Editor) - Teaching Secondary Biology-Hodder Education (2021)

Teaching Secondary
Biology
3rd Edition
Editors: Michael J. Reiss and
Mark Winterbottom
Series editor: Chris Harrison
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Titles in this series:
Teaching Secondary Biology 978 1 5104 6256 4
Teaching Secondary Chemistry 978 1 5104 6257 1
Teaching Secondary Physics 978 1 5104 6258 8
Acknowledgements
The Publishers would like to thank the following for permission to reproduce copyright material.
Photo on page 177 © Juraj Kamenicky/Shutterstock.com
Thanks to Wynne Harlen and The Association for Science Education for permission to reproduce extracts from Harlen, W.
(ed.) (2010) Principles and Big Ideas of Science Education. Hatfield: The Association for Science Education and from Harlen, W.
(ed.) (2015) Working with Big Ideas of Science Education. Trieste: InterAcademy Partnership on pages 4, 5 and 252 of this book.
Thanks to Steve Tilling and The Association for Science Education for permission to reproduce the data in Table 11.5,
which is taken from Tilling, S. (2007) Outdoor science. Linking trees with energy. School Science Review, 89 (327), 11–15.
Thanks to The Association for Science Education for permission to reproduce an extract from Lambert, D. and Reiss, M.J.
(2015) The place of fieldwork in science qualifications. School Science Review, 97 (359), 89–96 on page 254 of this book.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been inadvertently overlooked, the Publishers
will be pleased to make the necessary arrangements at the first opportunity.
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Education cannot be held responsible for the content of any website mentioned in this book. It is sometimes possible to
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ISBN: 978 1 5104 6256 4
© Association for Science Education 2021
First published in 2000.
Second edition published in 2011.
This edition published in 2021 by
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A catalogue record for this title is available from the British Library.
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Contents
Contributors iv
Acknowledgements and Dedication xi
1 The principles behind secondary biology teaching 1
Michael J. Reiss and Mark Winterbottom
2 Cells 17
Chris Harrison and Rachel Waterhouse
3 Energy and materials 44

Jeremy Airey and Elizabeth Lupton
4 Exchange 73
Ann Fullick and Indira Banner
5 Transport 97
Mark Winterbottom and Dan Jenkins
6 Communication and control 127

Mike Cassidy and Beverley Goodger
7 Reproduction 155
Mary Berry and Michael J. Reiss
8 Variation 181
Paul Davies and Neil Ingram
9 Evolution 207
Alistair Moore and Chris Graham
10 Biodiversity 228
Marcus Grace and David Slingsby
11 The environment 251

Melissa Glackin and Steve Tilling
12 Microbiology and biotechnology 281

John Schollar and Jenny Byrne
Index 313
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Contributors
Michael J. Reiss is Professor of Science Education at UCL Institute of
Education, a Fellow of the Academy of Social Sciences, a member of the
Nuffield Council on Bioethics, Visiting Professor at the Universities of York and
the Royal Veterinary College, Honorary Fellow of the College of Teachers,
Docent at the University of Helsinki, President of the International Society
for Science and Religion, President of the International Association for
Science and Religion in Schools and a Priest in the Church of England. He
was Director of the Salters-Nuffield Advanced Biology Project (2000–15), a
member of the Farm Animal Welfare Council/Committee (2004–12), Director of
Education at the Royal Society (2006–08), a member of the GM Science Review
Panel (2002–04), Specialist Advisor to the House of Lords Select Committee on
Animals in Scientific Procedures (2001–02) and Chair of EuropaBio’s External
Advisory Group on Ethics (2000–01). His academic interests are in science
education, sex education and bioethics. Books of his include: Barmania,
S. & Reiss, M. J. (2018) Islam and Health Policies Related to HIV Prevention
in Malaysia, Springer; Abrahams, I. & Reiss, M. J. (Eds) (2017) Enhancing
Learning with Effective Practical Science 11-16, Bloomsbury; Reiss, M. J. &
White, J. (2013) An Aims-based Curriculum, IOE Press; Jones, A., McKim, A.
& Reiss, M. (Eds) (2010) Ethics in the Science and Technology Classroom: A
New Approach to Teaching and Learning, Sense; Jones, L. & Reiss, M. J. (Eds)
(2007) Teaching about Scientific Origins: Taking Account of Creationism, Peter
Lang; Braund, M. & Reiss, M. J. (Eds) (2004) Learning Science Outside the
Classroom, RoutledgeFalmer; Halstead, J. M. & Reiss, M. J. (2003) Values in
Sex Education: From Principles to Practice, RoutledgeFalmer; and Reiss, M. J.
(2000) Understanding Science Lessons: Five Years of Science Teaching, Open
University Press.
Mark Winterbottom is a Senior Lecturer in Science Education at the Faculty
of Education, University of Cambridge. He leads the science/biology PGCE
course, as well as being course manager for the Secondary PGCE. He is
a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology, Editor of the Journal of Biological
Education, Chair of the judging panel for the Biology Teacher of the Year
Award in the UK and a member of the judging panel for Cambridge University
Press’ dedicated teacher awards. Mark’s research interests are in Science
and Biology education, teacher education and classroom environment. He
has a large group of PhD students researching diverse aspects of science
education, in both formal and informal contexts. He is a founding member
of the Centre of Excellence in Technology Education and has been an active
participant in the Cambridge–Africa Partnership for Research Excellence.
Mark has authored and contributed to a wide variety of Biology textbooks for
11–14, GCSE, A level, and BTEC students, along with a number of books for
teachers and Masters students in Education. Mark is a senior examiner at
GCSE and A level, for both UK and international qualifications, and regularly
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Contributors
runs continuing professional development courses on behalf of domestic

and international examination boards. He has been involved in a number of
Biology and Science curriculum-development projects, as well as teacher
education and development projects in the UK and around the world. Before
working at Cambridge, Mark was Head of Biology in a UK upper school. He
undertook his own PGCE at the University of Cambridge, and gained his PhD
from the University of Sheffield, spending several months following a small
bird around the Namibian veld.
Chris Harrison is Professor of Science Education at King’s College London
where she researches in the areas of assessment and teacher professional
learning. Chris started her professional life as a Science teacher in London
schools for 13 years. On joining King’s, she began her PhD focusing on
classroom assessment, supervised by Professor Paul Black. Following the
publication of Inside the Black Box (Black & Wiliam, 1998), she worked on the
innovative KMOFAP study which looked at assessment for learning in Science,
English and Mathematics classrooms. Several studies and consultancies
developed from this work and the collaborative action research approach
that she developed through these projects has informed many national and
international projects. Chris’ research has transformed the ways teachers
use assessment in their classrooms through diagnosis and feedback to
learners. She encourages teachers to use classroom talk to tap into children’s
thinking and use the evidence of where they are in their learning to inform
next steps. Chris’ recent work has investigated STEM inquiry learning, pre-
service teachers’ assessment capabilities and assessment of practical skills
in science. Chris is known, both nationally and internationally, for the ways she
can relate research to practice, made possible through extensive experience
of teacher education from both a research and a teaching perspective. She is
an enthusiastic member of the Association for Science Education, working on
several committees and projects and was Chair of ASE in 2015.
Jeremy Airey has been a biologist in immunology research and a secondary
school Science teacher. For several years, he was a senior professional
development leader at what is now the National STEM Learning Centre,
with a brief that included Biology, Psychology and early career secondary
Science teachers. He is now a lecturer in the University of York Department of
Education, where he enjoys being a tutor on the Science PGCE programme
and directing the studies of the department’s undergraduates.
Indira Banner is a lecturer in Science Education at the University of Leeds.
She taught Biology in secondary school before becoming Head of the
Biology PGCE at Leeds. Her research interests include students’ attitudes to
science in schools and using art in science teaching. She has several PhD
students including current school science teachers. Indira has co-edited and
contributed towards books written to support science teachers and teaching
in schools.
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Contributors
Mary Berry has taught all stages of secondary science, with A level specialism
in Biology for over 20 years. With 12 years’ experience as a Curriculum Leader
for Science, Mary has been a coach and mentor to trainee, newly qualified
and experienced teachers, as well as an examiner. Prior to teaching, Mary
completed a PhD in ecology at Wye College, University of London having
previously worked for the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. Her
experience includes research on seeds and weed ecology in organic farming
systems. Mary has been involved with the Gatsby Plant Sciences Summer
School, Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS), and the United Kingdom Plant
Sciences Forum (UKPSF). Mary is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology and
a Fellow of the Chartered College of Teaching. She strives to encourage a love
of science, and an appreciation of the role and beauty of plants.
Jenny Byrne is Associate Professor in Education at Southampton Education
School, University of Southampton, with expertise and research interests in
biological science and health education. Jenny graduated from Birmingham
University with a B.Sc. in Bacteriology. After completing a PGCE at Durham
University, Jenny taught secondary biology, eventually becoming Head
of Science. Jenny has taught in all phases of education including a pupil
referral unit. She also worked as a health education officer and adviser
before moving to Higher Education. Since then, she has taught and led
undergraduate and PGCE primary and secondary science programmes, as
well as supervised masters and PhD students. Her research interests include
children’s knowledge and understanding of microbes and effective teaching
strategies related to microbes and health education; this includes exploring
the connections between science and health education, including scientific
and health literacy.
Mike Cassidy has taught in schools, colleges, and universities. He is a
biologist and educator and currently Teaching Fellow in Science Education
at Durham University. Mike previously taught Science Communication,
Evolutionary Biology and Education at the University of Warwick. He has
worked extensively with the Royal Society of Biology and is a Fellow both of
that Society and the Linnaean Society. Mike has appeared on TV and written
textbooks and Biology publications, including his book on Biological Evolution
(2020). His interest in whole organism biology (particularly animal behaviour
and evolution) has led to a strong interest in matters of body coordination.
Paul Davies has been involved in biology education for over twenty years.
He started his career teaching biology in secondary school before moving to
work in the field of biology education research and teacher training, working
at University College London Institute of Education (UCL IOE). Here, Paul
was the leader for the Science PGCE programme and carried out research
into the teaching of evolution and using technology in learning biology. Paul
moved back into the school system five years ago and is currently the Head of
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Contributors
Science and Director of Teaching and Learning at Queen’s College, London.

Still an Associate Lecturer at UCL IOE, and co-leader of the Biology Education
Research Group, Paul enjoys bringing aspects of educational research into
the school setting as well as continuing with his own research into biology
education.
Ann Fullick graduated in Natural Sciences from Cambridge University and
taught biology in a variety of schools, eventually running a large science
department and becoming an A level examiner. She has written almost 200
textbooks, widely used both in the UK and in many countries around the world.
Her titles cover Key Stage 3, GCSE Biology, IGCSE Biology, A level Biology,
GNVQs, BTECs, 21st Century Science, Science for Public Understanding and
CSEC (Caribbean GCSE), along with around 30 books on topics ranging from
infertility treatment and organ transplants to biographies of Charles Darwin
and others. Ann is a very active Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology, working
on their curriculum group, and was awarded the RSB President’s medal in
2020. She is also a member of the Biological Education Research Group.
Her work gives her a deep insight into teaching and learning Biology both
nationally and internationally.
Melissa Glackin is senior lecturer in science education in the School of
Education, Communication and Society at King’s College London. Melissa’s
research and teaching interests include teaching and learning science outside
the classroom, teachers’ beliefs and self-efficacy, in-service and pre-service
teacher professional development and outdoor science and environmental
education curriculum development. She is programme director for the MA in
STEM Education and supervises PhD candidates in topics relating to learning
inside and outside the classroom. Melissa is a trustee of London Wildlife Trust
and an invited fellow of the National Association of Environment Education.
Beverley Goodger has taught Biology in secondary schools in the UK since
1983. She was the inaugural winner of the Royal Society of Biology’s School
Biology Teacher of the Year Award in 2013 and has been a member of the
judging panel for the Award since 2014. Her other roles within the RSB have
included membership of the Editorial Board for the Society’s Journal of
Biological Education and of the Biology Curriculum Committee. Beverley is an
Ambassador for Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS) and has worked with
them to develop plant science practical protocols and resources and to write,
review and facilitate online courses developed by SAPS and STEM Learning.
Marcus Grace is Professor of Science Education and former Head of the
Education School at the University of Southampton, where, until recently, he
also coordinated the Science PGCE courses. He taught for many years in
comprehensive schools in London and was a Headteacher at an international
school in Tokyo. One of his main interests is in teaching and learning about
socio-scientific issues, particularly those relating to biodiversity, conservation
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Contributors
and the environment. He is Chair of the Academic Committee of European

Researchers in Didactics of Biology (ERIDOB), and Chair of the UK Biology
Education Research Group (BERG), a Royal Society of Biology special
interest group.
Chris Graham has been teaching Biology since 2004. He is currently Head
of Biology at Hills Road Sixth Form College in Cambridge. Between 2007 and
2015, he was seconded to work for one day a week on the Science PGCE
course at Cambridge University. He is now seconded for one day a week to
develop education resources for Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS). He
is passionate about supporting teachers to open students’ eyes to the wonder
of biology, and helping students to develop a deep understanding of, and
great appreciation for, biology. In 2009, he led a project that won the Eden
Project Environment Award and was runner up in the Rolls Royce Science
Prize. He was filmed for a video supporting teachers to run a lung dissection
demonstration as part of National Science and Engineering Week in 2014
and he has been involved in developing teaching resources for SAPS for
many years.
Neil Ingram has many years’ experience as a biology teacher in a variety of
secondary schools, Head of Science and an A level examiner. He has written
extensively for Nuffield curriculum projects, co-authored with Michael Roberts,
and has recently co-authored a book on evolution for Oxford University Press.
He is interested in curriculum development for middle years biology and is
a member of the Royal Society of Biology education committee. He is senior
lecturer in science education in the University of Bristol, where he teaches the
biology programme. He is interested in the impact of genomics on society, and
runs a course on Genetics, Society and Education in the University of Bristol.
Dan Jenkins is Director of the Science and Plants for Schools (SAPS) project
and Head of the Gatsby Plant Science Education Programme, based at the
University of Cambridge. As a passionate botanist and science educator Dan
has spent over 10 years enthusing teachers to engage with plant science
teaching resources. Science education research informs the SAPS approach
to design and implementation of new teaching resources to support the
11–18 curriculum. Dan’s work focuses on students’ interest in plant biology
topics and supporting the development of pedagogic content knowledge with
pre-service teachers. Dan has developed teaching resources to consider,
for example, alternative conceptions in plant science topics, developing
animations and practical lab-based activities to address these concerns.
Elizabeth Lupton taught in a comprehensive school in Gateshead in North
East England for 21 years. She was Head of Biology, Head of Post-16, and
was part of the school’s teaching and learning team. Elizabeth worked with
the University of York Science Education Group, producing materials for the
Best Evidence Science Teaching project, and she was lead biologist for the
ASE’s BEST STEPS diagnostic materials. She is a senior examiner for GCSE
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Biology and when not working on something to do with science education or

assessment, she can be found riding (and taming!) her beloved horses, Amy
and Saffron.
Alistair Moore is a research fellow in science education at the University of
York Science Education Group with many years of experience in research-
informed development of curricula, teaching resources and assessment
materials for school science. He regularly works with teachers to undertake
research in schools, most recently as part of the Practical Assessment in
School Science (PASS) research project, undertaken in response to reforms
of the assessment of practical skills in GCSE and A level science. He also
believes in applying the findings of research to transform evidence into
practice and is the lead biologist for the Best Evidence Science Teaching
(BEST) project, which is developing hundreds of research-informed teaching
resources and making them freely available to teachers. In his spare time,
he is a senior examiner for GCSE Biology, and sits on the RSB Curriculum
Committee and the ASE Research Committee.
John Schollar started his career as a Biology teacher in London and then
as Head of Biology at a large Berkshire comprehensive school. After a
secondment to a biotechnology project at the University of Reading to
develop in-service training resources, John moved to the National Centre for
Biotechnology Education (NCBE) as the Development Officer before taking on
the role of Co-Director of the Centre. He designed and developed practical
workshop activities in microbiology, biotechnology and DNA technology for
teachers and technicians, plus hands-on DNA workshops for pupils. For many
years, he delivered microbiology workshops for teachers, technicians and
PGCE students across the UK for the Microbiology Society. His involvement in
two European projects developed and disseminated biotechnology resources
across Europe and he was honoured with a Doctorate from Gothenburg
University for his design and delivery of biotechnology training courses for
Swedish teachers. He is Vice-Chairman of Microbiology in Schools Advisory
Committee (MiSAC).
David Slingsby gained a PhD in plant ecology at the University of Bristol
and is Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology. He combined being a biology
teacher with plenty of field work at both GCSE and A level with a variety of
other ecological academic activities. These included a long-term study of a
classic serpentine site in Shetland from 1970 to 2010 (with the help of his A
level students) resulting in peer-reviewed papers published in international
journals (www.unst-serpentine.uk), serving as Chair of Education of the British
Ecological Society, as Editor of the Journal of Biological Education (Royal
Society of Biology) and as an A level biology Principal Examiner in SNAB
biology. At the time of writing, he works as a tutor for two Open University level
three modules, both in ecology, ’Terrestrial Ecosystems’ and ‘Environment –
responding to change’.
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Contributors
Steve Tilling is an ecologist with a particular interest in promoting, supporting

and protecting fieldwork education. He is currently an Honorary Senior
Research Associate at University College London’s Institute of Education.
Until his recent retirement, he was the Director of Communications at the
Field Studies Council (FSC). Throughout his FSC career, he worked in many
countries with teachers, students and community groups, including some
global biodiversity hotspots. That experience has reinforced his belief that
science education should include strong elements of sustainability education
with opportunities to explore 21st Century environmental issues through
fieldwork, including experiences in distant locations as well as those closer to
home and school.
Rachel Waterhouse is an experienced Head of Science who has worked
across a range of secondary schools in London for 16 years. She has
taught across all stages of secondary science including A level Biology and
Chemistry. Since completing her MA in Science Education in 2008 at King’s
College London, Rachel has worked regularly as a visiting lecturer on their
PGCE Biology course. Her work with PGCE programmes also extended to
Roehampton University and the Sutton Schools Alliance, which led to her
receiving an Inspirational Educator Award in 2015. Rachel is currently the
Head of Science at Manor House School, Bookham, where she is passionate
about inspiring the next leaders in science through her delivery of the
Leadership Skills Programme and development of the use of technology to
support learning.
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Acknowledgements
The authors and editors are very grateful to the following for their advice
during the preparation of this book:
Chris Harrison (Subject Advisor)
ASE Safeguards Committee
ASE member reviewers
Thank you to the reviewers of this book: Andrew Chandler-Grevatt, Dave
Dennis, Pat Dower, Sofia Castro De Luz, Matthew Livesey, Linda Needham,
Richard Needham, Uzma Sarwar, Greg Seal, Paul Spenceley and James
Williams.
Thanks also to the authors of the previous edition of this book: Nigel Skinner,
Jennifer Harrison, Jenny Lewis, Neil Ingram, Susan Barker and Roger Lock.
Thank you to Ralph Whitcher and the ASE’s Health & Safety Group.
Finally, thanks to Marianne Cutler for project management on behalf of ASE.
Dedication
This book is dedicated to Tim King and Stephen Tomkins.
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1 The principles behind
secondary biology teaching
Michael J. Reiss and Mark Winterbottom
Introduction
In this book, our aim is to help biology to be taught so that students at
secondary school (we have in mind particularly the 11–16 age range) build an
excellent understanding of the subject, enhance their interest in it and learn
to connect ideas from disparate areas of biology. There are twelve chapters,
this one and then eleven that look at particular areas within biology – such as
‘cells’ or ‘evolution’ – and discuss how each might be taught.
This book is one of a series of three Association for Science Education
handbooks, the others being parallel volumes in chemistry and physics. The
first edition of this book was published in 1999, over 20 years ago; the second
edition in 2011, a decade ago. This third edition retains the basic structure of
the previous editions but includes a number of new authors and all chapters
have been substantially revised and brought up to date.
The author team has kept in mind a secondary teacher confronted with the
task of teaching a specific topic, such as respiration or ecosystems, and the
preparation they would need to undertake. What does such a teacher need
to produce a series of effective lessons, that will also engage learners and
enhance or sustain their curiosity? Some teachers will approach this task
with an excellent understanding of the topic. However, we have kept in mind
that not all teachers of secondary biology have a degree in the subject and
that, even if they do, very few degrees cover all of secondary school biology.
We hope that all teachers of secondary school biology, even if they have been
teaching the subject for some time, will find much of value in here.
This chapter examines the discipline of biology and discusses approaches
to teaching which enable students to engage in the discipline, to build their
identity as biologists and to learn conceptual ideas in the subject.
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1 The principles behind secondary biology teaching
1.1 What is biology?

It is standard for biology textbooks to assert that biology is the study of life
– and this is indeed the case if we avoid a narrow interpretation that might
exclude the inorganic building blocks of life, important non-living features
of the environment (temperature, salinity and so on) and the fate of dead
organisms (decay and/or fossilisation).
Key concepts in biology

There are a number of key concepts within biology, perhaps more than in
chemistry or physics. There is no particular order that has been shown to be best
for introducing these to students; indeed, many of them are specific to particular
areas of biology. For example, a crucial realisation in cell and organism biology
was that the cell is a fundamental unit. This insight is usually attributed to Rudolf
Virchow who, in 1858, coined the epigram Omnis cellula e cellula (‘all cells
come from cells’). Virchow was a polymath; in addition to being a biologist (with
some 2000 scientific publications to his name), he was also a prehistorian and
a politician. He was the first to describe and name a number of diseases and
other pathological conditions, including embolism, leukaemia, spina bifida
and thrombosis; he introduced hair analysis into forensics and was the first to
systematise how autopsies were undertaken. At the same time, he was an anti-
evolutionist and called Charles Darwin an ‘ignoramus’, which seems a touch
harsh.
Another key concept (or pair of concepts) within biology – but found in
the other sciences – is to do with the flow of energy and the circulation of
materials. Many students find it difficult to ‘get’ that while both energy (the
law of conservation of energy) and matter (the law of conservation of mass)
are conserved, there is a fundamental asymmetry in that energy moves in
one direction, continuously dissipating, whereas matter circulates; this is true
whether we are thinking at the cellular or ecosystem scale.
Other key concepts that are restricted to biology, and which will be treated in
more depth in succeeding chapters, include:
➜ Reproduction. No organism is immortal and so all organisms need to give
rise to individuals in future generations or become extinct.
➜ Heredity. In giving rise to the next generation, organisms may split into two
(asexual reproduction) or produce specialised structures that enable either
sexual or asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction means that offspring
typically differ from either of their parents. Information from one generation to
another is carried in genes.
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➜ Evolution. Over time, organisms change. A key insight of Charles Darwin

and some other biologists, notably his contemporary Alfred Russel
Wallace, was that natural selection is an inevitable consequence of the
overproduction of offspring, what we now call genetics and the pressures
exercised on organisms by the environment.
➜ Homeostasis. All organisms are able to regulate their internal environments
to a very considerable degree – though this is more apparent in some
(including homeotherms, such as most mammals and birds) than in others.
History of biology
Not all students enjoy learning large amounts of history, but small amounts
can enliven the teaching of a topic (think Mendel and genetics, van Helmont
and plant growth, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin and James Watson and the
structure of DNA). More importantly, the inclusion of history can help students
get a better understanding of a topic or of the nature of science. For example,
thinking about why Mendel’s work was under-appreciated for some 40 years
can help students to realise that one really can be ‘ahead of one’s time’ and
to appreciate the way in which understanding in science (not just in biology)
depends on the social and scientific context in which a discovery is made.
The story of the way in which the contributions of Francis Crick, Rosalind
Franklin and James Watson to the elucidation of the structure of DNA were
differentially recognised has been a feminist trope for decades. Almost every
student of biology in the 14–19 age range would benefit from reading both
James Watson’s eminently readable, autobiographical The Double Helix: A
Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA (Watson, 1968) and
Anne Sayre’s feminist reclamation of Rosalind Franklin’s contribution, Rosalind
Franklin and DNA (Sayre, 1975).
The story of how van Helmont disproved the idea that plants grow by eating
soil provides a simple yet effective context to learn how scientists can change
scientific understanding through providing evidence to contradict current
ideas. Van Helmont weighed a willow tree and some dry soil. He planted the
willow tree in the soil and added water. Five years later, the willow tree had
substantially gained in weight, but the weight of the dried soil was pretty much
the same. He had used evidence to disprove the theory that plants gain mass
by eating soil. He suggested that trees gain mass by taking in water. One
hundred years later, Nicolas de Saussure provided evidence that trees gain
mass from a gas in the air (that we now know is carbon dioxide).
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Big ideas in biology

An influential pair of reports that link the big ideas of science to the science
curriculum have been produced by Wynne Harlen and colleagues (Harlen et
al., 2010, 2015). In the 2010 report, Harlen and her colleagues came up with ten
big ideas of science, of which four were of biology:
➜ organisms are organised on a cellular basis
➜ organisms require a supply of energy and materials for which they are often
dependent on or in competition with other organisms
➜ genetic information is passed down from one generation of organisms to
another
➜ the diversity of organisms, living and extinct, is the result of evolution
and four were about science – which apply to biology and to the other
sciences:
➜ science assumes that for every effect there is one or more causes
➜ scientific explanations, theories and models are those that best fit the facts
known at a particular time
➜ the knowledge produced by science is used in some technologies to create
products to serve human ends
➜ applications of science often have ethical, social, economic and political
implications.
The big ideas in the science movement started because of a wish to address
what was perceived to be a fragmentation of students’ learning experiences
as a result of standard methods of summative assessment. Too often, it
was felt, science is seen by students as requiring learning about a mass of
information with many students having little appreciation of why they are
learning what they are – or of how different topics aggregate into significant
big ideas.
Each of these big ideas was then spelt out in more detail and, in the 2015
report, progression was addressed explicitly. For example, the big idea that
‘organisms require a supply of energy and materials for which they are often
dependent on or in competition with other organisms’ was organised across
the 5–17 age range as follows:
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All living things need food as their source of energy as well as air, water and
certain temperature conditions. Plants containing chlorophyll can use sunlight
5–7
to make the food they need and can store food that they do not immediately
use. Animals need food that they can break down, which comes either directly
by eating plants (herbivores) or by eating animals (carnivores) which have
eaten plants or other animals. Animals are ultimately dependent on plants for
their survival. The relationships among organisms can be represented as food
chains and food webs.
7–11
Some animals are dependent on plants in other ways as well as for food, for
example for shelter and, in the case of human beings, for clothing and fuel.
Plants also depend on animals in various ways. For example, many flowering
plants depend on insects for pollination and on other animals for dispersing
their seeds.
Interdependent organisms living together in particular environmental
conditions form an ecosystem. In a stable ecosystem there are producers
of food (plants), consumers (animals) and decomposers (bacteria and fungi
which feed on waste products and dead organisms). The decomposers
produce materials that help plants to grow, so the molecules in the organisms
are constantly re-used. At the same time, energy resources pass through the
ecosystem. When food is used by organisms for life processes, some energy is
dissipated as heat but is replaced in the ecosystem by radiation from the Sun
being used to produce plant food.
11–14
In any given ecosystem there is competition among species for the energy
resources and the materials they need to live. The persistence of an ecosystem
depends on the continued availability in the environment of these energy
resources and materials. Plant species have adaptations to obtain the water,
light, minerals and space they need to grow and reproduce in particular
locations characterised by climatic, geological and hydrological conditions. If
conditions change, the plant populations may change, resulting in changes to
animal populations.
Human activity which controls the growth of certain plants and animals changes
an ecosystem. Forestry which favours the growth of certain trees over others
removes the food plants of certain animals and so reduces the diversity of species
dependent on these plants and on other organisms in the food chain. Modern
farming is designed to reduce biodiversity by creating conditions that are suited
to particular animals and plants in order to feed the human population. The
14–17
widespread use of pesticides to preserve one type of crop has widespread

effects on pollinating insects on which many other plants depend. Human activity
of this kind creates a simple and unnatural ecosystem which limits biodiversity
and results in the loss of culturally valuable landscape and wildlife.
(Harlen et al., 2015: 27)
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The Harlen reports have had considerable impact in the UK and in a number
of other countries. In England, Northern Ireland and Wales, it is hoped that
work by the Royal Society of Biology, along with the equivalent professional
organisations for chemistry and physics, will mean that the next version of the
science National Curriculum is informed by them. For science teachers, one
of the benefits of the Harlen reports is that they can facilitate departmental
curriculum planning, helping to ensure that there is coherence in student
experiences. As can be seen from the above, the Harlen progression goes to
post-16, and good 11–16 teaching should prepare the groundwork for post-16
biology.
1.2 Doing biology

Scientists are always asking why things happen or how things happen. By
asking questions like this, they may be able to come up with new theories to
explain new findings, and then test those theories. Scientific ideas can never
be said to be proven: every idea is potentially falsifiable if data eventually
contradict it. But learning how to ask ‘how’ and ‘why’ is fundamental to
educating new biologists. Such biologists may go on to an extraordinarily wide
range of careers, many with people (particularly in the medical professions),
some out-of-doors, and some in laboratories or other specialised sites such as
zoos. Biologists are employed in an enormous number of different jobs and at
every level, whether a student leaves school at the first opportunity or goes on
to take a master’s degree or even a doctorate in the subject.
Practical biology
Biology is a practical subject, as much as any other science. It is therefore
a matter of deep regret if students sometimes experience substantially less
practical work in biology than in other sciences, instead too often spending
long periods of time making notes on the structure and function of organs or
specialised cells.
At the same time, there are a number of distinctive characteristics about
biology that mean that practical work in biology differs from practical work
in chemistry or in physics. For a start, many organisms are sentient, that
is, capable of experiencing pleasure and of suffering (experiencing pain).
This means that they cannot be used for certain experiments, whatever the
educational benefits might be. Indeed, there is a move to be respectful to all
living organisms even if, as in the case, for instance, of unicellular organisms,
it seems certain that they are incapable of suffering.
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1.2 Doing biology
Then there is the fact that organisms, even within a species or local
population, are rarely identical. At school level, a chemistry teacher does
not have to worry about the possibility that different samples of copper will
have different thermal conductivities; biologists cannot make comparable
assumptions about their objects of study.
Related to this is the issue that it can be difficult in biology to control variables
in a way that physical scientists would expect. Often, with care, this can
be done, even when there are multiple variables, using appropriate data
collection design to remove any systematic bias. Even if it is difficult to control
variables, their effect can also be accounted for in analysis through use of
appropriate statistics. Nevertheless, biology does sometimes require more
interpretation of data than in other sciences. Furthermore, there are times
when biology can, with hindsight, be seen to have been more subjective. There
is a long history of white, male biologists gathering data that ‘showed’ that
women and people of other ethnicities were less intelligent than they (Gould,
1981). Much of this bias was probably unconscious – but bias it was.
Finally, although all the sciences can profitably be studied out of doors
(Braund and Reiss, 2004), it is especially important that such study be
undertaken in biology. Although much ecology can valuably be undertaken in
the laboratory, the subject comes alive when studied out of doors, whether in
school grounds or further afield. It is a matter of deep regret that fieldwork is
increasingly threatened in school biology in the UK (Tilling, 2018).
Mathematics in biology
Mathematics is important in all the sciences but the various sciences are not the
same in the use that they make of mathematics (Boohan, 2010). At secondary
school level, even up to age 19, there is no need, for example, for calculus
in biology, whereas chemistry and physics are helped if simple differential
equations can at least be introduced (for example, when studying rates of
reactions and changes of momentum).
However, it is not the case that school biology always requires simpler
mathematics than do the other sciences. As outlined above, biology has an
especial need for statistics. Nowadays, calculators and online software can
take much of the drudgery out of statistics. Furthermore, there are many
excellent introductions to mathematics for biologists – though these are
hardly needed pre-16. Nevertheless, what is valuable is for students to have
an understanding as to why they are taking the measurements and using
the statistical tests that they are.
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Biological reasoning
Much of science is about reasoning: formulating hypotheses, making
deductions, developing an argument and being able both to buttress it and
to critique it. In biology, there is an especial need for students to develop the
capacity to appreciate the importance of probability. Of course, probability
plays an important role in other sciences (such as when a particular
radioactive atom decays) but in biology probabilistic reasoning is important in
many areas (mutations, independent assortment, whether a predator catches
prey in a particular hunt, whether a tree is killed by lightning or not, whether
succession takes one direction or another, and so on). One of the difficult
things we want students to appreciate is when we can be pretty sure about
what will happen next in biology as opposed to when there are a number of
possibilities.
Biology is also noticeable (though it shares this feature with parts of earth
sciences and cosmology) in the importance of historical reasoning. To get
a good understanding of the history of life over the last three and a half
thousand million years or so requires the ability to imagine and then to reason
historically.
Biology in context
Some students love ‘pure’ biology but most are fascinated by biology in context.
The student who may have little interest in the semi-permeability of membranes
may become captivated by the realisation that the various problems that result
from having cystic fibrosis can all be traced back to damage to certain proteins
that carry ions across such membranes.
As a science, biology is fortunate in that so much of it can be taught in context.
Perhaps two contexts stand out: health and the environment. There was a time
when biology teaching about health for 11–16-year-old students consisted of
little more than diatribes against cigarette smoking and the use of illicit drugs
along with a litany of things that could go wrong with various parts of the body
(everything from vitamin deficiencies to cheerful lists of sexually transmitted
infections). Plus ça change – and yet the difference now is that there is far
more of a link from molecular biology through cell biology to whole organism
biology, as in the cystic fibrosis example above.
Teaching about the environment has changed too over the years. No longer
are contexts dominated by oil spills, the grubbing out of hedgerows, acid rain
and the hole in the ozone layer. Nowadays, two anthropogenic instances of
environmental damage stand out: climate change (including global warming,
more extreme weather events, ocean acidification and rising sea levels) and
the ever-accelerating loss of biodiversity.
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1.3 Learning biology
Ethics in biology
Every science needs to take account of ethical implications (Jones et al.,
2010), but no science more so than biology. Indeed, almost every biology topic
seems to throw up ethical issues. Should we change the genes of individuals
to prevent genetic diseases? Is it right to exterminate certain species, such
as the Anopheles mosquitoes that transmit malaria? At what stage during
development does an embryo become a person or does this happen at
fertilisation? How much money should we spend conserving a species so
that it does not go extinct? Should badgers be culled to prevent the spread of
bovine tuberculosis? And so on.
Too often, biology courses simply raise such ethical questions. While this is useful,
it can overwhelm students. To help them move forward, they may benefit from
being taught one or more ethical frameworks within which to consider such ethical
questions (for example, Levinson and Reiss, 2003).

When learning biology, students should not only learn conceptual ideas,
but also get a good understanding of what biology is and how it is done. By
designing teaching and learning approaches which enable students to learn,
and which enable learners to experience ‘doing’ biology, we should give
students the chance to develop the feeling that biology ‘is for me’ and is also
of broader value to society. This means that teaching and learning requires
individuals to think.
Constructing understanding
Building learning by requiring students to think ideas into existence complies
with constructivist ideas about learning. The theory of social constructivism
says that such building of ideas happens better in social interaction with
others, such as a teacher or a student’s peers. Such interaction scaffolds
students’ developing understanding. The way in which learning activities
are designed by a teacher enables such scaffolding to take place. Hence,
teachers have to consider a learner’s starting point, and how best to enable (or
scaffold) them to build up ideas. Engaging in biological reasoning provides an
excellent framework, where students make deductions from observational and
experimental evidence that they can share and hone with others.
Thinking together through a rich diet of talk is essential for developing
successful learners and building biological reasoning skills. When educational
dialogue is working well, students listen to each other, they share their ideas,
9781510462564.indb 9 06/05/21 1:55 PM

they justify their ideas and engage with each other’s views. The teacher’s role
in this is important, and includes inviting students to build on each other’s
ideas (‘Do you agree?’, ‘Can you add?’), challenging ideas (‘Are you sure?),
inviting reasoning (‘Why?’, ‘How?’), co-ordinating ideas (‘So we all think
that …’), connecting (‘Last lesson …’), inviting reflection (‘What have you
learned?’), guiding the dialogue or activity (‘Have you thought about …?’), and
inviting original ideas (‘What do you think about …?’).
Conceptual change
Rich dialogue can also help students to engage with their own prior knowledge,
drawing on different funds of knowledge across increasingly diverse classrooms.
Indeed, some of learners’ prior ideas can be very different to scientifically
accepted knowledge. These ideas can be labelled misconceptions or, perhaps
better, alternative conceptions, as many such ideas are simply learners’ attempts
to make sense of their world using ‘common sense’ rather than scientific logic
(Driver, 2014). It is difficult for students to give up their alternative conceptions, so
lessons and learning activities need careful design. Teachers need to know the
alternative conceptions their students hold, and students need opportunities to
make their ideas explicit, to encounter alternative ideas, and to assimilate such
ideas into their thinking.
Diagnostic tasks are useful tools to help teachers uncover alternative
conceptions, some examples of which are listed below:
➜ Multiple choice questions, if well-designed, may have options which include
the scientific view, alongside common alternative conceptions.
➜ Sometimes a student’s understanding may be more nuanced, and asking
them to express how confident they feel about each answer may give the
teacher a better insight into their understanding, and a better starting point
for addressing their difficulties.
➜ Asking students to identify whether statements are correct, partially correct
or incorrect, justifying their ideas with reasons, can help explore the cause
of students’ difficulties, as can more open-ended questions.
➜ Refutation tasks are also useful, asking students to explain why a particular
alternative conception is wrong.
Making students realise that their ideas may be naive, by generating conflict
in their mind between their own ideas and evidence, is one approach to
changing their ideas. For example, a teacher may ask students to make a
prediction before a piece of practical work. Their prediction is based on
their prior ideas, and makes those ideas explicit to the teacher, but also to
the students themselves, because the data they collect may conflict with
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those ideas. You can do the same with simulations: ask students to make
predictions, run the simulation, and generate that kind of conflict in their
minds. Concept cartoons can help achieve the same aims, but through
dialogue (Keogh and Naylor, 2000). A concept cartoon provides a picture of a
scientific phenomenon, with different people giving alternative explanations
of that phenomenon. Inviting students to say what they think or to decide how
much they agree with various statements, and then justify their position to
each other, creates dialogue that can help students to unpick their current
understanding.
However, such cognitive conflict is not the only way to think about conceptual
change. An ‘evolutionary change’ model views conceptual change as being
a more gradual and ongoing process, where students’ prior conceptions are
used as resources for learning, regardless of whether these prior conceptions
are scientifically accurate notions or misconceptions. You can think of this as
the step-by-step development of understanding, building pieces of knowledge
upon existing understanding. Whichever model a teacher exploits (and many
would adopt both, depending on the circumstances), the teacher has to
structure ideas in sequence, ensuring good progression, with ideas building
on each other over time, and making connections to other curriculum areas,
both within biology, within science, and in other subjects.
Problems with language

Language is one of our main tools to help students learn biology. But it can
also be our biggest obstacle. This is not just because of unfamiliar complex
scientific words (like homeostasis or nephron), but because some words often
have different meanings in biology. For example, many people would talk
about artificial respiration when referring to the ‘kiss of life’, but respiration
in a biological sense is the chemical process which releases energy from
glucose (or other substrates) and occurs in cells. Even common, everyday
words like random or abundance may have very particular meanings in
biology. Because we are biologists, it can be very easy to use such complex
vocabulary without even thinking about it. As a result, we need to focus on
clear, logical explanations, rather than defaulting to specialist language.
For example, talking about ‘more stomata on the lower epidermis’ makes
no sense unless you have explained stomata and their role, have spent time
getting students to examine the structure of a leaf, and have discussed with
them how all these relate to the processes of transpiration and evaporation.
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Even then, some of the grammatical conventions we use in biology can be a

challenge. Logical connectives are essential to constructing a logical scientific
argument because they help make links between claims and data, and
because they can be used when making comparisons and when highlighting
differences. These are words which suggest cause (for example, because),
addition (for example, and), time (for example, after/before) and opposition
(for example, otherwise). However, students can find their use difficult.
Finally, science does not just communicate through words, but through
diagrams, physical models, graphs, symbols, mathematics and equations.
Some of these may make ideas easier to understand (imagine trying to learn
the cross-sectional structure of a leaf through reading about it without a
diagram). But others, such as mathematics, may present obstacles to students’
understanding.
Helping students with language

Because language can be a challenge, it is important to plan for talk, reading
and writing.
Talk
We wrote above about encouraging dialogue, but that can happen as a whole
class, in small groups, or in pairs. Groups tend to work better when each
student has a particular role, and there are various grouping strategies which
can encourage talk in different ways. For example, jigsaw (students team
up in expert groups and then split apart into new groups, with one member
from each expert group), snowball (pairs discuss an idea, then team up into
groups of four, then into groups of eight, etc.), envoys (a group discusses an
idea and then sends an envoy to explain their ideas to a different group), and
spokespeople (one person summarises a group’s discussion) are easy-to-
implement ways to encourage talk.
Reading
Reading is important; so much so that students should be able to read, re-read
and reflect upon text, building connections with prior knowledge. Constructing
and deconstructing text to help understand it can help in this process, and
may include strategies like:
➜ completing text, tables or diagrams (for example, completing missing
words, completing missing labels on diagrams or completing a compare-
and-contrast table)
➜ sequencing and labelling (for example, labelling the digestive system, or
ordering key phrases which describe the process of natural selection)
➜ matching (for example, matching key words to definitions)
➜ predicting (for example, predicting the final words of a sentence, or the
question, given an answer)
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➜ labelling and highlighting (for example, highlighting words which relate to a

particular organ system in a piece of text)
➜ processing a piece of text (for example, using information given in a text;
answering questions about a text; converting a piece of text to a flow chart).
Writing
Writing has a number of functions in biology teaching and learning. Writing
is first and foremost a tool to help prompt students to think and to learn.
Writing helps students to formulate their ideas (for example, creating a
graphic organiser or preparing a summary of the key points). Writing helps
students to engage in biological reasoning (for example, writing up a
practical inquiry, setting out methods, prediction, findings and conclusion).
Writing helps students to communicate their understanding, not just in
conventional ways, but in more creative ways, such as stories, newspaper
articles or blogs.
Allowing students to engage with language, and to use language to help
develop and communicate their skills and understanding, is a challenge, but
essential to effective learning of biology.
Practical work and inquiry

Practical work is part of what biologists do, and engaging with it (including
fieldwork) gives students a sense of what it means to be a biologist. It can also
help students to learn. It may help students to develop:
➜ essential practical skills (for example, using a measuring cylinder or a
micropipette)
➜ their observation abilities (for example, in dissection or drawing activities)
➜ problem-solving skills (for example, working out which urine sample is from
a diabetic)
➜ classification skills, by recognising that groups of organisms share similar
structures
➜ conceptual ideas through investigation (for example, using bicarbonate
indicator to investigate the effect of light intensity on photosynthetic rate).
Practical work may also be used by a teacher as a demonstration to
support an explanation (such as the way valves work in the heart) or simply
to illustrate a phenomenon (for example, testing a leaf for starch).
When you use a piece of practical work as part of a learning activity, make
sure you understand the purpose. Think to yourself, ‘What are you asking
students to do or see?’, ‘Will they do/see it?’, ‘What will they learn how to
do?’ and ‘What conceptual learning will take place?’ (Reiss and Abrahams,
2016). If you don’t think about these questions, you won’t consider how to
draw learning from the practical. For example, a student can test a leaf for
starch, but unless you ask the right questions, they won’t learn anything
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from what they observe, and may get lost in the complexity of what they are
doing, rather than spending time thinking about and understanding their
results.
If the practical work you choose involves investigation, then your students may be
doing inquiry. In biology, good inquiry is sometimes hard to fit into an hour lesson
block, and so teachers often default to more illustrative practical tasks. Biological
inquiry may involve extended project work, data collection over time, and
inferences from observation, rather than just from experimentation. Inquiry does
not have to involve practical investigation, but may feature any of the following
components:
➜ a question to investigate
➜ collection of evidence
➜ analysis of evidence
➜ explaining the evidence
➜ connecting their explanation to existing scientific knowledge
➜ communicating and justifying their explanation
➜ reflecting upon and evaluating their inquiry.
Teachers can choose whether students need to undertake an inquiry which
involves all of these skills, or whether they could simply provide data to be
analysed, or an experimental protocol and findings which students then reflect
upon and evaluate. Often, teachers provide a mixture of inquiry types over
the years of secondary education so that students experience open, closed
and guided inquiry work. Some inquiries may fit alongside physical science
inquiries quite well (for example, osmosis and enzymes), while others require
a different approach (such as estimating the diversity index in a meadow or
designing a 75 g ‘healthy’ snack bar).
Learning in context
The inquiry approaches above can be particularly effective when asking students
to learn biology through consideration of biological contexts. As biology teachers,
we are fortunate. Our students feel a connection to biology because they
themselves are living things, living in their own habitat and ecosystem. Because
of this, when students learn about biology through contexts, they are often more
motivated, and their interest in biology lessons increases. Contexts also help
students perceive relations between science and everyday life, enhancing the
relevance of biology lessons. Contexts are often introduced through the use of
media, including newspapers and magazines. Topics which are conducive to
a context-led approach include health, agriculture, genetics, global warming,
sustainability, disease, habitat destruction and drug abuse. However, it is
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1.4 Final thoughts
possible to use contexts across the curriculum to foster students’ motivation and
their perception of the relevance of biology to everyday life. This is important
because biology teaching should foster students’ sense that biology ‘is for them’,
and creating a motivating and relevant classroom is important.
Using digital technologies

Inquiry can also be made easier by the use of digital technologies. Being
able to observe changes in variables in biological contexts can take time (for
example, growth of bamboo over a week) and can involve lots of laborious
data collection. Data logging offers a solution, by automating data collection
and offering more accurate data collection, allowing time in lessons to
undertake analysis, interpretation of results, formation of conclusions and
general critique. Data-logging sensors can measure changes in atmospheric
oxygen, light, humidity, temperature and carbon dioxide, and can investigate
biological processes as broad as respiration, pollution, osmosis, transpiration,
photosynthesis, homeostasis and circulation.
Mobile phones can be useful as there are numerous apps for supporting
identification of organisms, etc. Mobile phones can also be used to record
data such as the growth of bacterial colonies on a Petri dish or by taking
photographs or videos down a microscope. Small attachments can be
purchased that enable mobile phones to function as microscopes.
Given the microscopic and sub-microscopic nature of biological processes (such
as membrane transport), animations are essential to help students visualise
such processes, as are simulations, which allow students to undertake inquiry on
such processes by altering independent variables and observing the impact on
dependent variables. The use of collaborative technologies, such as WhatsApp,
wikis and blogs, can help students to work together remotely on extended project
tasks.
1.4 Final thoughts

What you have read above sets out a vision for learning biology. Learning
biology is not about learning the contents of a textbook. Learning biology is
about conceptual learning, learning about what it means to do biology and
learning what it means to be a biologist. We hope that this book helps you to
achieve these aims.
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References
Boohan, R. (2010) The Language of Measurement. Hatfield: The Association for
Science Education.
Braund, M. and Reiss, M. J. (eds) (2004) Learning Science Outside the
Classroom. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P. and Wood-Robinson, V. (2014) Making
Sense of Secondary Science, 2nd edn. London: Routledge.
Gould, S. J. (1981) The Mismeasure of Man. New York: W. W. Norton.
Harlen, W. (ed.) (2010) Principles and Big Ideas of Science Education. Hatfield:
The Association for Science Education. Available at: www.ase.org.uk/bigideas
Harlen, W. (ed.) (2015) Working with Big Ideas of Science Education. Trieste:
InterAcademy Partnership. Available at: www.ase.org.uk/bigideas
Jones, A., McKim, A. and Reiss, M. (eds) (2010) Ethics in the Science and
Technology Classroom: A New Approach to Teaching and Learning.
Rotterdam: Sense.
Levinson, R. and Reiss, M. J. (eds) (2003) Key Issues in Bioethics: A Guide for
Teachers. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Naylor, S. and Keogh, B. (2000) Concept Cartoons in Science Education.
London: Millgate House.
Reiss, M. and Abrahams, I. (2016) Enhancing Learning through Effective
Practical Science. London: Bloomsbury.
Sayre, A. (1975) Rosalind Franklin and DNA. New York: W. W. Norton.
Tilling, S. (2018) Ecological science fieldwork and secondary school biology
in England: does a more secure future lie in Geography? The Curriculum
Journal, 29 (4), 538–556.
Watson, J. D. (1968) The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of
the Structure of DNA. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
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2 Cells
Chris Harrison and Rachel Waterhouse
Topic overview
Cell biology is the study of cell structure and function, and it revolves around
the concept that the cell is the fundamental unit of life. Focusing on the cell
permits a foundational understanding of the processes that tissues, organs
and organ systems are involved in.
While most students have a concept of what ‘living’ means, they often find it
difficult to articulate and tend to define living in terms of what they believe a
living organism similar to themselves is capable of: mainly movement, growth
or needing food. Life can be thought of as the result of the various interactions
between the many different chemical substances that make up a cell and the
processes that allow an organism to function.
2.1 Cell biology

Cell theory is one of the basic principles of biology. Cell theory states: all
living organisms are composed of cells and all life comes from pre-existing
cells. Organisms may be unicellular or multicellular. Credit for the formulation
of this theory is given to the German scientists Theodor Schwann, Matthias
Schleiden and Rudolf Virchow. The term ‘cell’ today describes a microscopic
unit of life that separates itself from its surroundings by a thin partition, the cell
membrane.
The two primary kinds of cells are eukaryotic cells, which have a true nucleus
containing DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) surrounded by a nuclear membrane,
and prokaryotic cells, in which the DNA is coiled up in a region called the
nucleoid. DNA is also present in smaller pieces of nucleic acids called
plasmids spread through the cytoplasm. The DNA and RNA (ribonucleic
acid) carry the genetic information necessary for directing cellular activities,
mainly through the control of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Cells contain
organelles (literally ‘little organs’) that carry out specific functions necessary
for normal cellular operation. One of the largest organelles in the cell is the
mitochondrion. Mitochondria contain enzymes that drive the reactions of
respiration (see Chapter 3). Most organelles have a surrounding membrane
but some, like ribosomes (the site of protein synthesis), do not. The organelles
are situated in a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm and surrounded by the
cell membrane.
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2 Cells
This chapter begins with a discussion of some of the characteristics of life that
are displayed by whole organisms and how these processes relate back to
cells and the many chemical reactions that occur within them. We then provide
guidance on using microscopes to view cells and tissues. The remainder of the
chapter is mainly concerned with life processes at the molecular and cellular
level. An understanding of this from a cell biology perspective underpins the
study of the many other aspects of biological science that are addressed in
other chapters (Chapters 3–7).
Prior knowledge and experience

Some students will know that living things are made up of cells but they are
unlikely to have studied this topic in any depth. Research has shown that
younger students sometimes think the words ‘molecule’ and ‘cell’ have the
same meaning and this can give rise to a generalised concept of living things
being made up of ‘very small units’ that can be molecules or cells. In addition,
students sometimes think that many of the non-cellular things studied in the
context of biology lessons (such as proteins, carbohydrates and water) are
actually made of cells.
A teaching sequence
The activities described in the first three sections are aimed mainly at students
aged 11–14 years old. The suggested approach is intended to help students
gain an overview of what biology is about through encouraging them to
observe carefully and note similarities and differences. The Characteristics
of Living Organisms (COLO) outlines some of the processes that are
recognisable in living things and also highlights the differences between
living and non-living things. To maintain links between ideas, teachers might
consider ‘How small can a living thing be?’ and use practical microscope
activities to achieve this. Cell theory is a key idea in biology and realising that
what happens at cellular level has implications for organisms is important. The
final part of the teaching sequence picks up on ideas of what is happening at
molecular level in cells and how these processes support life in organisms;
this work is more suitable for 14–16-year-old students. This includes an
introduction to enzymes and the processes of gas exchange, respiration and
excretion, which are dealt with in more detail in Chapters 3 and 4.
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2.2 Characteristics of living organisms (COLO)
2.2 Characteristics of living organisms

(COLO)
Most children’s concept of living is in relation to themselves. They ‘know’ that
they are alive and so if something ‘does’ things similar to them, then it must
be living too. Pets, garden birds, worms, insects and spiders all move and
feed and grow and so are recognised and categorised as living. However,
because almost all plants and some animals, such as barnacles, coral and
limpets, seem to stay in one place, children are less sure whether to class
these as living. Young children often believe that the wind is living because
it moves, and fire is alive because it consumes material; while such ideas
might be considered naive, stories and mythology they have encountered at
home sometimes support these ideas. The standard way in which COLO is
introduced is using the acronym MRS GREN (M = movement, R = respiration,
S = sensitivity, G = growth, R = reproduction, E = excretion, N = nutrition).
While this approach does help many students to remember the names of
the seven characteristics, it does not necessarily help them understand the
processes that go on in living organisms.
Observing living organisms

KEY ACTIVITIES
It helps to give students an opportunity to observe a range of living organisms in settings

which are as natural as possible. These might be:
1 setting up a large tank with a layer of woodland soil or garden soil and/or a pile of
fallen leaves for students to search for any insects, worms, spiders, woodlice, snails,
slugs, mites, etc.
2 pond dipping or stream dipping
3 a field trip to an unkempt patch of land, a rotting log in the school grounds, a local
park or a wood.
With each of these activities, students can observe what the animals and plants are
doing, possibly using a magnifying glass or capturing the animals from each habitat
using pooters, nets, plastic spoons, etc., and observing their living organisms back in
the classroom with a binocular microscope. While the students are likely to observe
animals moving or feeding or possibly reproducing (either directly or by finding eggs),
they will also gain some ideas of how these organisms respond to light, moisture or
other organisms. Their observation of plants may illustrate seeds, fruits and possibly
reproductive structures of mosses, and they may find plant leaves with holes where
animals have fed on them.
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2 Cells
While you will be able to find video clips of living organisms, it is advisable to do
‘live’ observations, as these help students in developing their observational skills and
in building a respect for working with living organisms. The time needed for careful
observation is rarely scheduled into video footage, plus being so close to the organisms
and realising they can interact with you is a different experience to seeing them on a
screen. In each case, try to return the animals to their original site and move logs, stones
and leaves gently back into position.
The aim of this type of activity is for students to develop their observational skills and
relate their findings to COLO, rather than getting preoccupied with identification or
classification. However, it does help if you know the difference between a slug and a
snail, and an insect and a woodlouse. The Field Studies Council do free ‘bug hunting’
sheets and sell some reasonably priced identification guides for different habitats.
Tip
A good resource to be used both for diagnostic assessment and to support learning in
this area has been produced by the Best Evidence Science Teaching project (BEST) at
the University of York, whose website address is given at the end of this chapter.
It is worth making clear to students that animals that do not move from place
to place, including many marine organisms such as adult coral, barnacles
and mussels, live in an environment that is moving; their food comes to them
and they filter it out of the water around them.
Students could compare the characteristics of living organisms with some
non-living things that ‘do’ things that might initially suggest that they are living:
for example, battery-powered toys or robots that move and appear to be
responsive. The observable key ‘living’ processes that they do not display are
reproduction, respiration and growth.
Science in context
Many living processes can be discussed in connection with life cycles. Animals such
as stick insects are easily maintained in school laboratories, and students can study
their growth and development from the egg to the adult stage. This could include a
consideration of their food preferences and patterns of movement.
Plants that complete their life cycle in a relatively short space of time can
also be studied. For example, pea or bean seeds planted in early spring will
become mature and produce seeds before the end of the summer term. White
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icicle radishes can complete their life cycle in around 60 days. ‘Fast plants’
(more correctly called rapid-cycling brassicas) complete their life cycle in
about 35 days, if kept under a light bank. Details of how to grow and use these
plants in schools can be obtained from Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS)
whose website address is given at the end of this chapter.
So, in the early years of secondary school, students should understand that
living organisms have seven characteristics in common:
➜ Movement: they can move and change their position, usually to find food, a
mate, conditions they prefer or to escape from predators.
➜ Reproduction: they can make more of the same kind of organism as
themselves.
➜ Sensitivity: they can detect stimuli, such as light, dampness, texture or
gravity, and respond to them.
➜ Growth: they can permanently increase their size by increasing the number
and/or size of their cells.
➜ Respiration: they have chemical reactions that break down food molecules
inside their cells to provide energy (in the form of ATP) for movement or
making new biological molecules.
➜ Excretion: they can remove waste products of metabolism, some toxic
chemicals and excess substances which might stop cells working properly.
➜ Nutrition: they can take in and absorb nutrients (food), such as organic
substances and mineral ions. These nutrients contain the raw materials or
stored energy needed for making new cells in growth and tissue repair.
It is worth discussing the similarities and differences for COLO between
plants and animals. Green plants make their own food (glucose) using energy
from sunlight to combine carbon dioxide and water in a process called
photosynthesis. Most animals respond quickly to stimuli by moving towards
or away from the stimulus, while most plants take much longer to respond.
Speeded-up video can show plants moving in relation to light (think about a
plant on a window-sill leaning over towards the light). Some plants, such as
sensitive mimosa (Mimosa pudica) and Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula),
move faster in response to touch, while fake shamrock/wood sorrel (Oxalis
triangularis) moves relatively quickly in response to light intensity.
It is sometimes difficult to get students to understand that plant cells respire
and need oxygen in exactly the same way as animal cells; they often confuse
respiration with photosynthesis or believe that plants only respire in the
dark. It is important to stress that the cells in living things respire all the time;
if they didn’t, the cells, and hence the organism, would be dead! One way
of addressing this problematic area is to demonstrate that plants respire.
Hydrogencarbonate indicator can be used to demonstrate that these organisms
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2 Cells
respire and produce carbon dioxide. Hydrogencarbonate indicator is a very

sensitive pH indicator (details for how to make and use this very useful indicator
can be found on the CLEAPSS website, the address of which is given at the end
of the chapter). It has a red colour when in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide
levels of atmospheric air. When the carbon dioxide level rises slightly, it changes
through orange to a yellow colour. This happens because the extra carbon
dioxide that becomes dissolved in the indicator solution forms a very weak acid
called carbonic acid.
Investigating respiration
KEY ACTIVITY
One way to challenge misconceptions about living/non-living things, and also about
plants carrying out COLO, is to take five boiling tubes with gauze platforms above a
6–8 cm depth of fresh, equilibrated hydrogencarbonate indicator. In tube 1, put a small
invertebrate such as a woodlouse or maggot. In tube 2, a chunk of apple. In tube 3,
a chunk of mushroom. In tube 4, a couple of cress or other seedlings. Tube 5 has no
organism in it and is the control. Place a bung in each tube and start a stopclock. Ask
students to predict in which of the tubes the hydrogencarbonate indicator will change
colour and to suggest an order from fastest to slowest of those that will change. Ask
students to discuss with their partners how they have made their decisions and then
facilitate a class discussion, while giving each tube an occasional swirl to encourage the air
in the tubes to mix with the indicator. Check the colour changes by holding all five tubes
against a white background and comparing each of tubes 1–4 with the control tube. If you
use freshly made up indicator, you can get a change in colour in around 20 minutes.
woodlouse apple mushroom seedlings control

- hydrogen carbonate - hydrogen carbonate - hydrogen carbonate - hydrogen carbonate - hydrogen carbonate
turns yellow turns yellow turns yellow turns yellow remains red
Figure 2.1 The results of the hydrogencarbonate practical activity
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With this practical, students often feel that tube 1 should change first because they
recognise that the invertebrate is an animal and so it respires. They often believe that
tubes 2 and 3 will not change because they contain plants (younger students often
think of mushrooms as plants), or because they contain only part of the plant (and so
in the students’ view are dead). Some even believe that the mushroom is non-living
because of its appearance. So, students may be surprised when the indicator in tubes 2
and 3 does change colour, and often (because of the greater number of cells in a chunk
of apple or mushroom than in the invertebrate) these change quicker. Tube 4 with the
seedlings also changes, though generally slower than tubes 1–3, and this can spark an
interesting discussion about respiration and photosynthesis occurring at the same time
and allow you to begin to work on misconceptions in this area. The indicator will turn
yellow when the respiration rate of the seedling is above that of the photosynthesis
rate and so you can ask students to predict what would happen to the colour if the
seedling developed more leaves, or if you covered the tube with black paper, or if you
increased the light intensity. These relatively fast changes from low carbon dioxide
(red) to higher (yellow) to very low (purple) with the hydrogencarbonate indicator
enable you to discuss which processes are happening at the cellular level in terms
of the net outputs of respiration and photosynthesis. (Respiration produces carbon
dioxide; photosynthesis requires it.)
As students build their biological knowledge, the characteristics of living

organisms can be expanded to the following.
Living things:
➜ are highly organised and more complex in structure than non-living things
➜ take energy from their environment and transform it from one form to
another, through respiration
➜ respond to stimuli
➜ grow, develop and reproduce
➜ through evolutionary pressures, become adapted to their mode of life.
A key idea that needs emphasising is that, in multicellular organisms, life
processes are supported by the organisation of cells into tissues, organs and
organ systems. It might also be worth pointing out here that many organisms,
particularly birds and mammals, regulate their ‘internal environment’; the
technical term for this is homeostasis.
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2 Cells
Enhancement ideas
Living things that do not show any obvious signs of life, such as frog spawn, seeds
and lichens, could be brought into lessons and students asked to explain how they
would try to find out whether they are actually alive.
Students are often intrigued by the possibility that life exists on other planets, so they
could be asked to devise a series of investigations that could be carried out to find out
whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe.
Younger students could draw and label an imaginary animal or plant that displays
the characteristics of life and is adapted to living in particular conditions, such
as very hot or very cold climates. You could then get the students to swap their
drawings with each other and draw potential predators or prey for the imaginary
animals or plants. Their ideas could be displayed as posters.
2.3 Using microscopes

Microscopes are essential tools in biology and, if used appropriately, can
play a vital role in developing students’ knowledge and understanding of
many aspects of living processes and organisms. All students will have seen
magnified images in books, magazines and on television. Many will have
used magnifying glasses to study small things and some will have used (and
may even own) a simple microscope. Very few students will have received
systematic instruction in the use of microscopes.
To capitalise on the learning opportunities that microscopes offer, it
is important for students to be motivated by the experience of using
a microscope. A disappointing first use, where little is observed, can
permanently disengage even the keenest learner.
Most schools have sets of optical microscopes. Many schools also have
digital or USB microscopes, which are easy to use and, with the appropriate
software, enable images to be captured and annotated on computers and
used in conjunction with interactive whiteboards. USB microscopes use
incident, rather than transmitted, light so are good for looking at surface
features of specimens and will also provide good images of slides placed
on a white background. Students can also take photographs with their
mobile phones directly through the eyepiece lens (where they put their eye).
This works surprisingly well, although they have to move their phone very
carefully to get it in the right position. In fact, most students are fully aware of
magnification, and ‘resolution’, from using phone cameras.
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Technology use
There are a range of apps and games that ask the player to guess an object that is
very ‘close up’. This is something your students may be familiar with so it makes
a good learning hook as the starter for this topic, as well as an opportunity for
challenging the use of non-scientific language.
Start lessons by displaying high-quality images that are likely to engender

interest, and discuss how these images were obtained and the value of being
able to magnify things when trying to find out more about them. Students can
try to guess what the projected image depicts as it is gradually revealed.
This can lead into discussions about working scientifically and the
application and implications of science, by consideration of the relationship
between technology and science, including the way that developments in
microscope design and microscopy techniques have been so important in
helping biologists to understand the cellular basis of life.
Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was a scientist who developed scientific
instruments and apparatus to extend human perception. He developed an
improved microscope and in Micrographia (1665) was the first person to
use the term ‘cell’ in a biological context. Students are usually unaware that
Hooke named them cells because they looked like monastery bedrooms!
Hooke and his contemporaries believed that cells were only found in
plants and it was not until the 1830s that cells began to be considered as
fundamental units of life. The Nobel Prize website has some very useful
information about the history of microscopy with useful links to the Nobel
winners responsible for some of the advances in microscope technique.
The functions of each part of a microscope

The majority of schools now have electric microscopes with built-in lamps;
however, younger students may use microscopes with mirrors beneath the
stage for reflecting light from a bench lamp or the sky (not direct sunlight)
towards the object being viewed. Eyepiece lenses usually magnify ×10
and there are often three objective lenses with magnifying powers of ×4,
×10 and ×40. When first using microscopes, it is sensible to use only the
low- and medium-power objective lenses. You should stress to students
that microscopes are complicated and delicate pieces of equipment. It is a
good idea to spend a whole lesson helping students become familiar with
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2 Cells
the particular type of microscope that they will be using. A useful exercise
is to ask students to look for similarities and differences between their
microscope and a diagram of a microscope from a textbook. The functions
of each part should be explained and a set of ‘rules for using microscopes’
formulated jointly with the students.
A set of rules for using microscopes

Microscopes are expensive and delicate instruments. To ensure students look after
them properly, instruct them to do the following:
l carry them carefully with one hand beneath and the other supporting the body
of the microscope
l place them in the middle of the bench and away from sinks but in a position
where you can look comfortably down the microscope eyepiece
l never touch the end of the lenses or try to take the microscope apart
l when finished, leave the microscope set on the lowest power objective lens with
the body (or stage) racked fully down so that no strain is put on the cogs that
move these parts
l pick up microscope slides and coverslips by their edges to keep them fingerprint
free
l always clean away any spillage on the slide or stage so that no solutions get onto
the lenses.
Using microscopes for the first time

First use needs to be exciting so it is wise to use specimens that can be seen
with the eye and do not require mounting under a coverslip. This will help to
ensure that students achieve visual success straight away. Suitable items to
view include small crystals, such as salt or sugar, strands of students’ own
hair or small pieces of cloth, where students can see the weaving patterns
and textures. They can also view ‘secret’ writing, printed on good-quality
paper in three-point font. A further task is observing prepared slides of whole
small animals such as fleas, or parts of animals such as insect mouthparts or
wings. Before viewing these objects with a microscope, students could make
observations with the unaided eye, hand lenses, mounted magnifiers and
low-power binocular microscopes. The best way to use a hand lens is to hold
the lens about 3 cm from one eye and bring the specimen into focus close to
the lens. This technique enables students to concentrate their attention on the
specimen being observed.
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An important aim when using microscopes for the first time is to impress on
students the usefulness of microscopes for extending the power of our sense
of sight. To help develop this idea, students could write descriptions of what
the objects look like when viewed without being magnified and then when
magnified using a hand lens and, separately, a microscope.
Teaching points when using microscopes

Students should follow these instructions when using a microscope:
l Using the lowest power objective lens, adjust the angle of the mirror (or the
intensity of the built-in lamp) to obtain a uniformly bright (but not too bright)
field of view.
l Place the prepared microscope slide on the stage with the specimen directly
beneath the lowest power objective lens.
l Looking from the side, use the coarse focus control to rack the low-power
objective downwards (or the stage upwards; it depends on the microscope) until
the lens is as close as it will get to the slide. On some microscopes, there is a
stopping mechanism that prevents the lenses from touching the slide.
l While looking through the eyepiece lens, slowly move the lens away from the
slide with the coarse focus control until the object is in focus.
l Slowly, move the slide across the stage to centre the object in the field of view.
The image will move the opposite way to the object; this may take students a
little while to get used to.
l Adjust the illumination to gain a better image. With either too little or too
much light, less detail will be seen. This is particularly important with very thin
specimens, which may not be seen at all if the illumination is too bright.
l Rotate to the next power objective lens. When rotating to the highest
magnification objective lens, encourage students to look at the slide at eye
level, just to be sure that the rotating objective lens will not collide with the
slide. Most microscopes used in schools are parfocal, which means that if the
object is in focus when viewed under one objective lens, it will remain in focus
when a different lens is used. If the object does not appear in the field of view
when a higher power objective lens is moved into position, this is usually
because the object was not accurately centred in the field of view with the
lower power lens. When the object appears visible, use the fine focus control to
sharpen the image and adjust the illumination to improve the image contrast.
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2 Cells
Making temporary slides

When viewing biological material with a microscope, it is usual practice
to mount the specimen in water (or a stain) and place a coverslip on top.
Temporary mounts that are prepared properly have just enough fluid to fill the
space between the slide and coverslip. If too much fluid is used, the coverslip
floats on top of the specimen and moves around. If too little fluid is used, the
air bubbles that are left interfere with the image and may be mistaken for
the specimen. The technique for making a temporary mount and lowering
a coverslip is illustrated in Figure 2.2. If you do not trust your students to use
mounted needles, a sharp pencil can be used instead.
How to lower a coverslip onto a temporary slide

KEY ACTIVITY
a tip of mounted needle
coverslip
slide
specimen in drop of water (or stain)
b tissue paper
drop of stain
water
Figure 2.2 a Technique for lowering a coverslip onto a slide. Place the tip of a mounted needle onto a slide
next to the specimen. One edge of the coverslip is placed on the slide with the opposite edge supported by the
mounted needle. Slowly moving the needle in the direction shown by the arrow will lower the coverslip onto
the specimen without trapping air bubbles. b Tissue paper can be used to soak up any excess water, as shown.
A stain (such as iodine in potassium iodide solution) placed next to the coverslip can also be drawn under the
coverslip using this technique.
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Tip
Stains can help make structures or tissues clearer on a temporary mount. In
general, potassium iodide solution (often referred to as iodine solution in school
prep rooms) is used for plant material, and methylene blue solution is used for
animal material. When using methylene blue, make sure students avoid inhalation
and wash thoroughly if the stain comes into contact with skin or eyes.
Helping students to see what you want them

to see
When students begin to use microscopes they will need help in finding what
you want them to see and in making appropriate observations. If they are not
given help, you will find that they mistake such things as dirt, air bubbles, the
interesting patterns left when water or a stain evaporates and even the edges
of the coverslip or slide, for the things that you want them to look at. Drawing
attention to the appearance of these artefacts is a useful way of helping
students to avoid making such mistakes.
Ensure students are aware that the cell membrane cannot be seen in a plant cell
because it is pushed up tight against the cellulose cell wall. Also because the cell
is transparent, it is not possible to see the cell vacuole, which is full of cell sap,
in the centre of the cytoplasm. Having diagrams or models of cells around while
students are using microscopes to observe cells helps students realise what they
are looking at.
Further activities
➜ It is a good idea to put clear plastic rulers onto the stage of a microscope
and measure the width of the field of view at different magnifications using
the millimetre divisions. The size of structures being viewed can then be
estimated by judging how much of the field of view they occupy and doing
some simple arithmetic. There are a range of excellent websites that show
size comparisons. This also provides an opportunity to introduce standard
form as another mathematical skill.
➜ A huge variety of interesting microscopic organisms live in ponds or
containers of water (such as cattle troughs) that have been left standing
for some time. Hunting for these organisms using the microscope can
engage students, develop their microscope techniques and demonstrate the
usefulness of the microscope in biological studies. Good hygiene is needed
and staff should make students aware of the guidelines from CLEAPSS
when handling microscopic organisms.
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2 Cells
Enhancement ideas
Further ideas for improving communication skills and helping students to
appreciate the implications and applications of this aspect of science could include
projects in which students have to use microscopic analysis of specimens such as
hairs, fibres and powders to help solve a fictional crime. These types of activities
can be very motivating. Students could work together as teams of investigators to
produce an illustrated scientific report that could be used in the trial of a suspect.
2.4 Studying cells

Many different organisms exist as single cells, but others are made up of many
cells. These multicellular organisms are composed of a variety of different
types of cell that work together to maintain the life processes of the organism.
This section suggests some teaching approaches that will help students to
understand the structure of plant and animal cells.
Most cells are too small to be seen with the unaided eye, so the use of
microscopes to magnify is essential. Good thinking skills can be developed
from asking questions like ‘What is the largest biological cell?’. Many think it
is the ostrich egg at an impressive 15 cm but in fact the longest (not heaviest)
cells can be up to 12 m in organisms like the giant squid. Giant cells in
peppers are visible to the eye, with instructions available from Science &
Plants for Schools.
It is a good idea to wait until students are proficient at using microscopes before
beginning practical work that is aimed at developing their understanding of the
structure of cells. It is best to begin with plant cells because they are generally
larger and have a more distinct structure than animal cells. Using living material
will help students to relate the structures they look at under the microscope to
the organism from which they came. In addition, preparing slides for themselves
will help students develop their manipulative skills.
Studying plant cells

The easiest plant cells for students to study under the microscope are those
that form single layers. The bulbs of onions and related species (such as
shallots and leeks) are a good source of single layers of skin (‘epidermal’)
cells. Red onions are particularly useful because the cells in the outer
epidermal layers contain a red cell sap that makes them easier to see. The
technique of obtaining epidermal cells, mounting them and viewing them
under a microscope is described in student textbooks, on YouTube and on the
SAPS website.
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2.4 Studying cells
One disadvantage of using onion epidermis as an example of plant cells is

that these cells do not possess chloroplasts. The epidermal layer of privet, iris
or lettuce leaves is a good source of cells that do possess chloroplasts. Whole
leaves of pondweed such as Elodea, ivy-leaved toadflax and young moss
leaves are thin enough to enable cells to be seen when viewed under a light
microscope.
Studying animal cells

Studying human cheek cells is an interesting and motivating activity to try
with students who are skilled at using microscopes. There is a very small
theoretical risk of transmission of the viruses that cause AIDS and hepatitis B
associated with this practical, but most employers allow students to carry it out
provided they follow a strict safety procedure (see CLEAPSS sheet PP033 for
advice on the procedure and appropriate safety measures). Care needs to be
taken that students do not share cotton buds, and so either do this technique
as a demonstration or ensure students get their own cotton bud, which they
place in disinfectant immediately after use.
If cotton buds are not available, they can be substituted with interdental sticks
or coffee stirrers from newly opened packets. These are then used to collect
the cheek cells by gently swabbing the inside of the mouth around the gums.
The saliva (which will contain the cells) is smeared onto a slide, a few drops of
suitable stain (such as methylene blue) are added and a coverslip is placed
on top. After use, the cotton buds, slides and coverslip must be put into a
disinfectant such as 1% sodium chlorate(I) (hypochlorite). The cells are very
small and students will need to magnify them at least 100 times in order to see
them clearly.
Drawing and interpreting microscope images

of cells
The drawing of images viewed using microscopes is an important skill in biology
since it encourages careful observation and thus helps students to understand the
images they are looking at. When drawing from the microscope, students should
be taught to follow these procedures:
➜ Write a clear heading.
➜ Use a sharp HB pencil.
➜ Make your drawing either half or a whole page.
➜ Draw firm, continuous lines and avoid using shading.
➜ Include the magnification the specimen was drawn under (objective lens
power × eyepiece lens power) or a scale line.
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2 Cells
➜ Draw label lines with a ruler. These must touch the structure they are
labelling and should not cross each other.
➜ Write labels horizontally on the page using the book lines (students often
write along the same angle as the label lines) and arrange them neatly
around (not over) the drawing.
Examples of good and not so good drawings are given in Figure 2.3.
nucleus
nucleus
cell
membrane
cytoplasm
cytoplasm
cell
membrane
Figure 2.3 Good and bad drawings of a human cheek cell
When they attempt to draw cells for the first time, students often tend to draw
too many cells. Instead, they should be encouraged to draw either a single
cell or a few cells in detail and to use at least half a page for their drawing.
To help interpret images of cells, it is a good idea for students to draw what
they can see under the low-power objective lens, then using the middle- and
high-power lenses. When using high-power lenses, students may be able to
investigate the three-dimensional nature of larger cells (for example, plant
epidermal cells) by carefully focusing on different planes of the cell. Drawing
or projecting diagrams onto a board and using models will help students
to interpret the structures of the cells they are viewing and see that these
structures are three-dimensional.
Cell structure and function

You will want students to learn the names and functions of the main parts of
cells. These are described in student texts. Some of the technical terms are
difficult to spell and pronounce so it is worth going over them carefully.
Getting students to make three-dimensional models of specialised cells (such
as red blood cells, neurons, sperm cells, root hair cells, guard cells) using
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2.4 Studying cells
easily obtainable items, such as shoe boxes, polythene bags and small balls, to
represent structures such as cell walls, membranes and nuclei is a very useful
way of illustrating the structure of simple cells.
Since students often have to share microscopes, it is useful to adopt
teaching techniques that take account of this, such as taking turns to use
the microscopes. An activity that can be used to develop observational and
descriptive skills, and that can be done in pairs or threes, involves one student
looking down a microscope and describing the appearance of a specialised
cell (permanent cell mounts are best for this). The other student(s) have to
draw and label what is being described. Encourage the students who are
undertaking the drawings to ask questions to gain further information to
enhance their drawings. They can try to predict what sort of cell is being
looked at and then compare the drawings with the real thing. Students then
swap roles and look at a different type of cell.
Investigating specialised cells

KEY ACTIVITIES
l Draw diagrams of plant and animal cells deliberately labelled incorrectly. Get the
students to work individually to spot and make a note of the mistakes. Students then
pair up or take part in a class plenary to correct all mistakes.
l A game of ‘10 questions’ or ‘Taboo’ could be created, in which one student thinks of a
specialised cell and their partner has to guess what the cell is in just ten questions; the
questions can only be answered ‘yes’ or ‘no’.
Enhancement ideas
Pictures taken with scanning electron microscopes illustrate the external
appearance, shape and three-dimensional nature of cells very clearly. Show
students scanning electron microscope pictures of a selection of cells, including
red blood cells, unicellular organisms and the xylem cells that form wood, to
demonstrate the variation shown by cells. Longitudinal sections of vascular bundles
from celery have lovely spiral lignification of xylem, which strengthens these ‘water
pipes’ of the plant. Showing students the sort of images that can be produced using
transmission electron microscopes (these show details of structures found inside
cells) will help them to understand that cells are more complex structures than
they appear to be when looked at using light microscopes.
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2 Cells
Maths
Basic micrometry can be used to indicate to students the actual sizes of cells.
Simple ‘measuring’ slides can be made by sticking a small, stamp-sized piece
of graph paper onto a slide and working out the diameter of the field of view.
Alternatively, view the scale on a small transparent ruler and work out the diameter
of the field of view. When students observe a specimen in the field of view they
can estimate how much of the diameter is covered and so work out the size of the
specimen.
2.5 The chemistry of life

In the first section of this chapter, life was described as arising from
interactions between the chemical substances that make up organisms.
Chemical reactions inside cells occur in sequences called metabolic
pathways. These pathways involve either making or breaking down the large
molecules that are found in living things. The steps along the pathway are
catalysed by biological catalysts (enzymes), and the specific structure of each
enzyme enables it to catalyse a particular chemical change.
Enzymes
Enzymes are proteins and the temperature and pH of their surroundings can
affect their structure. If these vary outside certain limits then the shapes of
enzymes change so much that they are unable to perform their functions and
metabolic pathways are disrupted; the enzymes are said to be ‘denatured’.
This is one reason why it is important for organisms to maintain relatively
constant conditions inside their bodies and cells (in other words, to show
homeostasis). As well as synthesising, and so producing products that are
needed by organisms, metabolic reactions often produce by-products that
need to be removed. The removal of the waste products of metabolism is
called excretion.
Scientific literacy
Research has shown that students often think that molecules, which they have
been told are ‘large’ (such as proteins), are bigger than cells, which they have been
taught are very ‘small’. Careful use of these relative terms is therefore needed.
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Science in context
The names of some of the types of molecule found in living things will be familiar
to students from advertisements associated with food and cosmetics, while
enzymes will often be associated with washing powders. (Tell students that the
names of most enzymes end in ‘-ase’, such as sucrase, aminase, lipase, invertase.)
Such advertising often contains somewhat questionable ‘pseudoscience’ that can
give rise to many misconceptions. Students could be asked to use their scientific
understanding to critique the claims advertisers make for various products.
Examination specifications and student texts often include many details

concerning the complex molecules that are needed by all living things, and
enzyme action in the context of the human diet and digestion. However,
before covering diet and digestion in detail, it is a good idea to go over
some more general ideas about the chemistry of living things. The activities
suggested below could be used in a variety of contexts and are not set out as
a continuous teaching sequence.
The idea that the complex molecules found in cells are assembled from
smaller molecules is important in many contexts. For example, carbohydrates
such as starch and cellulose are built up from simple sugars such as glucose;
proteins are built up from amino acids; and nucleic acids are made up
of sugars, phosphates and bases. The steps involved in the formation or
breakdown of molecules in cells can be illustrated using models. This could
be done using either physical models or a molecular-modelling package for
use with computers.
It is important that students do not relate enzymes simply to digestion, and so it
is helpful to provide them with an example of enzymes building up molecules.
For example, a good demonstration is to show that an enzyme found in potato
will catalyse the formation of starch from glucose. The enzyme is obtained by
grinding up a small piece of potato with water. When the enzyme extract is
mixed with glucose monophosphate, the iodine test can be used to show that
starch is produced.
Metabolic pathways and excretion

Cells manufacture new chemicals in their cytoplasm, changing glucose,
produced by plants in photosynthesis, into amino acids and fats. All parts of the
cell are made from these chemicals. Some reactions produce useful chemicals
for the cell, while others produce chemicals that can be toxic to the cell processes
and so need to be excreted.
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2 Cells
Excretion is often defined as being the release of waste products from

living things. Two important ideas to emphasise when discussing excretion
are, firstly, that the waste products released are made inside body cells
and, secondly, that they will disrupt metabolism (they are poisonous) if they
accumulate inside the cells.
In single-celled organisms and many small organisms, such as flatworms,
waste materials can diffuse out of the cell along a concentration gradient and
easily pass into the environment. Plants can get rid of much of their waste gas
in this way because they have such a large surface area. In larger animals,
excretion is more of a problem as the waste cannot easily diffuse out of the
cells into the environment and so accumulates.
Some metabolic waste products are molecules that can be used by the
organism that produces them. For example, in plants the carbon dioxide
produced by respiration can be utilised in photosynthesis and only at night is
there a net release of carbon dioxide. Similarly, some of the oxygen produced
by photosynthesis is used by plants for respiration. However, when the rate of
photosynthesis is high, excess oxygen must be released. In contrast to plants,
animals need to get rid of excess carbon dioxide all the time.
The other main metabolic waste products produced by animals are
nitrogenous compounds, such as ammonia, that are formed from the
breakdown of amino acids. Ammonia is very poisonous and in some animals
is converted to urea, which is less toxic than ammonia, and filtered out of the
bloodstream by the kidneys.
Cell division
Cell division is the basis of growth in multicellular organisms and of
reproduction in all organisms. Students can be taught many things about
growth and reproduction without discussing cell division in detail. However, to
gain a deeper understanding of these processes, students will need to learn
more about what happens when cells divide. The type of cell division that the
zygote (fertilised egg) undergoes many, many times is called mitosis. This
type of cell division also enables multicellular organisms to grow and to repair
damaged tissues.
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Science in context
Students may be fascinated to hear about a recent experiment carried out by
astronauts on board the International Space Station. The experiment is an attempt
to grow human tissue by sending adult human stem cells into space and allowing
them to grow. Eventually, it is hoped, the stem cells will develop into bone,
cartilage and other organs. If that is successful, the scientists involved say that the
discoveries could be used to try to grow organs for transplant. The lack of gravity
on the International Space Station is used to encourage the stem cells to grow
into tissue in three dimensions, rather than the single-layer structures that form
on Earth. This pioneering work should enable the tissue to develop into organs for
transplant.
Mitosis should not be confused with binary fission, which is the mechanism by
which many single-celled organisms, such as bacteria and yeast, reproduce.
Binary fission occurs primarily in prokaryotes, while mitosis is only found in
eukaryotes, such as plants and animals.
Cell division involves studying structures (chromosomes) which are very
difficult to see, even with the aid of high-powered light microscopes. The
sequences of events that occur are complex and, when describing them,
student texts often use many technical terms. The approach suggested below
involves the use of video footage, diagrams and models to help students
understand the principles of cell division.
Science in context
Each species has its own number of chromosome pairs: humans have 23 pairs, fruit
flies 4 pairs and crayfish 100 pairs. Apart from gametes, each cell in a particular
organism contains the same number of chromosomes. Students may need help
to understand that even the cells in your big toe have the DNA code for your eye
colour and the gene which determines whether your hair is curly or not!
Mitotic cell division

Mitosis should be covered before introducing meiosis. It is advised that mitosis
and meiosis are studied in separate topics because they often get confused.
Sometimes students are asked to compare the two processes in examination
questions, but this is better approached if they have a good understanding
of each process separately to start with. Mitosis is a fascinating process, and
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2 Cells
a good starting point is to show students a video of actual cells dividing and
an animated sequence of this process (see websites listed at the end of the
chapter for good sources of these). This can be followed by using a sequence
of diagrams similar to that shown in Figure 2.4 to explain the important
features of the process in a simplified representation.
When a cell is not dividing, its chromosomes exist as very long, thin structures
that are only just visible using electron microscopy. Stage 2 in the figure (when
the chromosomes make copies of themselves) actually occurs when the
chromosomes are inside the nucleus in their long, thin conformation. When
cell division starts, the nuclear membrane breaks down and the chromosomes
become shorter and fatter (and visible under a light microscope) after this has
taken place.
A disadvantage of using diagrams to illustrate mitosis is that it is difficult to
show the behaviour of the chromosomes in three dimensions. Models can be
used to help students visualise the three-dimensional nature of the process, and
students could also make models using plasticine, wool or pipe cleaners to aid
their understanding. Flicker books or stop-frame animations also provide an
opportunity for some creativity as well as an opportunity to describe and explain
mitosis.
Meiosis and gamete formation

The type of cell division that produces sex cells (gametes) is called meiosis.
Gametes differ from other types of cell (somatic cells) in organisms in two
fundamental respects.
First, they contain half the number of chromosomes (denoted by the haploid
number, ‘n’) compared to somatic cells, which contain the diploid number
(denoted by ‘2n’). If this were not the case, the zygotes (fertilised eggs) formed
when sex cells combine (fuse) would contain twice as many chromosomes as the
parental cells, which would be unviable.
Secondly, many of the chromosomes present in gametes contain a mixture
of genes derived from the male and female parents of the individual that is
producing the gametes. Figure 2.5 illustrates the important events that occur
during meiosis.
Comparison with Figure 2.4 shows that the initial stages of meiosis and mitosis
are essentially the same. A crucial difference occurs after the chromosomes
have made copies of themselves. In mitosis, the copies are separated.
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1 A cell containing two pairs of

(homologous) chromosomes.
One of each pair comes from the
original female parent and is
shown as a continuous line.
The other comes from the original
male parent and is shown as a
dotted line.
2 Each chromosome makes an

exact copy of itself. (The copies
are called chromatids.)
3 Chromosomes (now pairs of

chromatids) line up in the middle
(on the equator) of the cell.
4 The copies (chromatids)

separate (and are now renamed
chromosomes in their own right)
and move to opposite ends
(poles) of the cell, which then
divides to form two (daughter)
cells. Each of these has
exactly the same genetic
make-up as the original cell.
A crucial point to establish is
that the cells formed as a result
of mitotic division contain exactly
the same complement of chromosomes
(and hence genes) as the original,
undivided cell.
Figure 2.4 A diagram summarising the events that occur during mitosis in an organism with a diploid number of four
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2 Cells
1 A cell containing two pairs of (homologous)

chromosomes. One of each pair comes from
the female parent and is shown as a
continuous line. The other comes from
the male parent and is shown as a
dotted line.
2 Each chromosome makes an

exact copy of itself. (The copies
are called chromatids.)
3 Homologous chromosomes (each made

up of two copies or chromatids) line up
alongside each other in the middle (on
the equator) of the cell.
4 Homologous chromosomes are

separated and pulled to opposite
ends (poles) of the cell and two
new cells are formed. This is the
first division with the result that
there is already a mixture of the
male parent and female parent
chromosomes in each cell.
5 The chromosome copies

(chromatids) now separate
(becoming chromosomes in
their own right) and move to
opposite ends (poles) of each
cell. The second division
nowoccurs forming a total of
four new cells. The number
of chromosomes in each is
therefore half the number
found in the original cell.
Figure 2.5 A diagram summarising the events that occur during meiosis in an organism with a diploid number of four
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The gametes that these cells produce will be genetically different from each
other because of the random arrangement of chromosomes from the male
and female parents in stage 3 above. This is referred to as ‘independent
assortment’ of the chromosomes and leads to independent segregation of
alleles (see Chapter 8).
Additional variation between gametes occurs because genetic material is
exchanged between chromosomes when they pair up with each other. This
process is called ‘crossing over’ and is illustrated in Figure 2.6. Awareness
of this can help students to understand the variation in gametes, however
details of the process are not needed until post-16 courses. This, together with
the variation resulting from the independent segregation of chromosomes,
results in an almost infinite amount of genetic variation between the
gametes produced by an individual. This contributes to the greater genetic
variation that occurs in the offspring produced by sexual reproduction, and
this variation has important consequences for the evolution of species, as
discussed in Chapter 9.
Figure 2.6 Crossing over in meiosis. As the homologous pairs line up, the chromatids intertwine, break and reanneal having
swapped some sections.
Further activities
➜ An activity in which students play the role of chromosomes and enact cell
division provides a useful way of reinforcing learning about this process. To
provide guidance on how you might do this, go to YouTube, where you will
find various approaches, including one involving synchronised swimming!
➜ Older students with good microscopy skills could look at prepared
microscope slides showing the different stages of mitosis and meiosis. They
could also prepare root-tip squashes (see the SAPS website for practical
details) to look for different stages of mitotic division, although this is
generally done by students aged 17–19.
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2 Cells
Careers
The study of cells is fundamental to understanding the functionality of a living
organism and so this topic links to all biological careers from the obvious medical
routes of doctors, nurses and technicians to the slightly more unusual tissue culture
specialist. The topic also links to the work of recent astronauts who are growing
human organs and plants in space using tissue culture, so showing the crossover
between physics and biology.
Other careers where this becomes interesting include biotechnology for medicine
production or, more recently, food production. There is a growing movement
towards meat substitutes, and the use of tissue culture to produce ‘animal-free
meat’ can help combat climate issues. Additional career paths where cellular
biology plays an important role would be: palaeontology, vaccine development,
pathology lab diagnostic work, genetic engineering and gene therapy.
2.6 Resources
Generic websites
‘Practical Biology’ is a website that is a joint project of the Nuffield Curriculum
Centre, the Royal Society of Biology and CLEAPSS. It is intended to encourage
teachers to carry out more practical biology in schools: http://practicalbiology.
org/
Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS) has a range of materials and suggestions
for practical work, including investigating mitosis in root tips and viewing
micro-organisms using the ‘hanging drop’ technique: www-saps.plantsci.cam.
ac.uk
The Best Evidence Science Teaching (BEST) website has a range of diagnostic
questions and outlines of research focused on science teaching: www.stem.
org.uk/best-evidence-science-teaching
The Nobel Prize website, www.nobelprize.org, has information on the
international recognition of important research. For example, the 2019 Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded jointly to William G. Kaelin Jr,
Sir Peter J. Ratcliffe and Gregg L. Semenza ‘for their discoveries of how cells
sense and adapt to oxygen availability’. They identified molecular machinery
that regulates the activity of genes in response to varying levels of oxygen.
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2.6 Resources
Some useful activities for introducing classes to biology outside the classroom
can be found at: www.pstt-cpd.org.uk/ext/cpd/thinking-beyond-the-classroom/
activities.scientific-observations.asp
The website of the Field Studies Council can be accessed at:
www.field-studies-council.org
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3 Energy and materials
Jeremy Airey and Elizabeth Lupton
Topic overview
This chapter is concerned with the idea, introduced in Chapter 1, that
organisms require a supply of energy and materials for which they are often
dependent on other organisms. This relates to Harlen’s fourth ‘big idea’ (2015):
that the total amount of energy in the Universe is conserved but energy can
be transferred when things change. Learners will have encountered energy
outside science lessons, and also (if not already, then soon) in physics and
chemistry. It is incumbent on biology teachers to teach about energy in biology
in ways that take account of learners’ prior knowledge and that are consistent
with chemical and physical accounts of energy.
We are also concerned here with two related ideas about biological systems
that were noted in Chapter 1: the circulation of materials within them, and the
transfers of energy into, through and ultimately out of them. Both energy and
matter are conserved, but they differ in their patterns of transfer (movement) in
biology. These ideas may not be easy for learners to grasp; they warrant clear
attention and explanation in lessons.
A unifying thread through this chapter is food – also, helpfully, a familiar
context for learners. In their primary education, children are likely to learn that
food provides living things with materials for growth, reproduction and repair,
as well as energy resources to fuel biological processes. They may also have
learned, through studying food chains and webs, that animals are – directly
or indirectly – dependent on plants for their food supply, and that plants
manufacture their own food.
To many biologists, a logical progression through ‘energy and materials’ would
start with photosynthesis, which represents both the principal transfer of energy
into biological systems and a cycling of materials from non-living to living
components of ecosystems. However, the challenging counter-intuitive origin of
biomass (from a gas and water) in photosynthesis, together with the familiarity
of food, makes diet a better place to start in this phase of our spiral science
curriculum.
The components of this theme – nutrition, respiration, photosynthesis, nutrient
cycles and energy flow – all hold their challenges for learners. Furthermore,
even if learners have a good understanding of each component, they may not
appreciate the links between ideas. We need to emphasise these. Learners
may also struggle as a result of anthropocentric views, including the view that
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3.1 Respiration
plants depend on humans or exist to meet human needs (for example, that
the function of photosynthesis is to produce oxygen for us to breathe). Some
students may find it difficult to describe biological phenomena in terms of
physics and chemistry, or be reluctant to accept such ‘reductionism’. We need
to address these conceptions and be clear that biology remains awesome
however we explain it!
3.1 Respiration
Energy and life
Energy is a tricky concept to discuss. It is an abstract idea that is hard to
define precisely and many students have ideas about energy that have come
from everyday life. For example, if they feel tired, they may say that they have
run out of energy, which they might then replenish with an energy drink. Many
words have different scientific and everyday meanings, and we should be alert
to the different ways that children encounter and use such terms. Trying to
distinguish scientific meanings from everyday meanings is likely to be helpful.
Science in context
Red Bull Sugarfree is marketed as an ‘energy drink’ but contains no sugar. It
works by containing enough caffeine to act as a stimulant. It is worth discussing
with students in what sense such products are called ‘energy drinks’.
Energy is also a pervasive idea in biology, but Needham (2014) has pointed
out that in school biology, we have tended to use mixed models of energy,
including a ‘stores and transfers’ model and a ‘transformations’ model. In this
chapter we have tried to use the former model consistently.
Cross-disciplinary
If science is studied as separate disciplines rather than as combined science, speak
to colleagues in the physics department to ensure that there is a co-ordinated
approach to the subject of energy and the way it is taught.
Before being taught about respiration, students are most likely to have studied
energy in the context of physics. They may have developed some understanding
of the idea that energy is always conserved, but a very common misconception
in a biological context is that energy is a physical substance that can be ‘used
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up’. Transformation models of energy can reinforce this notion. Needham

recommends distinguishing carefully between ‘fuels’ (including biomass and
food) and energy. We have tried to do that here. Ross (2013), however, cautions
against the ways that fuel and food are sometimes described as if they are
‘made of’ energy. Needham also suggests using biomass and productivity as an
underpinning theme. We have taken a similar approach here, using food as a
thread through the topics in this chapter.
There is ongoing debate and discussion about the best ways to use energy ideas
across the school sciences. We recommend continuing discussion between
physics, chemistry and biology teachers, so that science education presents
young people with a consistent energy story.
What is respiration?
The energy needed for all living processes is made available inside cells
by a metabolic pathway (a linked series of chemical reactions in living
systems) called cellular respiration. This process must take place inside
every living cell. Many students have difficulty understanding what is meant
by the term ‘respiration’, and research has shown that they often retain many
misconceptions after it has been taught: for example, that ‘respiration’ and
‘breathing’ are synonymous, that plants do not respire or only respire when in
darkness, and that respiration ‘creates’ energy for living processes.
Cellular respiration acts on molecules originating in the food that plants make
for themselves or that other organisms consume. Many components of food can
be respired, including fats and proteins, but in many organisms, carbohydrates
are the principal ‘substrate’. The archetypal reactant in respiration discussed in
11–16 biology is glucose.
There are two forms of respiration: aerobic respiration and anaerobic
respiration. Aerobic respiration occurs when sufficient oxygen is available and
can be summarised, for glucose, by the equation:
energy transferred
glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water
If there is insufficient oxygen available, anaerobic respiration occurs. For
example, if exercise levels are vigorous or sustained, the circulation may not
supply oxygen to muscles quickly enough to maintain aerobic respiration. When
this happens, the muscle cells begin to respire anaerobically. This releases less
energy than aerobic respiration and, in animals and some bacteria, can be
summarised as:
energy transferred
glucose lactic acid
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3.1 Respiration
The lactic acid produced in muscles is broken down into carbon dioxide
and water when enough oxygen is available to repay the ‘oxygen debt’ that
results from anaerobic respiration. In fungi (for example, yeast), in low-oxygen
conditions, anaerobic respiration can produce ethanol and carbon dioxide,
summarised as:
energy transferred
glucose carbon dioxide + ethanol
Baking and brewing use this fermentation process.
Careers
Food microbiologists study the effects of different micro-organisms within food; by
gaining an understanding of these effects, they can find ways of using these micro-
organisms in the food production process, such as brewing and baking.
Food technologists focus on ways of maintaining food at its freshest and consider
the best ways to convert raw materials into food products.
This is a thriving industry and one which is set to get bigger. Two vital (and linked)
industries which depend on understanding of decomposition, decay, energy flow
and materials cycles are the sustainable energy industry (for biofuel production)
and the water industry (sewage works).
Few cells or organisms respire anaerobically for long; the products are toxic
in large quantities and little energy is released from food stores, making it
unsustainable. Exceptions include some pathogenic bacteria (for example,
those causing tetanus) and methane-producing bacteria that humans can use
in sewage treatment.
Food; digestion and absorption; from food

to ATP
Photosynthesis and respiration are both complex chemical pathways that we
explain in 11–16 biology with relatively simple models. (Post-16 students start
to break down the processes into, for example, the so-called light and dark
reactions of photosynthesis, and the stages of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle in
respiration.) Starting with simpler ideas, it is important to ensure that learners
are clear about principles. For example, all cells which do not photosynthesise
– including many cells in plants – require a supply of food molecules that can
easily be converted to glucose, to be used in cellular respiration. Some cells
can store these away for later by converting them into starch, its equivalent in
animals (glycogen) or fats. But ultimately, all cells need a supply.
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The molecules supplied need to be sufficiently small and soluble to be

transportable to the cells and across their membranes. (In plants, the
photosynthetic product exported from leaves is sucrose.) This is the principle
behind consumers’ digestion of their food. The macromolecules that comprise
much of our food are broken down physically and chemically into much
smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the consumers’ transport
systems and into their respiring cells. In the case of many animals, digestion
and absorption are functions of the gut. Fungi and many other consumers
secrete digestive enzymes into the local environment and absorb the products
directly into their cells.
Food is not only used as an energy resource for respiration, but also as
raw material for growth, reproduction and repair. Cells construct their own
macromolecules, to meet local requirements, from the ‘building blocks’
supplied by digestion and absorption of food molecules (in consumers) and
by photosynthesis and the absorption of minerals from the environment (in
producers).
Students aged 11–16 should come to understand the relationships between food
macromolecules and their constituent parts (for example, proteins and amino
acids). There are many examples of practical activities for investigating the
products and processes of digestion.
In our simple model, respiration is an oxidation reaction, in which organic
(carbon-containing) molecules are oxidised. Complete oxidation, to carbon
dioxide and water, transfers the maximum possible energy out of the reactants
(food molecules and oxygen) and into the wider system. This is analogous
to (but not the same as) combustion. When you come to teach food and
cellular respiration, you should find out what your students have been taught
about combustion reactions in chemistry. Draw links between the two topics,
emphasising that respiration is not a burning reaction, though the overall
chemical change is similar. Indeed, the amount of energy stored in various
foodstuffs, such as crisps, is often estimated in schools through combustion
and simple calorimetry. Place 10 cm3 of water in a boiling tube and record its
temperature. Ignite a crisp or snack biscuit and use the burning food to heat
the water. Record the final temperature. Energy stored in the foodstuff can be
calculated using the formula:
energy (J) = mass of water (10 g) × specific heat capacity of water (4.2) × temperature change (°C)
You can refine this by weighing the crisp and working out energy per gram
and then comparing with the energy value on the food label.
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3.1 Respiration
Incomplete oxidation results in some (or all) of the carbon atoms in the food
molecules not becoming chemically bonded to oxygen in the form of carbon
dioxide. This is the case in anaerobic respiration and results in less energy
being transferred out of the food. Some food molecules, notably fatty acids,
are in a less oxidised chemical state than carbohydrates such as glucose.
Students can be shown the chemical formula of a fatty acid, noting the small
proportion of oxygen in it (you could also note the similarity in formula and
structure between fatty acids and alkanes, such as those in petrol and similar
fuels). Full oxidation of these molecules to carbon dioxide and water results in
even more energy being transferred out of chemical stores. It is all too easy to
exceed your food energy intake requirements if your diet is rich in fats. Again,
some simple food calorimetry could help to demonstrate the ‘energy-dense’
nature of fatty foods; compare, for example, baked and fried snack foods.
Science in context
Students may be aware that camels’ humps and small seeds can be valuable stores
of fat. Fat provides a lot of energy per gram, and produces a lot of water, when
aerobically respired. However, water loss through additional breathing when camels
respire fat may exceed water generated in respiration. Thermal insulation provided
by fat is an unrelated advantage.
In photosynthesis, the energy acquired by absorbing light is linked to the

reduction of carbon, from carbon dioxide and water to glucose and oxygen.
The energy is thereby transferred into a chemical store.
Older and higher-attaining students should be introduced to ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), a small, mobile molecule used as an energy store in cells. The
reaction that results in the conversion of a molecule of ATP to ADP (adenosine
diphosphate) and a phosphate ion, making an amount of energy available,
can be linked in cells to other molecular processes that take an ‘inward’
transfer of energy. Thereby, muscles can contract, ions can be pumped across
membranes, and macromolecules can be built. In a more sophisticated model
of respiration, learners can understand the function of cellular respiration as
being to restore the ATP molecules, by recombining ADP and phosphate. The
net energy transfer of cellular respiration is from biomass stores (glucose) to
more usable stores in the form of ATP.
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Science in context
ATP and muscle contraction can be seen in rigor mortis – the stiffening of muscles
after death. This typically starts 3–4 hours after death, but may be faster in those
who have exercised strenuously before death or who have had convulsions leading
up to death. Many students are aware that ATP is required for muscle contractions
but not that ATP is also required for a muscle to relax. Respiration ceases upon
death, so no more ATP is generated and muscles stiffen. Rigor mortis passes after
2–3 days as enzymes break down and soften muscles.
Prior knowledge and experience of respiration

Learners bring to their science lessons ideas that they have acquired
elsewhere, or indeed through previous science teaching. These can
sometimes be barriers to further learning.
Although living organisms are respiring all the time, they do not usually show
obvious physical signs that this is occurring. Something that some animals
obviously do is ‘breathe’, which is perhaps why respiration and breathing
(or ventilation) are often thought of as being the same thing. Breathing may
be regarded by some students as an end in itself, rather than being linked
to the needs of cells. Some learners may think that cellular respiration only
happens when an organism is physically active. Oxygen may be regarded as
synonymous with air.
Respiration in plants is particularly problematic. Some students may think
that it does not happen or that it only happens at night. They may believe that
respiration takes place only in leaves because they have stomata for gas
exchange, and that leaves alternate their function between day and night.
Learners may appreciate the role of photosynthesis in plant growth but not the
role of respiration in growth and in the many other energy transfer processes
in cells.
A teaching sequence
Practical investigations concerning the reactants and products of respiration
can be used to help students understand the process.
The fundamental importance of respiration to all living things can be
emphasised by using a variety of different types of organisms in such
investigations. Further ideas and more detailed explanations of the
procedures that are suggested below can be found in many student texts and
on websites recommended at the end of this chapter.
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3.1 Respiration
Energy flow in living and non-living systems

Before teaching respiration, it is important to review students’ knowledge
of what is meant by the word ‘energy’. We cannot see or feel energy – the
physical experiences that we associate with it occur only when an energy
transfer takes place. An ‘energy circus’ is a useful way of helping students
appreciate that the concept of ‘energy’ can be applied in many situations.
Students can be asked the question, ‘Where is the energy now?’ when
presented with examples of living and non-living systems in which energy
transfers are occurring. The utilisation of energy transfers by organisms of
all kinds could include generation of movement (such as plant tropisms),
growth, sound, heat, light (in bioluminescent algae and fungi, for example)
and electricity (as in nerve impulses and electric eels). After considering
situations in which a few energy transfers occur, students could then trace the
many energy transfers that occur from the Sun, to their food, to their own life
processes.
Food as a source of energy

Making the link between the high sugar (or starch or fat) content of ‘high
energy’ foods and the photosynthesis that produces the glucose food energy
store will help students to appreciate the idea of energy flow from producers to
primary consumers. Give your students some food labels to study. Ask them to
determine whether there is a connection between high energy ‘density’ (kJ/g)
foods and the sugar/starch/fat content of the food.
Careers
Dietetics is the study of nutrition and its effects on health, focusing on the nutrition
required for good health and how to help those who are not in good health through
the construction of specialised diets. Dieticians can specialise in many areas,
including renal, oncological and paediatric. Career opportunities for dieticians
are growing and include working in scientific research, in the food industry, with
athletes and even with the media.
The idea that respiration involves food being ‘burned’ inside the body to
release energy is often used when introducing respiration. Respiration is
an oxidation reaction rather than a simple combustion reaction. Be sure to
emphasise the difference if burning foodstuffs. It should be made clear that
respiration involves a series of small steps that transfer energy gradually
whereas combustion is a much more rapid reaction. Dramatic demonstrations
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of the energy released when cornflour is burned or ‘the screaming jelly baby’
can provide good stimulus material for introducing the idea that food provides
the source of energy for consumers (see websites listed at the end of this
chapter for details of these demonstrations).
Cellular respiration as a fundamental process of life can be enhanced
by making explicit links with topics such as: movement involving muscle
contraction, movement of chromosomes during cell division, the synthesis
of large molecules from smaller ones and the active transport of materials
in and out of cells. The importance of respiration in the carbon cycle should
also be highlighted and this provides another opportunity to challenge the
misconception that respiration does not occur in plants.
Demonstrating that oxygen is used in aerobic

respiration
Using respirometers to monitor oxygen uptake in
KEY ACTIVITY
small organisms
Respirometers can be used to measure oxygen uptake by small invertebrates or
germinating seeds. The invertebrates or seeds are placed inside a container (such as a
boiling tube) with a substance (usually pellets of soda lime) which will absorb the carbon
dioxide produced by respiration. A bung connected to a U-shaped capillary tube with
water inside is used to seal the boiling tube. The air pressure in the sealed container
drops since oxygen is being used up in respiration and the water in the attached capillary
tube is drawn along the tube. In practice this type of respirometer is fiddly to set up
and may not provide reliable results unless it is completely airtight and maintained at a
constant temperature. Depending on your students and the time you have available, it
may be more sensible to use a respirometer as a demonstration rather than for a whole
class practical activity. Note that soda lime is corrosive.
Alternatively, the CLEAPSS procedure ‘GL159 Removing oxygen in a seed germination
practical without using alkaline pyrogallol’ can be used to demonstrate the need for
oxygen in aerobic respiration.
Consider asking and discussing with students what happens to the mass of
a fertilised bird’s egg as it is incubated, and why. Many students will tell you
that the mass increases, when in fact it drops – a common misconception
– because respiration must occur. Oxygen diffuses in and carbon dioxide
diffuses out of the egg. Water is also lost through the eggshell.
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3.1 Respiration
Demonstrating that carbon dioxide is

produced in aerobic respiration
The well-known limewater test for carbon dioxide can be used when the
amount of carbon dioxide being produced is relatively large, for example
in air exhaled from the lungs. If only small amounts of carbon dioxide are
produced, however, hydrogencarbonate indicator may be a better choice.
As mentioned in Chapter 2, hydrogencarbonate indicator is a very sensitive
pH indicator that can be used to demonstrate carbon dioxide production
by respiring plants and small animals (details for how to make and use this
indicator can be found on the CLEAPSS website). It has an orange/red colour
when in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide levels of atmospheric air. When
the carbon dioxide level rises slightly, it changes to a yellow colour. Placing
pondweed (for example Elodea) into a boiling tube containing the indicator
and excluding light to prevent photosynthesis will produce a colour change
in about one hour. Pond snails are not harmed by the indicator and will
cause a significant colour change in about 30 minutes. Leaves of terrestrial
plants (such as privet) or small invertebrates (such as woodlice) can also
be suspended above the indicator solution in the dark, producing a colour
change after a few hours.
Measuring heat production in germinating

seeds
Germinating seeds transfer energy by cellular respiration from their food
stores, typically oils (liquid fats) or starch, into the biochemical reactions
giving rise to growth. As in most energy transfer processes, a proportion of the
energy is transferred into random thermal motion of particles – in other words,
heat – and the system warms up. This temperature rise can be measured by
placing a thermometer or a temperature sensor (attached to a digital meter
and, if possible, a data logger) into a thermos flask containing germinating
seeds. Soaked dried peas are typically used as soaking triggers germination.
Unsoaked peas and boiled soaked peas are important controls. A rinse of the
soaked and the boiled peas in mild disinfectant solution will inhibit microbial
activity, which can interfere with this demonstration.
Anaerobic respiration in bacteria

Students are likely to be familiar with the smell or taste of milk that has ‘gone
off’. The sour taste results from bacteria in the milk respiring anaerobically
and producing lactic acid. The fall in pH can be monitored over a number of
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days using a pH sensor connected to a meter with a digital readout, which can
be connected to a data logger. Comparing results obtained using pasteurised
and long-life milk can help illustrate the role of bacteria in this process. Lactic
fermentation can use other substrates (food sources) for the bacteria too, for
example cabbage or flour (in sourdough bread).
Anaerobic respiration in yeast

When yeast respires anaerobically, it produces ethanol (alcohol) and carbon
dioxide. We use yeast in food production. Yeast is used in the baking process
(the carbon dioxide produced makes the dough rise) and in the production of
alcohol such as in wine and beer.
Fermentation by yeast is easily investigated by younger students with a
conical flask of yeast suspension in sugar solution. The sugar solution
should have been made up with freshly boiled water to drive off much of the
dissolved oxygen. Floating a layer of cooking oil on top prevents more oxygen
dissolving in the suspension. The gas given off can be used to inflate a balloon
stretched over the mouth of the conical flask; draw the gas in the balloon up
into a regular syringe and gently push it from the syringe, through a narrow
rubber tube, into limewater, to test for carbon dioxide. CLEAPSS have a more
ambitious procedure for older learners: ‘GL089 Measurement of anaerobic
respiration in yeast’.
Respiration and cells

This would be a good point at which to make links and remind learners of cell
theory, having just considered respiration in (unicellular) bacteria and yeasts.
Every living cell, including in multicellular organisms, must transfer energy
from food supplies as required by other energy transfers happening inside
the cell (for example, as new complex materials are made). All cells do this
through respiration.
This implies that all cells need a supply of the raw materials (substrates) for
respiration and to be able to lose harmful products (including carbon dioxide).
The transport, exchange and other processes that secure these in various
organisms are the subject of other chapters in this book.
In prokaryotes (cells without nuclei, such as bacteria), respiration happens
within the cytoplasm, with some stages occurring at the cell membrane.
In cells with nuclei, only early stages happen in the cytoplasm, with
respiration predominantly taking place in membrane-bound organelles
called mitochondria. Students may recall learning about these, and perhaps
modelling them, when they studied cells. Excellent photomicrographs of
mitochondria can be accessed at the website of the Science Photo Library.
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3.1 Respiration
Enhancement ideas
Mitochondria have two membranes around them (the inner being deeply folded,
providing a large surface area). They are about the same size as many bacteria,
with a small genome of their own. You could discuss with older students what this
might suggest about the origins of mitochondria in evolution and, in principle,
how this could be investigated further. (Are there any other similarities between
mitochondria and living bacteria?)
Anaerobic respiration in muscles

The rapid exercising of muscles quickly results in a build-up of lactic acid,
and most students will be familiar with the sensations of tiredness, cramp and
stiffness that follow strenuous exercise. A simple procedure that illustrates one
of the reasons why these sensations occur is to clench and unclench your fists
two to three times each second with one hand held above your head and the
other by your side. The raised arm tires more quickly: it is harder to pump blood
carrying oxygen upwards to the raised hand, so more anaerobic respiration
occurs in the muscle cells; the build-up of lactic acid becomes uncomfortable.
Enhancement ideas
Much of our knowledge about metabolic processes such as respiration comes
from experiments using radioactive tracers, for example following the path of a
radioactively labelled carbon atom from glucose dissolved in an animal’s drinking
water to the carbon dioxide that the animal produces by respiring.
With more able students some of the techniques involved and the results obtained
can be discussed to help them understand the importance of such experiments in
modern biology. Molecular models or ‘student modelling’, in which the students
themselves represent different atoms (labelled and unlabelled), can be used to
provide a physical representation of the process.
3.2 Photosynthesis
Prior knowledge and experience of
photosynthesis
At age 11, students will probably have grown plants in pots and in gardens
and will know that plants need water and light to grow, but they are unlikely
to know much more about photosynthesis. A common misconception that
learners may hold is that the purpose of photosynthesis is to produce oxygen
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for ‘us’ to breathe. Photosynthesis may be regarded mistakenly as a ‘special

form of respiration’, or as a substance rather than a process. The function
of chlorophyll may be misunderstood (for example, as absorbing carbon
dioxide). The belief that only plants photosynthesise can inhibit learning about
classification or understanding that many single-celled organisms can also
photosynthesise.
A teaching sequence
The teaching sequence suggested here starts with the photosynthesis
equation and uses that as a basis for investigating the formation of the
products (carbohydrate and oxygen) and the uptake of the reactant carbon
dioxide. Some students are notoriously unenthusiastic about plant biology,
but they may be more enthusiastic about practical work. Most of the practical
activities advocated here can easily be carried out by the students themselves.
Indeed, the science could be derived entirely from investigative work, with
students supported in constructing the summary equation themselves from
practical results. The Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS) website has details
of most of the investigations suggested here, as well as further background
information on plants and photosynthesis.
Plant growth
A good way to test students’ existing understanding of plant nutrition is to
show them a plant seed and a fully-grown plant (the bigger the better) and
ask ‘Where did most of the mass of the adult plant come from?’. Most students
are likely to answer from soil or from water, or even from the Sun, but very few
give the correct answer: from the air. It is counter-intuitive for some students
to believe that solid wood was built from gases in the air, and students may
like to investigate the history of discoveries about plant nutrition, such as
the experiments of Jan Baptist van Helmont (Figure 3.1), Jan Ingenhousz and
Joseph Priestley. Such research can add a human element to the subject and
can support deeper understanding.
Consider discussing with students what plants take from the soil through
their roots, besides water. Particularly important elements to mention are:
nitrogen (in the form of nitrate ions), used as part of amino acids for protein
production; phosphorus (as phosphate ions) for DNA and similar molecules;
and magnesium ions to become part of chlorophyll. Some plants are grown
commercially, for example tomatoes, cucumbers and peppers, with their roots
in solution rather than soil and this is called hydroponics.
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3.2 Photosynthesis
Science in context
Simple investigations into the growth of plants without soil, a technique known as
hydroponics, can be carried out in class. It is possible to do investigations into the
growth of plants such as Tradescantia, radishes or duckweed in soil-less conditions
by growing seedlings in a container of water with minerals/fertiliser added.
Students can also use this approach to investigate what mineral salts plants need
for growth, production of chlorophyll, flowering, etc. by supplying mineral solutions
deficient in particular elements.
5lb shoot + 200lb + 5 years with 169lb 3oz tree + 199lb 14oz
dry soil only a supply of dry soil
rain water for
growth
Figure 3.1 Van Helmont’s experiment
The discoveries of Priestley and others led to this summary equation for
photosynthesis:
energy transferred
carbon dioxide + water glucose + oxygen
energy transferred
6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2
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Carbon dioxide is taken from the air into the leaves via the stomata; water
is taken in through the roots from the soil. The glucose produced is a
carbohydrate, used as raw material for growth (biomass production) and for
cellular respiration in the plant. The waste product, molecular oxygen, exits
the leaf through stomata or is used in respiration by cells in the leaves.
Younger students should know the word equation while older students may
need to know the symbol equation as well. It is fairly simple to balance
the symbol equation, but this balancing is actually misleading. The
photosynthesis ‘equation’ is a summary of some 30 separate steps, rather
than a simple chemical reaction. As was the case with the respiration
equations, this is an important point to make. All the carbon and oxygen
atoms in glucose come from carbon dioxide, while all the oxygen atoms in
the product oxygen come from the water, and to show this correctly it would
be necessary to include water on both sides of the equation. Experimentally,
this was demonstrated using different isotopes of oxygen. Students will
encounter this in post-16 biology, but a qualitative treatment could be
suitable for higher-attaining students in the 14–16 age group.
Leaves
Photosynthesis mostly takes place in leaves, which are well adapted to
this job. Leaves are thin and flat to absorb as much light as possible, and
they often turn to face the Sun. Time-lapse videos of this heliotropism (first
noted by Leonardo da Vinci) can be found on YouTube or the BBC video
The Private Life of Plants. A transverse section of a leaf can be studied
under the microscope. Stomata can also easily be observed under the
microscope: suggested methods are given on the SAPS website. Examples
include observing stomata in Tradescantia zebrina, observing stomatal
opening and closing in Commelina communis, and the use of a graticule
to measure the density of stomata on a leaf surface and to investigate how
this stomatal density varies in plants from different environments.
Many students are familiar with the structure of a typical palisade cell, but
some may think that this is a rigid structure. Cytoplasmic streaming can be
observed in African violets using a light microscope. The chloroplasts can be
seen to move around the cell’s cytoplasm. Alternatively, the internet has many
videos of this fascinating process.
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3.2 Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll
Photosynthesis depends on chlorophyll, a green compound containing
magnesium found inside chloroplasts. Light transfers energy to chlorophyll,
which causes water to split. The energy is eventually transferred into a
chemical store, glucose. Students can extract chlorophyll from leaves
easily, using thin-layer chromatography to separate the pigments (see
TLC of photosynthetic pigments protocol on the SAPS website for detailed
instructions). It should be possible to see chlorophyll a (dark green),
chlorophyll b (pale green), carotenoids (yellow and orange) and lutein
(brown). Different-coloured leaves can also be used for comparison.
The chlorophyll solution can also be used to investigate the absorption of
light. An intense white light can be split into a spectrum using a prism in the
dark and then a cuvette of chlorophyll inserted into the light path (Figure 3.2).
The chlorophyll absorbs the red and blue light but not the green and yellow.
This can help students appreciate that photosynthesis uses red and blue
light, but not green light.
screen
prism
chlorophyll
cuvette
red (dim)
slit
green
white light
source
blue (dim)
Figure 3.2 Absorption of light by chlorophyll
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Investigating the factors required for photosynthesis

KEY ACTIVITIES
Students can test for the main product of photosynthesis: carbohydrate. They can
investigate production of starch (a storage product made from glucose in leaves) using
the iodine test on laboratory plants such as Pelargonium. The plants need to be de-
starched first (in a dark cupboard for two days, so that pre-existing starch is used up in
respiration). Then the plants can be set up to test the importance of factors such as light
(by covering a leaf with foil, perhaps with a hole cut in it), carbon dioxide (by placing the
leaf in a flask containing potassium hydroxide to absorb the carbon dioxide), stomata(by
painting one or both surfaces with petroleum jelly) and chlorophyll (by using a variegated
leaf). Expose the plant to bright artificial light for several (at least 1–3) hours (Figure 3.3a)
and then test the leaves for starch using iodine. See the SAPS website for further details.
a b orange
A
C black
variegated
A leaf
B
orange
cotton wool
bung
D
C orange
lower surface of black

leaf painted with
B petroleum jelly
flask with
D
orange
KOH solution
to absorb CO2
Figure 3.3 Investigating the factors required for photosynthesis: a setting up the experimental plant; b the
results after testing the leaves for starch
Typical results are shown in Figure 3.3b. Students should be supported to draw their own
conclusions.
Be aware of potential pitfalls with this common approach. It is easy not to spend long enough
on helping learners to understand why the practical is designed as it is. In terms of
investigation, it is best regarded as a test of the model. Given students’ new knowledge of
photosynthesis, what results would they predict and why? It is important to make the links
between the starch (which is being tested for) and the glucose (which is produced in
photosynthesis). Direct students’ attention to the key part of the practical – the starch test –
rather than to the earlier softening and chlorophyll removal that facilitate the starch test.
Consider with the learners the role of the prior de-starching of the plants and of the subsequent
illumination. The latter promotes photosynthesis, with starch accumulating in those areas
exposed to light, in large enough amounts to yield a distinct result in the iodine test.
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3.2 Photosynthesis
Measuring the rate of photosynthesis

We can also measure the production of the other product of photosynthesis: oxygen gas.
The most common way to do this is to use an aquatic plant. Some tropical pondweeds
work better than temperate Elodea species (Eldridge, 2005). CLEAPSS suggest, for example,
using Cabomba aquatica and advise on safe disposal of potentially invasive species.
A length of pondweed is placed upside down in 0.25 M (2%) potassium
hydrogencarbonate solution, which can be explained to students as providing dissolved
carbon dioxide. The oxygen produced by photosynthesis appears as bubbles from the cut
end (Figure 3.4a). The number of bubbles emerging in a minute can simply be counted
and used as a measure of the rate of photosynthesis. Alternatively, the gas can be
collected by upward delivery and the volume measured that way (Figure 3.4b and 3.4c).
The collected gas can be tested with a glowing splint to demonstrate that it is oxygen.
measuring
a b c
cylinder
oxygen bubble
collects here oxygen
oxygen
bubble
ruler
pondweed
oxygen bubble
moved here to
be measured,
using the syringe funnel
Plasticine 2% KHCO3
weight solution
Figure 3.4 Measuring the rate of oxygen production by pondweed: a counting bubbles; b measuring the volume
using a photosynthometer; c collecting the gas in a measuring cylinder
The plants should be kept in large sunny aquarium tanks and short lengths cut cleanly with
sharp scissors underwater immediately before use. The 2% potassium hydrogencarbonate
solution is needed to provide plenty of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, and the
potassium salt is reported to be more reliable than the sodium salt. A very bright light
source is needed to encourage a good rate of bubbling. Normal room lights or desk lamps
are inadequate. Halogen lamps can be used, with an intervening heat filter, or fluorescent
tubes (including energy-saving bulbs) work well. For a controlled experiment, the plant
material should be carefully shielded from other light sources. If the bubble rate slows
significantly, cut the end again and wait a couple of minutes.
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Technology use
Many data-logging systems include oxygen and carbon dioxide gas sensors
(Delpech, 2006). These sensors can be used to demonstrate the changes in the
gases due to photosynthesis in leaves and small plants (Figure 3.5).
gas CO2 O2
sensors O2
glass
jar CO2
fresh
leaves
Figure 3.5 Using gas sensors to demonstrate photosynthesis
Changes in both gases can be observed in real time as conditions, such as light
intensity, are changed. The gas sensors have the advantages that familiar land plants
can be used, both oxygen and carbon dioxide can be monitored simultaneously and
the changes can be projected onto a screen.
Light intensity
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity. If light is limiting,
a plant which is further away from a light source will have a lower rate of
photosynthesis than a plant which is closer to that light source. We can use the
inverse square law to explain this.
As light waves move away from a light source they spread out: the total
amount of light stays the same, but it is spread out over a greater area. This
means that each unit of area receives a smaller proportion of the light; in other
words, the light intensity decreases.
We can calculate the relative light intensity at any distance from the light
source using the inverse square law:
1
light intensity (LI) ∝
d2
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3.2 Photosynthesis
Investigating the effect of light intensity on the rate

KEY ACTIVITIES
of photosynthesis
Students can investigate the effects of distance (d) and light intensity (LI) using the
technique described in Figure 3.4. A plant can be placed at a set measured distance
from a light source and the rate of photosynthesis calculated. The distance between the
plant and light source can be altered (and measured) and the rate of photosynthesis
recalculated. Alternatively, the intensity can be measured with a lux meter. Students can
then use the inverse square law to explain why the rate of photosynthesis is lower when
the plant is at a greater distance from the light source.
Investigating further factors in relation to

photosynthesis
l The colour of the light can be changed by placing coloured filters in front of the lamp,
with discussion about how to keep overall light intensity constant (using light meters
and changing distances could offer a solution).
l The carbon dioxide concentration can be altered by changing the amount of
potassium hydrogencarbonate added to the solution.
l The temperature can be changed by placing the pondweed tube in a glass water bath,
such as a large beaker.
All these investigations can be planned by students themselves, choosing which variables
to control and how to quantify the outcome.
Another way of visualising the oxygen produced in photosynthesis is to

use floating leaf discs. Small, standard-sized discs are punched from
leaves and placed in a potassium hydrogencarbonate solution. The oxygen
produced by photosynthesis in the leaf discs causes the discs to rise to the
surface and float, and the time taken to rise can be used as a measure of
the rate of photosynthesis (details on the SAPS website). In this experiment
students may observe some discs floating and others sinking. Ask students
what must be happening at the point where half the discs are floating and
half are sinking. The answer is that this is the compensation point, where
the rates of photosynthesis and respiration are equal. Carbon dioxide is
about 40 times more soluble in water than oxygen is, so the buoyancy of the
leaf discs is dependent on oxygen gas in the leaf’s inner spaces.
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Science in context
Many students hold the misconception that all seeds require light to germinate.
This is easily challenged with a packet of cress seeds and a dark cupboard! But,
more interestingly, cress seedlings in the dark grow more quickly than cress
seedlings in the light, at least at first; they etiolate (grow tall, spindly and do not
turn green). Gardeners and farmers use this idea with ‘forced’ crops such as chicory
or early rhubarb. Commercially, rhubarb plants are grown outside for a few years,
then brought inside in the winter where, in the dark, they grow rapidly into tall,
pale pink leaf stalks (with yellow leaves). After heavy harvesting of these stalks, the
plants are almost dead. Challenge the students to explain the processes involved.
Limiting factors
Experiments such as the ones above show that the rate of photosynthesis
depends on a number of factors, including light intensity, temperature and carbon
dioxide concentration. But at any given time there can only be one factor that is
actually controlling the rate: the limiting factor. This is the factor that is in shortest
supply. Students should be able to interpret graphs such as the one shown in
Figure 3.6.
B
Rate of photosynthesis
Light intensity
Figure 3.6 Graph used to identify limiting factors. At low light intensities (A), the rate of photosynthesis
increases as the light intensity increases, so light must be the limiting factor. At higher light intensities (B),
the rate of photosynthesis stays the same even if the light intensity increases. This means that light is not
the limiting factor, and the rate of photosynthesis must be limited by some other factor.
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3.2 Photosynthesis
The fate of glucose

Plants are amazingly self-sufficient. They use the glucose they make in
photosynthesis as the basis for making everything else in their cells, in other
words, their biomass. This includes: sucrose, easily transported around
the plant; starch, stored in roots, leaves and many seeds; fats for energy
stores and for cell membranes; cellulose to make cell walls; and proteins for
growth. For some of these compounds, plants need other elements, such as
nitrogen and sulfur. They get these two elements in the form of the minerals
nitrate and sulfate, which they take up from the soil by active transport
through their roots. Students should be encouraged to use the word
‘minerals’ rather than ‘nutrients’ or ‘food’ for these inorganic substances
absorbed from the soil.
Science in context
Many garden centres sell products that claim they are plant ‘food’; one example of
such a product is Miracle-Gro. Ask students whether this is an accurate reflection of
what the product is. Does it fit their understanding of the term ‘food’? Ask students
what they would call it.
Photosynthesis and respiration

Plants use some of the glucose they have synthesised in the process
of photosynthesis as a substrate in cellular respiration. This occurs
throughout the plant, releasing carbon dioxide and water as products. The
energy made available by this respiration drives biochemical reactions
necessary for life processes, such as growth, repair, movement and
reproduction. All living cells respire all the time, including plant cells. So, in
the dark (and in non-photosynthesising parts, also in the light), plants give
out carbon dioxide. In favourable conditions in the light, photosynthesising
parts of plants (typically leaves) take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen
at the same time. Overall, growing plants take in more carbon dioxide
than they give off: they are net photosynthesisers, not respiring all of their
photosynthetic product.
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Investigating photosynthesis and respiration using

KEY ACTIVITIES
hydrogencarbonate indicator
Students can investigate changes in carbon dioxide concentration to show that carbon
dioxide is taken up by plants in photosynthesis and given out by plants in respiration.
The most common way to do this is to use hydrogencarbonate indicator solution. Since
carbon dioxide forms a weak acid in solution, its concentration can be detected using
this very sensitive pH indicator. Figure 3.7 shows the colour changes.
hydrogencarbonate indicator.
Yellow Orange Red Magenta Purple
carbon dioxide 0.04% carbon carbon dioxide

released dioxide taken up
by plant to in atmospheric by plant from
surroundings air surroundings
Figure 3.7 Colour scale for hydrogencarbonate indicator
A typical experiment is shown in Figure 3.8. After a day in the light, tube A remains red,
tube B turns purple as carbon dioxide is, overall, taken up by the plant for photosynthesis
and tube C turns yellow as carbon dioxide is released in respiration. Students should be
able to explain the colour changes in terms of photosynthesis and respiration.
A different and very successful variation on this is to use algae instead of pondweed
(Eldridge, 2004). The algae are easily entrapped in alginate forming green beads or ‘algal
balls’. (See the SAPS website for further details.) The light intensity that gives no change
in colour of the indicator represents the ‘compensation point’ (as noted above with
floating leaf discs); the rates of photosynthesis and respiration are equal, so there is no
net change in carbon dioxide concentration.
hydrogen foil
carbonate
indicator
solution
tube A tube B tube C

control light dark
Figure 3.8 Investigating changes in carbon dioxide concentration using hydrogencarbonate indicator
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3.3 Energy and materials in ecosystems

A teaching sequence
It makes sense to begin the topic considering energy and materials in
ecosystems once again with food. Discussion of food chains and food webs is
followed with an introduction to ecological pyramids: numbers, biomass and
(in later studies) energy. The topic concludes with a section on decomposition
and recycling.
Food chains and food webs

A good starting point for considering energy and materials in ecosystems
is with food and, when teaching food chains and webs, to describe feeding
interactions in habitats with which learners are already familiar. Getting
students to construct food chains that explain the origin (ultimately in
producers) of a meal they have eaten can be a useful activity to get them to
use secondary sources to link themselves with the global ecosystem. What,
for example, do tuna fish eat, and what are the conservation issues of
commercial tuna fishing? What kind of food is fed to the animals that many
people eat as food, and what are the ethical issues that this knowledge
raises? Revisiting this when learners have considered ecological pyramids
and energy flow gives an opportunity to consider why vegetarianism can be
energy efficient, and what might compromise this (for example, eating air-
freighted out-of-season fruit and vegetables).
One very common misconception about food chains and webs concerns
the arrows; learners may get them the wrong way round as they have not
appreciated that they show the direction in which biomass is transferred.
When learning about nutrient cycles, children typically bring to the
carbon cycle any misconceptions that they hold about photosynthesis
and respiration; it may be useful to revise key ideas briefly. The stochastic
nature of nutrient cycles also causes confusion: learners may believe
that carbon (or nitrogen) atoms always follow a fixed route round their
respective cycles. Various game-like simulations of the cycles (perhaps
designed by the students themselves) may help learners to understand that
there are many chance events determining which way a particular atom
moves, if, indeed, it moves through the cycle at all.
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Ecological pyramids and energy flow

One of the reasons why food chains are quantified and represented as
pyramids (numbers, biomass and – beyond 11–16 biology – energy) is to
demonstrate that the amount of material or energy available in the food chain
decreases with increasing trophic level. The only way in which energy is made
available along food chains is through biomass being transferred as food for
the next trophic level. The energy in the biomass store is only made available
to a particular trophic level if the biomass is respired at that level.
Hints on teaching energy flow:
➜ Energy in biology is the same as energy in physics and chemistry.
➜ The Sun is the ultimate origin of energy for almost all food chains.
➜ Energy is not recycled in an ecosystem; a continuing input to
photosynthesising producers is required to sustain it.
➜ At each trophic level, some energy is transferred out of the living
components of the ecosystem, heating the environment. This energy is then
not available to the food chain for further life processes.
➜ Therefore, food chains rarely have more than five links, as too little stored
energy becomes available for the needs of the top consumer.
Learners should consider all the ways in which biomass in one trophic level
might not reach the next trophic level: including by not being eaten (and
going instead to decomposers), by not being absorbed by the gut (and going
as faeces to decomposers) and through being respired and the subsequent
energy transfers warming the environment directly (conduction, convection and
radiation) and indirectly (through the work of muscles in generating movement
and sound).
This could be a good opportunity to discuss the practices and ethics of
modern intensive farming of livestock, specifically the various approaches it
uses to avoid biomass energy stores being transferred into anything other than
food for humans (such as losses to pests and to heat).
Careers
It is worth reminding students that with an ever-increasing population, science is
continually trying to find solutions to the problems we face regarding food security.
Many roles exist in agricultural technology, plant biotechnology and applied food
science which may be of interest to them.
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Constructing pyramids of numbers

It is possible for students to count producers, herbivores and carnivores
in a sample from pitfall traps, from leaf litter or from a pond and thus
construct a pyramid of numbers. This usually only demonstrates the
principle of a pyramid of numbers very crudely. In pitfall traps, the
carnivores may eat the herbivores before they can be counted! In leaf
litter, many of the herbivores, such as springtails, are very small and easily
overlooked. In pond water, the countless millions of microscopic algae
on which most of the food chains rely for energy are not normally noticed
at all. It is, however, well worth carrying out such an exercise because it
makes the theoretical treatment, which must inevitably follow, much easier
to understand by making some difficult concepts more concrete. Good
hygiene is essential when handling leaf litter and pond water.
If students grasp the difficulty of producing reliable and accurate pyramids
of number for an ecosystem, they are likely to appreciate how much more
difficult it is to generate good pyramids of biomass. And even these are
crude ways of estimating the amounts of energy transferred through trophic
levels (for a given volume of ecosystem over a particular time period) that
are the real measures of how productive ecosystems are. Learners should
be able to explain in energy terms why pyramids of number are usually
pyramidal, and pyramids of biomass even more so. Exceptional pyramids
of number are typically those where a single producer is very large (such as
a tree) or where there are consumers that are smaller but more numerous
than their food organisms: for example, aphids or fleas. These anomalies
generally resolve when numbers are converted to biomass.
Decomposition and recycling

Substances needed by plants, such as carbon dioxide and mineral salts,
rarely run out because they are continually recycled, owing to microbial
action with the help of detritivores. Animals depend on plants to recycle
oxygen and to produce food by photosynthesis. Detritivores are animals,
such as earthworms and woodlice, that play a part in decomposition. When
dead or waste organic material passes through a detritivore, it is partly
digested and absorbed; what remains comes out in the faeces. Digestion
of the remains is then completed by soil microbes. Decomposers are key
to the cycling of materials in ecosystems, as their actions return materials
from organic phases to the non-living parts of the ecosystem, where they are
available again to plants.
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Some students find decomposition difficult to understand. Some reasons for

this are:
➜ Microbes are too small to see. Many fungi are exceptions to this; their
mycelia and reproductive bodies (mushrooms and toadstools) can often be
seen on rotting vegetation.
➜ Lack of understanding that plants need carbon dioxide and mineral salts
from the soil and that continued plant growth depends on the recycling of
these substances.
Science in context
Students should consider why arable farmers must use fertilisers to replace the
minerals taken away in the crop. Reflect on how the use of manure as a fertiliser
on mixed farms represents a cycling of nutrients in the farm ecosystem. Note the
simple meaning of ‘fertile’ (i.e. ‘productive’) in this context.
Nutrient cycles contain some very difficult concepts; be careful not to teach
more theory than necessary. You do not have to teach every nutrient cycle
for students to get the idea of cycling. The overriding challenge is to find
exciting and motivating ways to teach nutrient cycling. Practical activities
that you could do, with suitable risk assessment, include setting up a pile of
rotting logs outside for future fungus forays (and a good supply of woodlice
for choice chambers!), keeping a wormery or making compost. SAPS have
a simple activity for making a ‘compost column’, which collects a liquid
product that makes a very good plant ‘food’, closing the loop!
Science in context
The Venus flytrap, sundews and pitcher plants are examples of insectivorous plants.
Ask students to identify the key materials they gain from their prey and suggest
why this behaviour gives a survival advantage. A clue comes in the fact that
their natural habitat is boggy, waterlogged ground. The water in this soil fills the
spaces occupied by air in drier soil. Denitrifying bacteria are adapted for anaerobic
conditions, making it difficult for these plants to obtain nitrogen. You could even get
students to grow some of these plants in your classroom.
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3.4 Resources
3.4 Resources
Suppliers
Blades Biological (www.blades-bio.co.uk) for pondweed, light banks, algae
and growth media
Lee Filters (www.leefilters.com) for light filters
Progrow (www.progrow.co.uk) for hydroponics supplies including grow lights
Sciento (www.sciento.co.uk) for algae and growth media
Websites
Generic websites
CLEAPSS is a subscription service with definitive advice on safe and effective
practical science for schools, available at: http://science.cleapss.org.uk
eChalk provides excellent diagrams, animations and images for use with an
interactive whiteboard. A subscription is needed to access these resources:
www.echalk.co.uk/Science/biology.aspx
‘Kings Science’: Richard King has put together a very useful set of free
resources, including flash animations and worksheets, which can be found at:
www.kscience.co.uk/index.htm
Practical Biology is a website that is a joint project of the Nuffield Curriculum
Centre, the Society of Biology and CLEAPSS, and is intended to encourage
teachers to carry out more practical biology in schools: https://pbiol.rsb.org.uk/
Websites related to photosynthesis

Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS) has a range of materials and suggestions
for practical work: www.saps.org.uk/
The Tomato Zone offers free resources of tomato-based information: www.
thetomatozone.co.uk/
Websites related to respiration

Practical instructions and a demonstration of the screaming jelly baby
experiment can be found by searching for ‘screaming jelly baby’ at: www.
stem.org.uk/elibrary/
The Science Photo Library website provides a vast number of high quality
photographs. The images of tissues, cells and organelles (including
mitochondria) are excellent: www.sciencephoto.com
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References
Delpech, R. (2006) Making the invisible visible: monitoring levels of gaseous
carbon dioxide in the field and classroom. School Science Review, 87 (320), 41.
Eldridge, D. (2004) A novel approach to photosynthesis practicals. School
Science Review, 85 (312), 37–45.
Eldridge, D. (2005) Cabomba – a reliable alternative to Elodea? SSERC
Bulletin, 215, 10–12.
Needham, R. (2014) Using ‘Energy Ideas’ in the teaching of biology. School
Ross, K. (2013) Fuel and food are not made of energy – A constructive view of
respiration and combustion. School Science Review, 94 (349), 60–69.
Tomkins, S. P. and Miller, M. B. (1994) A rapid extraction and fast separation
of leaf pigments using thin layer chromatography. School Science Review, 75
(273), 69–72.
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4 Exchange
Ann Fullick and Indira Banner
Topic overview
The principle of exchange, at different levels of organisation, runs through
many aspects of biology. Students may have met the process of diffusion
and the movement of substances across cell membranes in their work on
cells. Exchange surfaces can be thought of as the cell membrane, where
substances pass in and out of the cell, or two organ parts separated by the
one-cell-thick membrane of each, as in the lung capillaries and the lining
of the lung alveoli. Clearly the exchange point has thin membranes for the
substances to pass through and these tend to be wet surfaces to support
diffusion.
When you discuss exchange, consider what students have – or have not
– met before. Weave in as many examples as possible, while focusing on
those organisms highlighted in curricula and specifications. This helps your
students see that this is a ‘big idea’: a biological principle that can be applied
in many different systems, as important in plants as in animals, and which
can be considered when analysing any new situation (Harlen, 2010). The
principles of exchange play a part in developing an understanding of many
biological processes, from the sense of smell to excretion, photosynthesis and
respiration.
The most important thing when teaching this topic is to ensure that your
students understand the principles of exchange and can apply them in a
number of different systems. There are several ways you might teach these
ideas:
1 All of the topics relating to exchange can be taught as a linked and
integrated whole, building around the principles of exchange, drawing on
the different systems where they are relevant as examples. This approach
has many advantages, ensuring that students focus on the process –
exchange – rather than specific examples. The disadvantage is that
students may become confused by dipping into each system, and lose the
coherence of a particular plant or animal system. This approach needs
careful planning.
2 Different topics involving exchange are covered as they appear in the
planned, taught curriculum, often built around the demands of examination
specifications. It can be easier to engage students in factors that increase
the rate of diffusion/exchange when talking about their own lungs and
the effects of different activities on the process. On the other hand, this
approach may result in students failing to see the big idea, and being
unable to transfer their understanding of exchange to other organisms or
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4 Exchange
systems. The exchange process becomes an add-on, tackled only briefly

in the context of specific exchange surfaces such as the alveoli. Students
may also get that ‘done this before’ feeling when exchange is revisited
throughout a course.
3 A combination of these two approaches can be an ideal way to cover
exchange. Beginning with the big ideas approach for exchange, you engage
students with the over-arching principles, as well as illustrating the many
places it is relevant in organisms. This can segue into an in-depth study of
particular systems where exchange is key, focusing on the principles they
have already come to understand. Each time you introduce a new biological
system or process that depends on exchange, revisit the key principles.
Once you have weighed up these ideas, you will find your own way of
delivering exchange, bearing in mind:
➜ the demands of the curriculum
➜ the demands of the examination specification for older students
➜ the order in which other topics are to be introduced
➜ personal preference
➜ departmental policy.
One final point is that as teachers we must remember the demands of a spiral
curriculum. Students are often revisiting a topic when we ‘introduce’ it to them,
or we in turn may be revisiting it later in their school careers. Tempting as it
may be to tell all our best anecdotes and introduce all the most fascinating
ideas to our students lower down the school, if we ration them and keep some
things fresh for later, we – and our students – will reap the benefit.
4.1 Principles of exchange

Students in primary school are only likely to have met the lungs as one of the
organs of the body. They may know that living things need oxygen and produce
waste products including carbon dioxide. Progression in this topic comes with
age and with coverage across both different areas of biology and the other
sciences. For example, students may meet the particle model of materials in
chemistry along with the basic concept of diffusion. When they learn about cells
(see Chapter 2), they will meet the basic principles of diffusion and movement
across cell membranes. When they look at transport systems (see Chapter 5)
they will have the importance of diffusion reinforced.
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A teaching sequence
Your desired learning outcomes will depend on the age and capabilities of the
students you are working with.
It is a good idea to start off with some questions, to give you a feel for what the
students have met before: ‘What does the term “exchange” mean to you?’,
‘Can you think of situations in a plant or an animal where exchange might be
important?’, ‘What can you tell me about diffusion?’, etc.
It is useful to go into the first lesson with plenty of material prepared, in case
the students have a good grasp of the basics from earlier studies. Most
students learn best in context. A session where everyone is encouraged to
input ideas, building up a map showing where exchange is important in living
things, can involve students actively from the start. A presentation illustrating
different areas where exchange is important (not simply gas exchange) can
help give the ‘big ideas’ (Harlen, 2010) approach more relevance.
The level of understanding you expect from students will depend on their
age and what they have been taught. In the early years of secondary
biology, students should understand the basic concepts of diffusion and
exchange surfaces. Progression includes a fuller understanding of the
processes: how adaptations of exchange surfaces have evolved to maximise
exchange, a mathematical understanding of surface area : volume ratios,
and an ability to apply the principles of exchange to new situations in both
animals and plants.
Physical principles
There are three physical principles needed for complete understanding of
exchange:
➜ diffusion
➜ surface area
➜ surface area : volume ratios.
Cross-disciplinary
It is worth checking with colleagues whether you can reasonably expect some
understanding of these areas from other subjects such as mathematics, physics and
chemistry. It can be helpful to run a quick experiment or demonstration of each
principle when you need it, as students do not always transfer learning between
subjects.
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4 Exchange
Diffusion
There are many demonstrations of diffusion, from potassium manganate(VII)
crystals dropped into water to thought experiments about cooking smells in the
home. It is useful to emphasise that diffusion takes place down a concentration
gradient: from where there are a lot of particles of the diffusing substance to
where there are relatively few. This is also a good opportunity to point out that
diffusion ‘just happens’; it is due to the random motion of particles which end up
spreading out equally and is not an active, energy-consuming process.
A common misconception among students is that particles somehow move
from A to B with intent. If possible, take students to an empty space and put
the whole class in one corner. Ask them to walk about gently with their eyes
closed, changing direction when they bump into another person or the walls.
After a few minutes students will see that they have spread randomly about the
room. Releasing a puff of perfume or aftershave at one point in the classroom
and asking students to indicate when they can smell it also shows the random
movement model; ask students to explain what is happening and, importantly,
why it is happening. There are some effective animations showing how random
movement results in a relatively even spread of particles, giving the overall effect
of diffusion down a concentration gradient.
In biological systems, exchange usually takes place across membranes.
Students may have already met this idea when they looked at cells, so you
may be reprising ideas, not introducing them. Meeting important ideas several
times in different contexts is valuable for students, but they may not think so!
Diffusion into a model cell

KEY ACTIVITY
To help picture what happens at cell level, you can fill lengths of Visking tubing with
starch suspension, tying knots at either end to produce a ‘sausage’ shape. Half fill a
boiling tube with dilute potassium iodide solution and drop the ‘model cell’ into it.
Remove the tubing every thirty seconds or so to see how the starch suspension gradually
turns dark blue as the iodine passes through the Visking tube membrane into the ‘model
cell’. This demonstration helps mimic the process of diffusion through a membrane into
a cell. Challenge the students by asking what you could do to see if the membrane is
only allowing small molecules through or that the membrane only allows movement of
molecules through in one direction.
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Surface area
The idea that the larger the surface area of a membrane, the more diffusion
will take place may be obvious to you, but it is not always obvious to students.
Exchange surfaces often have structural adaptations to increase the surface
area available for diffusion, as in the spongy mesophyll of plant leaves or the
alveolar structure of mammalian lungs. Folding, either in the overall structure
or in the membrane itself, is another common way of increasing surface
area. This is a clear example of how structure is related to function. Relating
surface area to everyday examples can make it more comprehensible.
(Current thought: surface area of a pair of human lungs is 70 m2 or half a
tennis court.)
Understanding surface area is something students often find difficult, so do not
be afraid to revisit it every time it is relevant in different aspects of biology.
Maths
Physical models are very important in helping students to understand this surface
area principle, whether you demonstrate or they make the models themselves.
Surface area : volume ratio

Students may well have met this principle when looking at cells. The
relationship between surface area and volume is a key biological principle
which has relevance in many different biological contexts. Chapter 2 has more
details and some useful practicals. You can also visit the Nuffield website
for practical advice and guidance (see Resources section at the end of the
chapter).
Further activities
If you have time, get students to carry out a physical demonstration of the
surface area : volume principle:
1 Provide groups with one large potato and several little ones with (between
them) approximately the same mass as the large one.
2 Ask the students to peel the potatoes and use graph paper to work out the
approximate surface area of the peel of each mass of potatoes. The small
ones should (between them) have a larger surface area : volume ratio. Ask
students to draw on their learning to explain why lungs contain many tiny
alveoli, rather than being one big air sac.
3 Remind students not to eat the raw potato because of contamination risk in
the laboratory.
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4 Exchange
Enhancement ideas
Introduce students to one or more unusual examples of exchange in action. Some
good examples include ‘bum-breathing’ turtles or insect larvae, salt glands in
some sea birdauminous plants. Task them to find out more, summarise how the
organisms are adapted for the exchanges and report back to the class.
4.2 Gas exchange in animals and plants

As mentioned in Chapter 3, students often get confused between breathing,
gas exchange and respiration. Be constantly aware of this and aim to keep the
different concepts separate in their minds. One way is to teach breathing and
gas exchange at a different time from respiration; another is to help students
recognise clearly how the different processes are interdependent.
To reduce confusion, students must understand that breathing movements
cause air to travel into and out of the lungs, maintaining a steep diffusion
gradient between the lungs and blood vessels so that gas exchange can
take place. Gas exchange means that the net movement of oxygen is into the
blood from the air in the lungs and net carbon dioxide movement is out of the
blood into the air in the lungs. The oxygen brought into the body in this way
is needed in the cells for respiration, and the excreted carbon dioxide from
respiration is removed from the cells and, eventually, the body because if
concentrations rise too much, carbon dioxide becomes poisonous.
Science in context
One of the joys of teaching this topic is that students can use their own bodies as an
experimental system. As long as teachers are aware of safety concerns, and the need
to control any competitive comparisons of performance, this area of biology can be
full of interest for students because it relates easily to themselves, their families and
sporting personalities.
Be aware of medical conditions that affect the ability of certain students to
perform exercise; students with asthma, for example, may need to use their inhalers
first. Exclusions from practical work must be handled carefully to avoid ‘labelling’
students with disabilities. However, all students breathe, and most students
increase the rate at which they breathe with some sort of exertion, so it should be
possible to include all students in some way.
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Another useful aspect of teaching gas exchange is that it takes place in

plants as much as animals. This provides another huge practical resource,
along with a prime opportunity to reinforce the idea that all living things face
similar problems. You can highlight the similarities in their solutions – in
this case, for example, looking at leaves as well as lungs to show structural
adaptations to make gas exchange as efficient as possible – and the
differences. While doing this, encourage students to think about how plants
produce their own oxygen in photosynthesis when it is light, and how animals
are able to move air over their exchange surfaces in a way not available to
plants.

Students will probably have met material specifically linked to breathing in
primary schools. However, they are unlikely to have considered gas exchange
in plants in any detail beyond – hopefully – recognising that plants need
oxygen, for respiration, and they produce carbon dioxide.
A common misconception about all organisms, but often particularly related to
people, is that we breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon dioxide! Always
reinforce the idea that it is air that moves in and out of the lungs. The oxygen
and carbon dioxide that are exchanged only make up part of the air. It is
simply that more oxygen goes into the lungs than comes out and more carbon
dioxide comes out of the lungs than goes in. Give students a table showing
them the differences in oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration in inhaled
and exhaled air to make this point more clearly.
A teaching sequence
As always, before beginning this topic you need to decide your desired
learning outcomes. For example, younger students might know and label the
main parts of a leaf and the human breathing system; with older students
you may want them to understand how the structure of the leaf and the lungs
are related to their functions in gas exchange, how breathing movements
in mammals, fish and insects increase diffusion gradients, and the physical
effects of exercise.
Starter questions can give you an insight into the existing understanding of
the whole class, so you might ask: ‘Do animals and plants have the same
requirements for oxygen and carbon dioxide?’ or ‘Why is breathing so
important?’. An important understanding is that plants do not breathe but, like
animals, they respire all of the time.
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4 Exchange
Science in context
Students often love the stimulus and challenge of social, moral and ethical issues
associated with a specification area; articles linked to topic areas like this are
common in the media – both print and electronic – and it is a good idea to save
them when you see them. For example, material on the role of plants in removing
carbon dioxide from the air, asthma, cystic fibrosis, health risks from air pollution
and smoking, and green areas as the ‘lungs’ of a city often appears in the media. You
can use these resources in teaching as a basis for a discussion, a class or homework
exercise, or a starting point for individual research.
Air movement in response to pressure changes

Cross-disciplinary
Students may have met the effect of pressure changes on air movements in physics
or geography. However, be aware that you may be introducing the idea for the first
time.
When demonstrating the movement of air in response to pressure changes,

you can use a model chest. Many school laboratories have a ‘balloon in a bell
jar’ model chest ready made for this part of the course (Figure 4.1). Movement
of the sheet at the base (the model diaphragm), starting with it domed and
then pulling it down, creates a bigger space around the balloon, reducing the
pressure and causing air to rush into it.
Try the apparatus out beforehand. All too often the seals are leaky or the
balloon has perished and it will not work! A cut-open pink bathroom sponge
is useful here too. It can be used to show students the spongy structure of
air sacs. Explain that the balloon in the bell jar represents one sac. The
model therefore illustrates the way in which air moves into and out of a single
alveolus as the pressure changes. Students should understand that this is one
of millions of alveoli within their lungs. This is preferable to having two balloons
set up as model lungs. Many students already have the misconception that
their lungs are like a pair of balloons inflating and deflating in their chest, and
the traditional ‘model chest’ reinforces that misconception.
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Science in context
Ask students to identify helpful points and limitations of the model, which can
expose misunderstandings. For example, a limitation of the ‘two balloons equals
two lungs’ model is that the lungs are not actually like balloons; the ‘ribs’ of the
model are a limitation because they do not move.
air in air out
glass tube
tight seal
pressure falls
pressure
increases
balloon inflates
balloon
deflates
bell jar
‘diaphragm’
pulled down
rubber ‘diaphragm’ must rubber ‘diaphragm’

be attached very tightly pushed upwards
to bell jar, ideally with (domed)
handle for pulling it
Figure 4.1 An artificial chest with the ‘diaphragm’ in different positions showing air moving into or out of
the balloon.
The need for gas exchange

Living things need a molecule called ATP to carry out all the processes of
life. As outlined in Chapter 3, respiration is a reaction which releases ATP.
This reaction requires food (glucose) and oxygen and releases carbon
dioxide as a waste product. Respiration is the reason why living organisms
need oxygen and must get rid of carbon dioxide. This is a good opportunity
to make sure all students are still comfortable with the idea of diffusion
as described above, and recognise that gas exchange takes place in all
organisms, including animals and plants.
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4 Exchange
Organs for gas exchange

The idea that some organisms need specialised organs to bring about
successful gas exchange is an important one. Your students must understand
the concept of surface area : volume ratio (see page 77) and its implications for
breathing systems as animals get bigger and more active.
Plants have relatively low energy requirements and make their own oxygen in
photosynthesis. The spongy mesophyll layer in leaves, with its large surface
area, allows efficient gas exchange and so plants do not require special
organs for ventilation. Single-celled organisms and very small animals do
not need specialised exchange surfaces because their surface area : volume
ratios are sufficiently large for all the exchange they need to take place by
simple diffusion through their external surfaces. However, as animals get
bigger, the diffusion pathways to the cells inside the body get too long, and
diffusion alone cannot supply all the oxygen the animals need to support their
much more active lifestyles, or remove all the carbon dioxide they produce.
Gas exchange in plants

The important aspects of the process of gas exchange in plants are detailed
below.
1 The need for gas exchange in plants

Students often get very confused about the fact that plants photosynthesise,
using carbon dioxide and producing oxygen, and also respire, using oxygen
and producing carbon dioxide. They are often semi-oblivious of the latter.
Emphasise that plants need to respire 24 hours per day, as animals do, and
that gas exchange is a necessary process in the leaves.
2 Structure of the gas exchange surfaces related to function

Students may have already looked at the structure of a leaf under the
microscope when they studied photosynthesis (Chapter 3) or looked at cells
(Chapter 2). In this topic, they should think about leaf structure related to its
function of gas exchange, focusing on the spongy mesophyll, the stomata and
the lenticels. Lenticels are useful because they emphasise the need for the
living cells in the trunk and branches of a tree to exchange gases, and they
can be seen easily without a microscope! SAPS (Science & Plants for Schools)
is the outstanding place to find ideas for practical activities involving plants.
Students can look at the internal structure of leaves using microscopes and
prepared or projected slides, focusing on the large surface area of the cells
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exposed to the air and any other adaptations for gas exchange, including the
short diffusion pathways between the cells and the air.
They can also carry out practicals which involve looking at stomata, using a
variety of different techniques (search ‘measuring stomatal density’ on the
SAPS website (detailed at the end of the chapter)). Students should develop a
clear picture of the numbers and positions of the stomata, their ability to open
and close, the factors which impact stomatal opening and closing, and how
this affects gas exchange.
3 Factors affecting gas exchange in plants

It is important to help students consider the different requirements of plant
cells for different gases through a 24-hour cycle, and how the products of
photosynthesis and respiration interact. More able students will recognise that
gas exchange takes place into and out of chloroplasts and mitochondria as
well as into and out of individual cells (see Chapter 3).
Gas exchange in humans

The important aspects of the process of gas exchange in humans are detailed
below.
1 Gross structure of the breathing system

The structure of the breathing system (as opposed to the microscopic
structure of the lungs) is important biologically to help students understand
the movement of air into and out of the lungs. A model chest with removable
parts demonstrates how the breathing system and thorax fit together. Students
can observe slides of lung tissue using microscopes themselves, projected
slides or appropriate web resources to make the spongy structure clear. The
C-shaped cartilage rings of the trachea and the way food is swallowed past
them often causes interest, and an explanation of choking can lead to a brief
description of how to help someone who is seriously choking – an aside that
may save lives!
With older students, the beating of the cilia of the ciliated epithelium in the
trachea and the valuable role of this process is usefully mentioned, not least
as this will be referenced later when talking about smoking.
2 Method of ventilation
This involves looking at how air moves in response to changes in pressure.
There are a number of ways of approaching this.
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4 Exchange
If you start by simply asking the students how they breathe in and out, you will
learn their misconceptions. You can then describe what happens in the body
when we breathe in and out. Putting their hands on their own ribcages and
taking a deep breath in and out usually enables students to work out how the
ribs move.
The movement of the diaphragm as it flattens needs describing, followed by
an explanation of the effect of this movement on the volume and air pressure
inside the chest. Then, using the demonstration in Figure 4.1, the movement
of air into and out of the lungs can be discussed. Students should recognise
that breathing in is an active process (energy is expended on muscular
contraction) whereas breathing out is normally passive as the intercostal and
diaphragm muscles relax, reducing the volume of the chest cavity and so
increasing the pressure of air in the lungs and forcing it out of the system. You
can also explain that breathing out can be active too, in forced exhalation, and
students can try it themselves.
3 The exchange process in the alveoli/adaptations to function

This is where the concept of diffusion becomes very important. Students need
to know the structure of an individual alveolus and its close association with
blood vessels. If they have not yet looked at the circulatory system, it is a good
idea to explain that the blood carries the oxygen to the cells where it is needed
(see Chapter 5). It is difficult to talk about the structure of the alveolus and its
capillaries without dealing with the issues of adaptation for function. Looking at
the shape of the alveoli, single cell layers and the close proximity of the blood
vessels makes it easy to point out how this system is so well adapted to the
movement of oxygen from the air in the lungs into the blood and the movement
of waste carbon dioxide from the blood into the lungs.
➜ The alveoli have a large surface area for gas exchange to take place (see
Physical principles, pages 75–77).
➜ The alveolar walls are thin (a single cell thick) so diffusion pathways are
short.
➜ There is a good blood supply to carry carbon dioxide to the lungs and
oxygen away from the lungs, maintaining a concentration gradient to aid
diffusion in both directions.
➜ The lining of the alveoli walls is kept moist, so the diffusing gases dissolve
easily, helping them to pass across the gas exchange surface.
The diffusion gradient, maintained by blood flowing through the vessels and
the changing of the air in the lungs, can be explained to older and more
capable students.
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Technology use
There are a large number of video clips and animations available. However, many
online resources reinforce common misconceptions by talking about oxygen coming
into the lungs and carbon dioxide leaving the lungs, rather than air with a higher
concentration of oxygen or carbon dioxide. They may also show the lungs inflating
and deflating without showing the movements of the ribs and diaphragm, so students
think that the lungs self-inflate. A useful exercise is to ask students to find several
online resources and look at them critically, writing a review and recommending the
best teaching aid.
Students can observe the effect of gas exchange on the air they breathe in and
out using the apparatus shown in Figure 4.2. Either limewater (a clear liquid
that turns cloudy when carbon dioxide reacts with it) or hydrogencarbonate
indicator solution (a red liquid that turns yellow when carbon dioxide dissolves
in it) can be used as indicators. For the limewater, prolonged exposure to
carbon dioxide may make the cloudiness disappear, so stop once it has gone
cloudy. Eye protection is needed when handling limewater.
Some schools suggest doing this with the apparatus joined together so
students breathe in and out, squeezing various bits of tubing to direct the flow
of air. The apparatus shown in Figure 4.2 is simpler, avoids confusion and also
helps to prevent a lot of spluttering and limewater getting everywhere!
straw A straw B
glass tube glass tube
limewater
Breathe in through straw A – inhaled Breathe out through straw B – exhaled

air bubbles through limewater. air bubbles through limewater
(can be just a straw into limewater).
Figure 4.2 Apparatus to show testing of inhaled and exhaled air for carbon dioxide
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4 Exchange
It is also possible to show the difference between inhaled air and exhaled air
by measuring the time that burning candles will stay alight in gas jars of each
type of air.
Both of these practicals involve students putting their mouths in contact with
the apparatus; care must be taken to make sure that each student uses an
individual straw or tube and that they are told very clearly to avoid getting
liquid into their mouths. Students should breathe steadily while doing these
investigations; rapid breathing can cause risk of hyperventilating.
A circus of these practicals, including breathing on mirrors and cobalt
chloride paper to show warmth and water in exhaled air, exposes students
to different ways of thinking about inhaled and exhaled air. (NB. Use forceps
or disposable gloves when handling cobalt chloride paper and avoid skin
contact with it.)
Gas exchange in other living organisms

Some examination specifications demand that students study gas exchange
in different groups of animals, others do not. But at every stage of secondary
biology, for completeness and interest, a lightning tour of some of the ways in
which a variety of animals other than mammals manage gas exchange can be
extremely useful for highlighting those all-important principles of exchange. Fish
(gills), insects (tracheae), frogs (skin, simple lungs), etc. are good examples.
Consider each gas-exchange system with reference to adaptations to function,
both broadening the students’ knowledge of a function common to all living things
and reinforcing the ‘large surface area, thin walls, concentration gradient’ ideas
fundamental to an understanding of gas exchange.
Effect of smoking/pollutants/allergens on the

functioning of the breathing system
Cross-disciplinary
When considering this topic, it may be useful to take into account the fact that you
may be asked to support work on this in Personal, Health, Social Education (PHSE)
or similar courses.
The effects of smoking on the lungs can be dealt with very effectively here as
part of the work on gas exchange, or when dealing with the effects of drugs on
the body. One advantage of considering smoking here is to look at smoking
alongside the effects of other air pollutants and allergens in causing asthma.
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The main effects of smoking on the breathing system include the following:
➜ Smoke anaesthetises the cilia in the trachea and bronchioles, allowing
mucus, bacteria and dirt to accumulate in the lungs and so making smokers
more open to infection.
➜ Smoke contains a number of known carcinogens (chemicals that can cause
cancer/increase the risk of developing cancer) which can trigger changes in
the cells of the lungs, turning them cancerous.
➜ Tar and other chemicals that are part of cigarette smoke build up in the
lungs on the surface of the alveoli and make gas exchange less effective.
➜ Many alveoli break down in response to the irritant chemicals in smoke,
leading to fewer, bigger air spaces. There is less surface area for gas
exchange to take place and the large spaces may fill with fluid, a condition
known as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Students may
have heard of an example of this disease called emphysema.
The smoke from a cigarette can be drawn through a simple filter of glass wool
and then bubbled through Universal Indicator. Students are often appalled at
the level of tar collected from even mild cigarettes. The indicator goes yellow
in colour to show acidity. Check local health and safety regulations for this
demonstration and carry out in a fume cupboard. Take care handling glass
wool.
Science in context
Inform students that many of the problems with the breathing system caused by
tobacco smoke are also seen as a response to air pollution. Breathing in dust from
industrial processes is still a common cause of lung cancer and COPD in many
countries, although health and safety legislation in the workplace has made this
less of an issue in developed countries.
Industrial pollution, particulates from diesel engines and everyday allergens

such as grass pollen and pet hairs can affect the breathing system in very
immediate ways. In sensitive individuals they trigger a release of histamine
from the cells lining the gas exchange tract, causing the tissue to swell and
narrowing the tubes leading down to the lungs. This in turn increases the
resistance to air flow, making it very difficult to move air into and out of the
lungs and giving the symptoms of asthma.
Treat your students sensitively

When dealing with this topic it is important to be sensitive and non-
condemnatory. Many students will have family members or others they know well
who smoke, or who are affected by smoking-related diseases.
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4 Exchange
A number of students in most classes will carry asthma inhalers. If the students
are confident and outgoing, and you have a good relationship with the class,
some of your students with asthma may be prepared to explain to their
classmates what an asthma attack feels like and how they use their inhaler.
However, it is never a good idea to spring a request to share personal information
on a student in the middle of a lesson – ask in a prior session so, if they are happy
to share their experiences, they are well prepared.
Data research
There are many opportunities for students to research and discuss the
implications of the scientific knowledge and the role of science in society.
The internet, libraries and doctors’ surgeries are all places where students
can research the effects of smoking, asthma and air pollution, including
the mortality and morbidity (ill health) of smokers. Questions such as: ‘Does
the available evidence support the idea that public smoking bans reduce the
incidence of smoking-related diseases?’, ‘Is asthma becoming more frequent
and, if so, why?’ or ‘What does the available evidence tell us about the effect
of smoking on the risk of being hospitalised or dying from COVID-19?’ can be
posed for research, analysis and comment.
Scientific literacy
While smoking tobacco is a known risk factor for severe respiratory and circulatory
disease, the impact of smoking on infections is not always so clear. In the first wave
of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, there appeared to be some anomalies in the way
smokers were affected by the virus compared with non-smokers. Two main questions
emerged – does smoking affect the susceptibility of an individual to infection by the
virus, and does it affect clinical outcomes? There were some indications in the data
that smoking might reduce the likelihood of becoming infected with COVID-19, whilst
increasing the risks of a severe outcome once an individual was infected. It is worth
checking on the World Health Organization website regarding the current scientific
thinking, and to discuss the responses to health and scientific advice throughout the
pandemic.
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Science in context
This area of biology provides an excellent opportunity to set up discussions, role
plays or other forms of interactive involvement for the students. It can be used to
reinforce the skills of questioning the evidence used in decision-making and the way
scientific evidence influences society. It also provides an opportunity to look at the
difference between causal links and associations by drawing on the data on smoking
and cancers. Students can also look at the evidence for the impact of smoking
and other lung conditions on the risk of severe infection or death from COVID-19
infection. As always, sensitivity is needed in these discussions.
Exercise and fitness

When you exercise and your muscles work, the demand for oxygen goes up.
Practical work measuring the response of students’ own bodies to exercise is
a really useful teaching tool here, and there are a number of important ideas
to get across. This work can be done in the laboratory, in a sports hall or
outside, depending on the nature of the group, space available and your own
preference.
It is very important before students undertake exercise to check if any of the
class do not do PE for health reasons, or if individuals need to use asthma
inhalers before exercising. Also, pre-warn students to bring in PE shoes to
avoid any possible injuries. Students can all exercise within their capabilities.
Any students who cannot exercise or who would prefer not to exercise can be
involved in timing, recording the breathing rates of small groups of students,
etc. so that they are included in the practical.
The effect of exercise on breathing rate or heart rate

KEY ACTIVITIES
1 It is necessary for each individual to measure their own resting breathing rate. They
must sit still and in silence for a few minutes, breathing, and then count the number
of breaths they take over each of three 30-second periods. They must not move or talk
during the measuring, just note down the number of breaths at each count. Each result
can then be doubled, and the mean of the three numbers found. This will give them
their average breathing rate per minute. It is important to stress the need for them to
be completely at rest when they are measuring their breathing rate, both at this stage
and after exercise. This practical may give you one of the quietest lessons on record!
2 Students should then undertake a minute of gentle exercise and then, staying still
and quiet, record their breathing rate at the end of that exercise and for each of five
subsequent minutes, by when, for most students, it will have returned to the resting rate.
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4 Exchange
3 Students can then undertake a more vigorous minute of exercise, or a longer period
of gentle exercise, and repeat the process of measuring their breathing rate for five
minutes afterwards.
The same format can also be carried out with students measuring their heart rate instead
of their breathing rate. Many students will have an app on their phones which will
measure heart rate. Students can be asked to compare the results, encouraging them to
think about the links between breathing and the circulation system and the maintenance
of the diffusion gradient.
A clear worksheet with a results table to fill in will help some students to cope with this,
and you may need to go through how to calculate the average breathing rate step-by-
step on the board.
This type of experiment provides students with real raw data which they can use in a
number of ways, either using their own data or combining class data. Combining data
raises important discussion points about producing reliable data and then interpreting
these data, as well as the satisfaction of seeing patterns emerging. Encourage students to
interpret their data in terms of gas exchange in the lungs.
Maths
Increased fitness can result in increased health. Students can be given data both on
the effects of exercise on health, and on the numbers in the population who take
part in regular exercise, as a stimulus to discussion. Students could use internet
resources to help them identify this link.
Science in context
There is clear evidence that people who exercise more are typically less likely to be
overweight or obese than people who do not do much exercise. This means they are
less likely to suffer the diseases associated with obesity: heart disease, high blood
pressure and Type II diabetes, conditions that also increase your risk of being badly
affected by COVID-19. A common misconception among students is that exercise/
sport will undo the effects of smoking. This is not true. Explore this with students.

This is a topic with great potential for benefiting students, but also to cause
embarrassment, for example if students are uncomfortable exercising in front
of class mates or are very unfit. It is important to curb competitive instincts so
it can be useful to set a limit – for example, students sit down and count their
breathing rate once they have completed a set number of actions or spent a
certain amount of time – whichever comes sooner.
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Enhancement ideas
Work can be done on diseases of the breathing system, looking at ways in which
diseases are spread and the role of social improvement, drugs and vaccination in
the reduction of many such diseases. Looking at the impact of certain diseases on
gas exchange – for example the causes and effects of reduced lung surface area in
COPD, TB, COVID-19 or pneumonia – can reinforce students’ understanding of the
key principles of gas exchange.
There are great opportunities for data handling and for developing an awareness of
how selective use of data can slant a picture; for example, the causes of the decline
in incidence of TB in the UK (effects of vaccination, antibiotics and public health),
and comparisons between outcomes from COVID-19 in different countries.
Technology use
Students can investigate the various measurements taken to assess fitness (for
example, the many wearable fitness devices/smartphone apps available) and
consider the accuracy and validity of these measures.
Further activities
➜ Adaptations of the gas exchange system in response to regular exercise,
living at altitude, etc.
➜ Using a spirometer to compare the rate of gas exchange before and after
exercise, etc.
Technology use
Students could use sensors and data loggers to help measure the effect of exercise
on the breathing rate, the strength of the lungs, the levels of oxygen and water in
inhaled and exhaled air, etc.
These topics can be brought in and dealt with here, or in a separate section
looking at the concept of cardiovascular fitness as well as how the gas
exchange system is affected. The response to exercise can also be treated
independently under a more general ‘Keeping healthy’ umbrella, which
might also include diet, infectious diseases, etc.
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4 Exchange
4.3 Exchange and excretion

Students will have met the basic idea of excretion – getting rid of waste
products – at primary school, but there are often many misconceptions, not
least that passing faeces is excretion. Students are also often unaware that
they are excreting every time they breathe out! If students have already covered
respiration and gas exchange, and the excretory aspects of removing carbon
dioxide have been covered well, then the production and removal of carbon
dioxide as a waste product will need only a light touch. Similarly, if students
have already covered photosynthesis, they will know that oxygen is a waste
product of that process and is excreted by plants into the atmosphere. On the
other hand, if you teach excretion relatively early in the course, then you may
have to start from the ground up, and cover the content on the principles of
exchange from the early sections of this chapter as well.
A teaching sequence
Excretion can be taught in a variety of ways. It may be used to introduce
exchange, illustrating it through excretion via the leaves of plants and the
lungs and kidneys of vertebrates. More frequently, students will have met
the principles of exchange and excretion before; here, excretion will focus
on the removal of urea in animals. The big biological principles to introduce/
revisit here are exchange, along with the factors which affect the efficiency
of the exchange process, and excretion as the removal of metabolic waste.
Students need to understand how the structure of excretory organs is related
to their function and how concentration gradients affect the exchange process,
both in the kidneys and in dialysis machines used to replace kidney function
when needed.
Start by developing learning outcomes and give a broad overview of the work
to come before asking questions to find out the level of prior knowledge of
the group you are teaching: this will set the scene for the topic to come and
enable you to pitch it at the right level. Ensure that students end up with a clear
understanding that excretion is a process that happens in all organisms, and
in every cell, not just something that takes place in human kidneys.
Physical principles
When dealing with excretion it is important to discover how well your
students understand the principles of exchange and how they interpret the
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term excretion. If necessary, cover the principles of exchange as described

in Section 4.1. If students are comfortable with those concepts, move on to
excretion.
Excretion in animals and plants

It is important to help students understand the difference between egestion –
the process by which animals remove undigested material out of their bodies
– and excretion, the process by which organisms remove the waste products
of their metabolism.
Plants produce carbon dioxide and water as waste products of respiration,
oxygen as a waste product of photosynthesis and a wide range of complex
compounds as waste products of other reactions. The carbon dioxide
and water produced during respiration are often used up by the plant in
photosynthesis and, if not, are lost by diffusion. The oxygen produced as a
waste product of photosynthesis is partly used by the plant in respiration and
partly removed from the leaves and other structures by diffusion. If new to
students, this is the place for the relevant parts of Section 4.2.
Students do not need to know the huge range of other waste products
made by plants, some of which are highly toxic, but it can be interesting
for them to investigate these. Web resources can be really useful here.
Search the SAPS website using the search term ‘plants, waste compounds
and the vacuole’ for some interesting information.
Animals produce carbon dioxide and water as waste products of cellular
respiration. Mammals are the usual group considered until the final years
of study, and humans are the most widely used example, and often the most
interesting to students. If gas exchange has been covered, this needs only the
briefest of reprisals. If it has not, this is where you teach Section 4.2. Mammals
also produce nitrogenous waste from the breakdown of excess proteins in the
form of urea, which is toxic to the body.
Exchange in the kidney

The starting point of the excretion of urea with secondary students tends
to focus on how the excretory system connects together in their bodies –
the physical structures of the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra. Good
questioning can help them realise that they already know something about
this system, in terms of how the amount of urine produced changes in relation
to environmental factors, such as the amount of liquid taken in or the ambient
temperature.
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4 Exchange
Technology use
Students can use models to help them understand the anatomy of excretory systems
and there are lots of good photographic images, diagrams and animations of the
urinary tract online. The ABPI schools website has a whole section on the kidney
and its role in homeostasis (use the search term ‘homeostasis – kidneys and water
balance’).
Be careful when using drawings to make sure that students can see the
different structures clearly, especially if using a longitudinal section of the
female urinary tract, as it is not always clear that the vagina and urethra are
separate structures. It can be a common misconception, perhaps especially
(and understandably) with boys, that the tubes for urination and for sex are
the same in both males and females. Make sure the anatomical differences
are clear and understood. This needs sensitivity as some students may be
relatively unaware of their own anatomy, let alone that of the opposite sex.
Science in context
This is also an opportunity for students to look at a kidney and dissect it, which
they can do in groups or you can do as a demonstration. If you have access to a
friendly local butcher, you may be able to obtain kidneys still surrounded by fat
and with the tubes relatively intact, which helps put them in a whole body context
more effectively. The tissue you are using is material that is eaten by many people,
but remember that some students will have religious or other reasons for not
being prepared to handle tissues from pigs or cows. Lambs’ kidneys are likely to be
acceptable to most students. Some students, though, may be uncomfortable with
any dissection, and this should be respected.
The next stage is to develop an understanding of how the structure of the

kidney is related to its function. The emphasis here is on the basic structure
of the tubules and the role of exchange in the formation of urine.
Examining stained slides showing the kidney tubules can help students see
the different regions they are discussing and the complexity of the organ.
Dialysis and exchange

While the exchange processes of the kidney tubule are very complex for
students under the age of 16, the difficulties of replacing kidneys when they fail
are much easier to understand, as is the exchange process required during
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dialysis. Thinking about the problems caused when kidneys fail, the loss of
balance of electrolytes and the build-up of toxins can be a powerful way of
demonstrating – or even introducing – the importance of exchange in the
kidneys.
The way dialysis is used to replace the kidneys – the diffusion gradients,
short pathway and the surface area of the dialysis membranes – really helps
students get to grips with the idea of what happens in the kidney itself. The
limitations of the process offer great opportunities surrounding a lack of health
resources. This in turn leads on to the issue of organ transplants, where there
is scope for data analysis on the success of transplants. Students may also
explore the possibility of growing replacement organs in other species of
animals (xenotransplantation) or using stem cells as a starting point.

This topic offers a rich seam for work on the role of science in society and the
ethical aspects of scientific and medical knowledge. However, it also touches
on some very complex and serious issues. Students may have lost relatives, or
have family members on dialysis or in transplant programmes. Tread lightly.
Enhancement ideas
Link this topic with students to work on co-ordination and control, looking at both
the neurological and chemical basis of thirst, and the roles of vasopressin – still
often referred to as ADH (antidiuretic hormone) in specifications and therefore
school textbooks – and aldosterone in controlling urine production.
This topic can be reprised or introduced from work on stem cells/gene editing and
the potential to grow new body parts.
4.4 Resources
There are many official and unofficial ICT resources to enhance
your teaching, support weaker students or stretch more able ones. The
internet provides you with many data sources and www.ase.org.uk has done
the necessary shortlisting of reliable sites for you.
The ASE has links to many organisations that provide useful resources, and
some are mentioned below. The ASE website enables you to search by topic
area and also by age range of students: www.ase.org.uk/resources
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SAPS – Science & Plants for Schools – has an outstanding website (www.saps.
org.uk/) which provides free-to-use resources providing well-tested, exciting
practical opportunities illustrating many biological principles using plants.
The ABPI – Association of British Pharmaceutical Industries – has a range of
very varied web resources (www.abpischools.org.uk/) aimed at supporting
teachers and students in many areas of human biology.
The Nuffield Foundation produces online resources supporting practical work in
exchange (www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology/exchange-materials)
and diffusion (www.nuffieldfoundation.org/practical-biology/effect-size-uptake-
diffusion). Additional resources include: www.nuffieldfoundation.org/teachers
Students can learn a lot about exchange using sensors and data-logging
technology.
STEM Learning (www.stem.org.uk/) is full of ideas and resources to help you
teach exchange.
References
Banner, I. and Hillier, J. (eds) (2018) ASE Guide to Secondary Science
Education (4th edition). Hatfield: The Association for Science Education.
Sang, D. and Frost, R. (2005) Teaching Secondary Science using ICT. London:
ASE John Murray Science Practice. (This book recommends a number of
resources relevant to curriculum work.)
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5 Transport
Mark Winterbottom and Dan Jenkins
Topic overview
This chapter deals with transport of water and other materials within living
things, why such transport needs to happen, and the processes and systems
which allow it to happen.
To understand transport in living things, students need to understand
diffusion. You can find some good approaches in Chapter 4. They also
need to understand the need for a transport system and why such systems
have evolved. A good way to do this is by looking at transport in unicellular
organisms, and then exploring the limits of simple diffusion as an organism
increases in size (see Chapter 2).
In animals, secondary school students are usually happy with the role of
the blood in moving the reactants and products of respiration around the
body, and carrying other materials between organs. In plants, 11–14-year-
old students are likely to realise that all parts of the plant need water and
minerals, but for 14–16 year olds, building a more sophisticated understanding
of the mechanisms of transport can be so dependent on their understanding of
osmosis that you can easily trip up when trying to support their learning.
Your students are probably most familiar with transport systems in their own
bodies from their primary education, so you may want to focus on humans
first. The purpose of the transport system here is to:
➜ supply cells with raw materials for respiration, to carry waste products away
from cells, and to transport materials between organs.
Alternatively, you could start with plants, where the purpose of transport is
very similar, but just like in unicellular organisms, water has a more important
structural function too. Transport in plants functions to:
➜ carry water, sugar and mineral salts around the plant to where they are
needed, along with other organic substances such as amino acids and plant
growth substances.
In this chapter, we have gone with plants first, simply because they are
fascinating, and they help to demonstrate key principles which are useful for
students when thinking about humans.
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5 Transport in organisms
Science in context
Biology is the study of living things. Teaching and learning key ideas with plants is
an easy way to encourage students to interact with living things and realise both
the similarities and differences between plants, animals and other organisms.
5.1 Why transport and transport systems?

Students may have met the idea that smells spread through the air, and
that solutes will spread out through a solvent. Depending on whether you
have already covered the ideas about diffusion in Chapter 4, students
may understand the particle model of diffusion and that some solutes can
diffuse across a membrane. Some may know the definition of diffusion (the
net movement of particles from a region of high concentration to a region
of low concentration), but may not understand the idea of ‘net’ movement.
Students will understand that unicellular organisms are very small and that
the maximum distance over which exchanges take place is correspondingly
small. They should realise easily that these unicellular organisms do not have
specialised transport systems, although they may not immediately understand
why. Some students may realise that many multicellular living things have
a number of adaptations to increase surface area, often involving folding of
membranes.
A teaching sequence
To understand why transport is important, students must realise that all living
things need to take in materials from their environment and eject waste
materials into their environment. Because materials are often dissolved
in water, they must also understand how water is transported. Begin by
considering unicellular organisms; help students to understand that the
organisms are very small, and that the maximum distance over which
exchanges take place is therefore small. However, as multicellular organisms
evolved, transport systems evolved in order to ensure materials were
transported to and from cells efficiently enough to meet the needs of all cells;
diffusion is no longer adequate.
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Transport in unicellular organisms

To appreciate the importance of transport, ask students to look at some pond
water, cultures of unicellular organisms or simple filamentous algae under the
microscope. You can buy these from your usual laboratory suppliers. Ask the
students to work in pairs, to consider the questions below and to write down
their thoughts as they go along. Once they are finished, organise them into small
groups to agree on their answers:
➜ What do organisms take in from their environment?
➜ What wastes do organisms release into their immediate surroundings?
➜ Which biological processes take in or release substances into their
immediate surroundings?
➜ How do materials move into and out of these unicellular organisms?
➜ Why do materials need to move into and out of these unicells and so why do
they need to move in and out of any cell?
Science in context
You can remind students of Robert Hooke, who discovered the cell by looking at
cork under the microscope. The microscope had been invented by Galileo just 40
years beforehand (see Chapter 2).
Maths
To help students to understand that unicellular organisms are very small, ask them
to calculate the magnification provided by the microscope (see Chapter 2).
Some groups may suggest that diffusion is involved in the exchanges between
cells and their immediate environment; others may simply say that materials
pass in and out of the cells. It is important at this stage to reinforce the particle
model of diffusion. (You can use the teaching and learning ideas in Chapter 4.)
Depending on when you teach this topic, some groups will understand the
need for glucose and oxygen for respiration, and the need to remove carbon
dioxide as a waste product. If they do, ensure that they realise that this applies
to both plant and animal cells (see Chapter 2).
Remind students that cells are membrane-bound and, through discussion,
help them to realise that diffusion must be able to happen through the outer
membrane. Drawing on their understanding of how diffusion works, ask
them, in pairs, to make hypotheses about properties of membranes which are
needed to allow diffusion to happen. As a class, arrive at a functional model
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of a membrane as a surface that has holes in, which will allow particles to
pass through. You could use a colander, sieve or netting as a useful analogy
of something that allows small materials through. You may want to use a
simulation that shows diffusion across a membrane. Be careful to talk about
diffusion of small particles such as oxygen and carbon dioxide rather than
water; that comes later! As you work through the simulation, ask students to
predict how the particles will move.
Scientific literacy
Biologists often use models to help develop explanations. They are not always
structurally accurate, but functionally correct, allowing a student to make sense of
scientific phenomena. For example, the membrane does not really have ‘holes’ in,
but the solute particles can still pass through it.
The need for a transport system in

multicellular organisms
The area of surface available for exchange and diffusion is enough to
supply the needs of a unicellular organism. For larger organisms, as volume
increases, the ratio between their surface area and volume decreases (see
Chapter 2). The concept of decreasing relative surface area with increasing
volume is always tricky for students; 14–16 year olds may find it easier than
11–14 year olds. The changes that take place in the surface area : volume
ratio, as organisms of increasing mass and volume are considered, can
be demonstrated quickly using model organisms represented by plasticine
cubes: doubling the linear dimension increases the surface area by a factor of
four but the volume by a factor of eight.
Hence, the increasing distance between deeply seated cells and the ‘relatively
smaller’ exchange surface makes diffusion alone too slow and haphazard as
the sole means of exchange for larger organisms, especially as some are very
active. The evolution of transport systems that give faster delivery, and delivery
with direction, has overcome both these inadequacies.
Maths
This is an excellent opportunity to develop some mathematics. Given that the
relationship between linear dimensions, surface area and volume is not intuitive,
allow students to use simple maths to build up the idea.
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Students might carry out an investigation into the effect of decreasing surface
area : volume ratios on surface exchange using agar or gelatine cubes and an
aqueous solution of a food dye. Cubes of differing sizes immersed in the dye
can be sectioned after a fixed time to see the extent of ‘delivery’ by diffusion
alone. Full details of a protocol are available at the end of the chapter.
Features of a transport system

The transport systems of animals and plants have adaptations that help to
maximise the rate of diffusion across a membrane, often involving folds in the
membrane. If you think about a membrane as a surface with holes in, particles
will diffuse through these holes. If you can fit more holes in the same space by
making the membrane fold (hence increasing the area of membrane and the
number of holes), this will increase the overall rate of diffusion.
Investigating the relevance of folds in transport

KEY ACTIVITY
systems
One way to show this is using two different pieces of paper:
1 Take a sheet of A4 paper. Punch holes into the paper at regular intervals using a pencil,
so you have 20 holes punched into the paper. Insert the paper into a cardboard tube
which is exactly the length of the paper.
2 Take a sheet of A3 paper (double the area of A4). Punch holes into the paper at regular
intervals, so you have 40 holes (double the holes for A4) punched into the paper. Insert
the paper into an identical cardboard tube, squashing and pushing it to make it fit.
3 Take both pieces of paper out. Make clear that they are models of membranes,
and that folding membranes (the folds will be obvious in the A3 paper) is a way of
increasing available surface area.
A second way is to do something similar with string.
1 Take a 1-m length of string and a 2-m length of string and mark the position of ‘holes’
on the string every centimetre with a pencil.
2 Lay one length of string along a metre stick. Loop the other piece away from the ruler at
regular intervals. In class discussion, help students to realise that loops in the membrane
allow greater surface area in the same space, and hence a higher rate of diffusion.
This can be hard to understand, and it is worth coming back to this

explanation wherever relevant below. To assess students’ understanding,
you could ask them to storyboard an animation that shows the effect of a
folded membrane on the rate of diffusion. If students work in groups to devise
the storyboard, it would probably help to support the understanding of less-
advanced students.
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Science in context
Students may have learned about emphysema when studying the breathing system
(Chapter 4). Emphysema is a condition in which the air sacs of the lungs are
damaged, causing breathlessness (see Chapter 4). The membranes in the lungs have
been damaged by activities such as smoking, and there is not enough surface area
for normal gaseous exchange to take place.
5.2 Transport in plants

Given that plants are fixed to one spot, they have evolved unique mechanisms
which allow them to survive. Students are likely to have met the idea that
plants absorb water from the soil via their roots and that water passes up the
stem to the leaves. They are also likely to be aware that plants photosynthesise
to produce food, but that they also take in minerals from the soil (the reason
we use fertilisers). This cannot happen by diffusion alone.
Students can have a range of misconceptions about water and transport in
plants. Some may think that water:
➜ enters a plant through the leaves (when students water plants, they often
pour the water on the leaves)
➜ leaves a plant only through the flowers
➜ taken in through the roots is retained (i.e. none is lost through the leaves)
➜ exits the leaves as a liquid (some may have seen guttation)
➜ is pumped around the plant in much the same way that a heart pumps
blood.
A teaching sequence
Water transport in plants evolved because diffusion is inadequate to supply
plant cells with water and minerals. (Remind students that water is also
important for support.) Students aged 11–14 will be able to learn about
transport in plants with only a cursory understanding of osmosis. However, for
older students to really understand transport in plants, an understanding of
osmosis is essential. Following that, it is sensible to look at the vessels through
which transport occurs. Finally, in the absence of a pump like the heart, it is
important for students to understand how transport happens in plants, both of
water (and minerals) from roots to leaves, and of sugars (and other organic
molecules) from the leaves to the rest of the plant.
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Diffusion and osmosis

Osmosis refers to the diffusion of water across a partially permeable
membrane. Students find osmosis hard to understand because we don’t
usually refer to diffusion of the solvent, and different textbooks define osmosis
in different ways. It is important to build their understanding of osmosis
gradually, so first remind them about diffusion (see Chapter 4). Then help
them to understand how adding a solute can affect the concentration of water.
Finally, explain that osmosis involves water crossing a partially permeable
membrane from a region where water is in high concentration to a region
where water is in low concentration.
Investigating osmosis using sugar solutions

KEY ACTIVITY
1 Present two large measuring cylinders of the same volume (2 dm3 or 5 dm3). Label
them A and B. Fill both with warm water to about two-thirds full (making sure the
levels are identical in the two cylinders). Ask the class what will happen to the level in
A if some sugar is poured in. (Likely answer: ‘It will go up’.)
2 Add 150 ml of sugar to A. Ask the class what actually happened. (Likely answer: ‘The
level did go up’.) Ask the class what will happen to the level if the sugar dissolves.
(Likely answers: either ‘It will stay the same’ or ‘It will go down’.) Work on this
difference of opinion in discussion.
3 Shake the cylinder, or use a magnetic stirrer, until the sugar dissolves. The level does
not go down. This means that the level of solution in A is now higher than the level of
the water in B.
4 Pour off the extra volume from A into a small beaker until the levels in A and B are
again identical. Ask the class which cylinder has more sugar in it. (Likely answer: ‘A’.)
Ask the class which cylinder has more water in it. (Likely answer: ‘B’, although some
may say they are the same.) Challenge those who get it wrong by pointing out the
(sugary) water in the small beaker.
To complete the demonstration, point out that water can diffuse from one solution
to another from a high water concentration (B) to a low water concentration (A).
Explain that such diffusion can take place even if B and A are separated by a partially
permeable membrane. Finally, define osmosis as the diffusion of water from high to low
concentration of water through a partially permeable membrane. Point out that water
moves in and out of cells by osmosis because the cell membrane is partially permeable.
Scientific literacy
Some students can struggle to get to grips with the way solutions are described.
Make sure you give them clear definitions for key terms and that students
understand how they are used.
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Some students can find osmosis difficult, partly due to the way in which
language is used about solutions:
➜ A ‘dilute solution’ usually refers to a solution with low solute concentration
(and high water concentration).
➜ A ‘concentrated solution’ usually refers to a solution with high solute
concentration (and low water concentration).
With these definitions, it is true to say that water molecules diffuse by osmosis
from dilute (high water concentration) to concentrated solutions (low water
concentration). You can see this is confusing, and so when talking about
osmosis, always talk about the concentration of water, so students do not
become confused. You can also refer to water molecules diffusing along a
concentration gradient.
For more advanced students at 14–16, it may be helpful to use the terms
isotonic (solutions at the same concentration), hypotonic (more dilute solution;
higher water concentration) and hypertonic (more concentrated solution;
lower water concentration).
You can demonstrate this movement using some or all of these models:
➜ Use Visking tubing filled with black treacle and submerged in pure water so
you can see the effect of water diffusing in. (The Visking tubing enlarges in
size and the colour of the treacle pales as it is diluted.)
➜ The balloon in a ‘paper box’ apparatus models the effect of osmosis on
turgidity and plasmolysis (Figure 5.1a). As you inflate the balloon, it pushes
on the inside of the paper box, making it bulge.
➜ Put a mixture of large and small seeds in a box with an artificial partially
permeable membrane. This can be as simple as a piece of cardboard with
holes big enough to let the small seeds through but too small for the large
seeds to pass through.
➜ A plastic bottle with holes cut in it can be used to model a cell with a
partially permeable membrane (Figure 5.1b).
➜ Use one of the many ICT simulations of osmosis.
Technology use
If you use an ICT simulation, try to get one with variable speed control, or one that
moves slowly so students can follow individual particles.
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a a b b plasticplastic
bottlebottle
containing
containing large large
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and and
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cut intocut into
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to let to
theletsmall
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box made
box made
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Figure 5.1 a Balloon in a paper box model of a plant cell. Inflation of the balloon represents water entering
the cell by osmosis. b Plastic bottle model of a cell with a partially permeable membrane.
Science in context
Applying ideas in artificial models is a good intermediate step to help biologists
understand phenomena they see in living tissues. Students need to explain the
changes they measure or observe in terms of what is happening with the solvent
(water) and solute (sugar or salt) at a micro-level between the cells, across the
partially permeable membrane and with the cells’ immediate environment.
Finally, show students how these models apply in living plant tissue. You could
use some or all of the ideas below to help secure students’ understanding. Don’t
forget to emphasise the importance of osmosis in maintaining support in tissues,
cell expansion and survival responses.
➜ Measure (length or mass), bathe in water and re-measure each of ten
sultanas. Because the cells in the sultanas are relatively dried out, the
concentration of water in the cells is low and so water diffuses in. The
sultanas can be seen to expand as water diffuses into each cell.
➜ Examine giant red pepper cells under the microscope and pop them using
a mounted needle to demonstrate the pressure of water inside the cells and
the role of water in maintaining the structure of the cells (see SAPS website).
➜ Examine microscope slides of red onion cells or rhubarb stem cells in
solutions of pure water and in concentrated sugar solution. In the former,
the cell membrane pushes up against the cell wall. This is because water
has diffused into the cell from a region of high water concentration (pure
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water) to lower water concentration (in the cytoplasm). In the latter, the
concentration of water in the sugar solution is lower than the concentration
in the cytoplasm. Water diffuses out of the cell and the membrane pulls
away from the cell wall. Because the cytoplasm is coloured red in red onion
cells and rhubarb, this effect is clear when viewed under a light microscope.
➜ Place potato chips in sugar solutions of varying concentrations; in those
solutions with high water concentration (and low sugar concentration),
water will diffuse into the cells and the potato chip will feel stiff (the
turgid cells push up against each other). The opposite will happen in
those solutions with the highest sugar concentrations (and lowest water
concentration). It is worth emphasising again that osmosis occurs in all
plant tissues and in animals too, not only in, for example, potato tubers. To
make this clear to students, you could substitute other vegetables, such as
carrots or beetroot, or even use the practical involving bell peppers (see
the link at the end of the chapter). You can also demonstrate osmosis in a
hen’s egg (see the link at the end of the chapter). Some misconceptions
observed when using the activity with potato sticks include that the potato
‘acts as a sponge’ or simply ‘soaks up water like a piece of bread’. It is
therefore important to give students an opportunity to explain their results
by describing what is happening at micro-level to result in the changes
they can measure or describe qualitatively.
To assess students’ understanding, you could ask them to write questions and
answers about osmosis, and to construct a table that compares and contrasts
diffusion and osmosis. Do be careful though; some students can end up
thinking that diffusion happens in animals and osmosis happens in plants.
Science in context
Students may be interested to know that scientists are researching the potential
role of osmosis in generating electrical power. Prototypes have been trialled in
Norway and Canada. The energy source to be harvested is the salinity gradient
between two liquids, that is, their osmotic pressure (OP) difference. A pilot osmotic
power plant has been operating in Norway since 2009 driven by the salinity
gradient between the sea and a fiord.
Demonstrating transport
Having secured a good understanding of osmosis, it is now sensible to
demonstrate that transport does occur in plants. Many students’ impression
of plants is that they are relatively passive, so showing evidence of transport is
important.
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An easy way to do this uses leafy celery stalks. Leave them until their leaves
are wilted and then place in a stain during the lesson; colour will move up
the petiole (leaf stalk) and into the leaves over just a few minutes.
You can do something similar with the stem of a white carnation. Split the stem
down the middle to about 3–4 cm below the flower and carefully place each half-
stem into different coloured inks. The following day this gives a flower head that
is twin-coloured and somewhat spectacular. This can also be a good activity for
science clubs, allowing students to experiment with different inks, food dyes, etc.
Vascular tissue
Vascular tissue comprises the vessels through which transport of water,
minerals and sugars happens in plants. A shoot taken from a plant such
as Busy Lizzy or a celery petiole will take up a stain (such as Indian ink or
toluidine blue) in its vascular tissue and can be used to provide material
for sectioning. Students can cut thin sections of the stained stem or petiole
and prepare their own temporary slides (but remind them to take care with
scalpels and razor blades; see link at the end of the chapter for a protocol).
These will demonstrate that stain travels up the stem through particular
regions or tubes (called xylem). Ask students to cut transverse and longitudinal
sections. In the latter, they can see spiral lignin deposits, which gives a real
‘wow’ moment! You can extend this idea to suggest to students that sugars are
also transported through different tubes (called phloem). Helpfully, toluidine
blue differentially stains xylem and phloem, aiding their identification under
a microscope: xylem stains blue-green, while phloem stains purple. A useful
animation exploring the movement of water and sugars in a plant is available
in the list of websites at the end of the chapter.
The distribution of vascular tissue in plants is related not only to transport but
also to support. In dicotyledonous plants, those primarily studied in schools
such as sunflower (Helianthus) and buttercup (Ranunculus), the vascular
bundles are arranged in a ring around the outside of the stem. In a root the
vascular tissue is arranged at the centre of the root. A neat demonstration to
explain the function of this structural difference involves using pieces of rolled
up A4 paper to simulate the vascular tissue:
1 To simulate their arrangement in a stem, arrange the rolled-up pieces of
paper in a circle and balance masses or textbooks on them to show that the
circle can support substantial weight. (If you keep adding textbooks until
the paper collapses it may be worth ensuring students move back a little!)
Explain that this is one reason for their organisation in stems.
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2 The forces on a root are different; roots are pulled and pushed
longitudinally when a plant blows in the wind. Putting all the vascular tissue
in the centre of the root helps resist such forces. You can show this by
asking students to pull on opposite ends of a bundle of rolled pieces of A4
paper to see if they will rip, which they don’t.
You may want to ask students to draw a transverse section of a stem and a
root, using either prepared slides or diagrams in a textbook, and to make
and annotate models of the vessels using empty drinks bottles or other clean,
recyclable household materials. You could ask students to research and
record a video (using a digital camera or their mobile phone) about xylem
vessels and phloem sieve tubes, using their models.
Transpiration and the transpiration stream

So what makes water move into the roots, through the roots, up the stem and
through the leaves? There is no heart, so the force that makes this happen
has to come from somewhere else. Predominantly, it comes from transpiration
(evaporation of water from the leaf surface). Before starting on transpiration,
make sure students are familiar with changes of state (specifically
evaporation).
The fact that plants lose water from their leaves can be demonstrated by
placing a clear polythene bag over the shoot, but not the soil, of a potted plant
for a few hours in advance of a lesson. Condensation will accumulate inside
the bag.
More water is lost from the lower surface of most leaves than from the upper
surface. Students can investigate this in two ways:
1 Use sticky tape to attach cobalt chloride paper to the top and bottom of
a leaf. The paper turns pink when damp. As there is no wax (and more
stomata, see below) on the underside of a leaf, this loses water more quickly
and the paper on it turns pink first. (NB. Use forceps or disposable gloves
when handling cobalt chloride paper and avoid skin contact with it.)
2 Detach four leaves from a plant. Leave one as a control. For the others,
spread petroleum jelly onto (i) both top and bottom surfaces, (ii) top
surface only, (iii) bottom surface only. When left pegged on a length of
string, the leaves without petroleum jelly on their bottom surface will lose
water (and mass) and wilt most quickly.
You should help students relate these differences to the leaf’s adaptations
to prevent water loss. Because the upper surface of the leaf receives more
incident sunlight than the lower surface, water would evaporate more quickly,
other things being equal. However:
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➜ There is a coating of wax on the upper side of most leaves. Wax is

waterproof and so reduces diffusion of water.
➜ Stomata (tiny pores in the leaf) have an unequal distribution between
the upper and lower surface of the leaf. Microscopic examination of nail
varnish or Germolene New Skin peels of upper and lower epidermal tissue,
produced by the students, are useful for demonstrating this difference. A
neat way to visualise stomata is to make a temporary slide of a small piece
of Tradescantia zebrina. When viewed under the microscope, the underside
of the leaf clearly shows the stomata, with green guard cells (the rest of the
cells are red). Further information is available on the SAPS website (see the
list at the end of this chapter).
For higher attainers, you could also ask students to investigate upper and
lower leaf surface temperature and relate the temperature to stomatal
distribution. Further information is available on the SAPS website.
Careers
Water supplies are becoming more scarce and the climate is changing. European
agricultural researchers are looking at the potential for growing crop plants which
require less water. These include cool-season legumes such as peas, lentils and fava
beans, and the brassica crops: Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, kale, kohlrabi,
mustard, broccoli and turnips.
Farmers, agronomists and horticulturalists depend on an understanding of plant
physiology, including plant transport, in order to implement appropriate water
and fertiliser regimes. Knowledge of plant transport may also be useful to plant
pathologists.
Given that plants wilt if they lose too much water, it may seem unintuitive to
some students that a plant should have stomata that let water out. There are
two reasons for stomata. The first is that gaseous exchange also takes place
through the stomata, so they have to be open during the day to let carbon
dioxide in (see Chapter 4). Second, and more relevant to plant transport,
letting water evaporate drives absorption and movement of water through the
plant; this replaces water lost by evaporation, and enables absorption and
transport of mineral ions.
If the plant does become short of water, it begins to wilt and it can close
its stomata. The cells on either side of the stomata are called guard cells.
During the day (when plants need to open the stomata) they photosynthesise,
increasing the concentration of glucose in the cytoplasm and hence
decreasing the relative concentration of water in the cytoplasm. As a result,
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water diffuses into them by osmosis from neighbouring cells. Most students
would predict the guard cells would bulge and so close the stomata as a result
of this. However, the opposite happens: the guard cells open the stomata
during the day and close them at night. This is because the inner wall of each
guard cell is thick, and so doesn’t bulge out. You can model this for students
by taking two long balloons and sticking sticky tape to one side of both. Put
the balloons together with the pieces of sticky tape facing each other. Inflate
the balloons and they will each form a semicircle shape, leaving a hole in the
middle.
The next step is for students to understand that water moves into the roots in
response to loss of water from the leaf. There are some website animations at
the end of the chapter to help you explain this but, essentially, follow the path
of water starting at the leaves. Explain that water is lost from the mesophyll
cells, reducing the concentration of water in the cytoplasm of those cells.
Water then moves into those cells from neighbouring cells by osmosis, and
this repeats itself all the way back to the xylem vessels. When water leaves
the xylem in the leaf, water is pulled up the xylem from the xylem vessels in
the root (which you can think of as continuous with the leaf xylem). With a
lower water concentration in the root xylem, water moves out of neighbouring
cells, and sets up a diffusion gradient, all the way back to the root hair cells,
where water moves into the root from the water in the soil. This movement of
water from roots to leaves is called the transpiration stream and is ‘driven’ by
evaporation of water from the leaves. Although this explanation is simplified,
and the level of your explanation will depend on the students involved, you
would not usually be expected to discuss this movement in terms of water
potential gradients. More complex explanation would usually be reserved for
post-16 biology.
It is important to stress that minerals, such as nitrates, phosphorus, potassium,
sulfur, calcium and magnesium ions, are also transported in the xylem,
essentially swept along by the flow of water.
One way to demonstrate the transpiration stream is by using a potometer
(Figure 5.2), practical details for which can be found on the SAPS website,
included in the links at the end of the chapter. Good species to use include
Buddleia, willow (Salix) and willow-herb (Epilobium). Make sure you practise
setting it up beforehand, but the SAPS protocol is much easier than traditional
bubble potometers, and can be used to measure change in mass as well.
Using this potometer, students can investigate the effect of environmental
conditions on transpiration and the transpiration stream, for example at
different ambient temperatures or humidities.
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Science in context
Ask students to make predictions about the rate of transpiration in a crop under
different weather conditions.
graduated pipette
shoot
syringe
rubber bung
water
Figure 5.2 Potometer for estimating the rate of transpiration
The effect of air movement can be demonstrated using an electric fan or

hairdryer (on cool setting). Continuous readings of the mass of a plant on a
balance (or of the SAPS potometer set up with a plant) experiencing known
changes in environmental variables can produce some interesting graphs
for interpretation. Students might have the opportunity here to employ data-
logging devices linked to computers to obtain continuous readings of water
loss from a whole plant.
The penultimate step is to look at the root hairs as being adapted to maximise
diffusion of water and transport of mineral salts into the root. You could ask
students to examine the root hairs produced by germinated cress seedlings,
using a hand lens or a low-power microscope, and then draw a diagram of
the root hairs, explaining how their shape increases the surface area across
which water and mineral ions can be absorbed.
Tip
Using a microscope and a hand lens are essential tools in biology, but observation
skills are even more essential. These kinds of open observation tasks allow students
to come up with their own ideas about structure and function or biological
processes, and experience being a real biologist.
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To assess their understanding of the role of root hairs, you could also ask
students to write a mission statement for the root, to include an explanation
of how exchange occurs. They could build a social photo-sharing site or
Instagram profile, which they use to educate the reader about the role of root
hairs, and of other membranous exchange surfaces in plants (such as the
spongy mesophyll layer in the leaf) or humans (for example the villi in the
digestive system or alveoli in the lungs).
The last part of the story is examining how mineral salts enter the root hairs.
If they diffused in passively, the plant would not get enough, so they must
be pumped in actively (using energy) through tiny pumps on the root hair
membranes. To assess their understanding of the differences between active
transport and passive diffusion, you could ask students to design their own
role play to perform to the class. Secondary data about active uptake are
available for analysis in one of the websites listed at the end of the chapter.
Translocation
Trans(change)-location(position) is just what it says in the name. It means
moving the products of photosynthesis (and other organic molecules) around
the plant. Getting first-hand evidence of the involvement of phloem in transport
is difficult at this level. However, students may be aware of the damage that
occurs to trees and shrubs if their bark is ‘ringed’ (see Figure 5.3). They may
well have seen young trees in woods or parks with protective sleeves around
them to prevent their bark being damaged. You could provide the group with
a piece of continuous prose about translocation, written to suit their reading
level and learning expectation, and set some specifically targeted questions
to extract the desired information. Alternatively, present the information as a
CLOZE activity, where after the initial sentences, the fifth word is removed in
each sentence to encourage ‘making sense’ as they read. Make sure the fifth
word is not essential terminology for this topic as you are encouraging reading
skills here. At this level it is probably sufficient to bring out the following points:
➜ Phloem cells are alive.
➜ Their walls and membranes are permeable to water.
➜ Phloem is involved in the transport of dissolved sucrose (formed from
photosynthetic glucose) and other organic molecules.
➜ Transport in phloem occurs both up and down the plant, with the leaves as
the source of glucose.
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exposed
wood
lapse of time
bark and
phloem
cut away
Figure 5.3 Removing bark and phloem prevents downward movement of sucrose, which accumulates above
the ring.
Further activities
➜ Students could research the ways in which plants are adapted to desert
environments, reporting their findings as a podcast ‘from our own
correspondent’.
➜ Students could be challenged to play the role of xylem in a tree, and see
how far they can suck water up a straw (given that water moves over 100 m
up the xylem of a giant redwood tree). Further information is available on the
SAPS website (see the list at the end of this chapter).
➜ You could present scenarios to students, which they have to make a
judgement on, based on their knowledge of transport. Examples could
include a planning application to fell trees and build houses in a wetland
area, a proposal to use plants to absorb toxic minerals from the soil, or the
stresses to water transport which climate change may bring to plants.
Science in context
Many of these ideas can be set in a commercial context for students, with the
physiology of transport related to commercial growing of crops and maximising
profit for farmers and horticulturalists.
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5.3 Transport in humans

Students should have already met the heart as an organ and perhaps blood
as a tissue in primary school. Most students will recognise that the food they
take in through their mouths and the oxygen in the air they breathe must get
around their body somehow. They are likely to know that the heart functions as a
muscular pump, which circulates blood to all parts of the body. They may have
met the idea that blood flows around the body in blood vessels. Students are
also likely to have some idea about the effects of different lifestyles on the health
of the heart.
Science in context
Setting your teaching of the circulatory system within a health context can be very
motivating for students. However, be sensitive to those students who have relatives
with heart disease.
A teaching sequence
Given that students will be familiar with organ systems, it is sensible to introduce
the circulatory system as a system within which blood (as a transport medium)
is pumped around the body. Focus on the way in which the system functions as
a whole (as a double circulation: one circulation to the lungs and a separate
one to the body, with the heart operating almost as two separate pumps), and
then focus in, in more detail. Look at the structure and function of the heart to
appreciate how it operates as a pump within the double circulation. Then look
at the ways in which the arteries and veins are adapted for their functions.
Finally, look at the structure and function of capillaries in allowing materials
to pass in and out of the blood. This is a good point at which to look at the
constituents of the blood and their role in transporting oxygen and glucose to
cells, and taking away carbon dioxide and water.
Careers
An understanding of the circulatory system is essential to any student who wants
to study medicine or nursing, or who will work as a healthcare assistant of some
sort. Remind students that the circulatory system is a key focus for doctors, who
may specialise in its treatment. Those who do so are called ‘cardiologists’.
Veterinary surgeons and veterinary nurses can also build upon an understanding of
the human transport system.
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Science in context
Giving blood saves lives as blood is always in high demand. Most people can give
blood. Men can give blood every 12 weeks and women can give blood every 16
weeks. Tell students that you can give blood if you:
l are fit and healthy
l are aged between 17 and 66 (or 70 if you have given blood before)
l have a mass between 50 kg and 158 kg (7 stone 12 lbs and 25 stone).
You will face a number of common misconceptions in this topic. Students can
think of the heart as a pulsating bag (a single pump) and may find it difficult to
visualise the double circulation; often they imagine that blood travels from the
heart, through the lungs and directly to the body. Many students will think that
arteries always carry oxygenated blood while veins only carry deoxygenated
blood. In fact, direction of flow relative to the heart is the distinguishing
feature between arteries and veins. (The pulmonary artery actually carries
deoxygenated blood and the pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood.) Some
students may mistakenly think that oxygen is carried in the blood plasma, and
some students may think that deoxygenated blood is blue (because it is often
depicted that way in textbooks).
The circulatory system: structure and function

Understanding the need for a double circulation can be difficult. To ensure
students are familiar with the structure, you may want to give them a diagram
of the human circulatory system (Figure 5.4) and ask them to suggest what
happens to the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood as it passes
around the two circuits. Then, in pairs, give them the equivalent diagrams
for fish (single circulation), amphibians, birds and reptiles (incompletely
separated double circulation) and ask them to list any differences they can
see (compared to the human circulation) and to propose any consequences
which may arise from those differences. For less advanced students, try to
focus their attention on whether oxygenated and deoxygenated blood mix
together, and the pressure at which blood can be pumped. Put pairs together
into a group of four and ask them to summarise the benefits of a double
circulation.
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Figure 5.4 A blank flow chart of the circulatory system
The heart
Dissection can be an emotive subject and one about which a school science/
biology department will have a policy. You may wish to do a dissection alone
and take photos to show the class. If possible, though, real material is the
most interesting for students to see. Depending on your class, you could
do a demonstration dissection of the heart (with a webcam pointing down
onto the dissection and images projected onto the whiteboard), or you could
let students dissect hearts in small groups. Some students may object to
dissection and it is important to respect their views. Some students may
feel nauseous and could even faint. Ensure adequate provision for washing
hands within the laboratory after the practical work. Take care with scalpels
and scissors; undertake a risk assessment, drawing on appropriate advice
(see link to CLEAPSS at the end of the chapter). You can obtain hearts from
supermarkets (although they are usually trimmed up too neatly) or from a
butcher or abattoir (where you can ask for the main veins and arteries to be
left protruding from the heart).
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Technology use
Virtual dissections on the internet may provide useful alternatives (examples are
included at the end of the chapter).
Careers
Explain to students that trainee doctors and vets use dissection to help them
understand anatomy, how organs work, and what happens when they stop working
properly.
The dissection should establish the features shown in Figure 5.5; give students
a diagram and help them to understand the relationship between the living
tissues and the diagram. You can find protocols on the internet to help you
dissect well enough to yield the ‘textbook’ picture (see the list of websites at
the end of the chapter). However, don’t forget to look at the outside of the heart
first, and don’t be afraid to poke your fingers down tubes before and during
dissection to see where they lead to! You can even mimic the action of the
heart by filling it with water through the arteries that come out of the top, and
squeezing the base to force the water back out. The first cut you make should
remove the bottom 2 cm from the base of the heart. By looking at the cut end,
you can see the distinction between the wall thickness of the left ventricle
(which pumps blood to the whole body) and right ventricle (which only pumps
blood to the lungs), providing a useful link back to the double circulation.
Doing this also helps you to understand the orientation of the heart, which
assists you in knowing where to cut to open up the ventricles and the atria.
Once you have these open, keep reminding students that they are looking at
‘chambers’ through which the blood would pass. It is quite hard for students to
relate the ‘two-dimensional’ structure of the heart when cut open, to the intact,
undissected heart. If students do their own dissection, ask them to label their
dissected structure to show the direction taken by the blood through the heart
and the position of the valves. If you project the dissected structure onto a
whiteboard, ask students to draw in the route taken by the blood.
Science in context
You may want to talk about the ethical aspects of using tissues and organs for
dissection. Be careful to be respectful of students’ views, while enabling them to
think carefully about the ethical issues.
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pulmonary
anterior artery
vena aorta
cava
pulmonary
posterior vein
vena
cava
left
right atrium
atrium
bicuspid
tricuspid valve
valve
valve tendon
valve muscle
right ventricle left ventricle
Figure 5.5 A cross-section through a human heart
To ensure students understand how blood is moved through the heart,

ask them to find an animation of the cardiac cycle on the internet and
write a commentary for it. The commentary should indicate at each stage
which muscles are contracting, which valves are open and closed, and in
which direction the blood is flowing. Students should listen to some of the
commentaries as a class, giving each other feedback; then, as a follow
up exercise, you could ask them to create a flicker book to summarise
the process. For less advanced students you could provide pictures and
descriptions of each stage of the cardiac cycle for them to match up.
Arteries and veins

As an introduction, ask students to build a montage of images of blood
vessels; there are some great pictures of ‘isolated’ blood vessels on the
internet (search ‘blood vessels’ to find them) which show blood vessels
becoming smaller and smaller as they get further away from the heart.
At this stage it is sometimes helpful to ask students to write a design brief
for the vessels that will carry blood immediately away from the heart and a
design brief for the vessels that will bring blood back towards the heart. This
is a really good opportunity to use a snowball technique, where students start
working on their own, then in pairs, and then in fours, gaining new ideas at
each transition stage. Given that this is quite a challenging task, using group
work in this way also supports differentiation for some students. Its aim is to
focus students on what adaptations each type of vessel requires.
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To help them understand the structures of each vessel, you could ask students
to examine prepared slides of transverse sections of arteries and veins
under the microscope (many biology departments have a store of prepared
slides). Ensure you spend some time explaining that a transverse section has
cut across the vessel, and that they are looking at the cut end through the
microscope (as above, it can be difficult for students to relate two-dimensional
images to three-dimensional structures). Projected images of the same
sections using photomicrographs would be helpful to make sure that students
are actually focused on what you want them to see. You can find good
examples by using the search terms ‘transverse section vein’ or ‘transverse
section artery’ on the internet.
Ask students to draw what they see and use their drawings, or prepared
diagrams, to build models of the blood vessels (you could ask them to bring in
appropriate materials). Students should copy and complete a table like Table
5.1 (with a description of the structure and its function) and then evaluate each
other’s models. Hopefully, students should recognise that blood vessels bringing
blood to the heart (veins) differ in structure from those taking blood away from
the heart (arteries) and that the differences reflect the differences in blood
pressures that they have to accommodate. You can test their understanding of
the adaptations of the vessels by asking, ‘What would happen if an artery had
the structure of a vein?’ and ‘Why can you feel your pulse?’.
Table 5.1 Table to show the differences between arteries and veins
Feature Artery Vein
relative thickness of wall

amount of elastic tissue, including
muscle
relative size of lumen
no valves present except at the
valves base of the aorta and pulmonary pocket valves present
artery
The reason we can feel our pulse is because of the recoiling action of
the artery wall as the heart pumps blood through. One novel way of
demonstrating the pulse is to attach a drawing pin to the base of a safety
match. If the drawing pin is delicately balanced over the radial pulse with
the arm resting firmly on a flat surface, it is possible to actually see the
pulsating action of the left ventricle (Figure 5.6).
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oscillation
matchstick
drawing pin
wrist
Figure 5.6 A drawing pin and matchstick can be used to demonstrate the action of the pulse.
Science in context
William Harvey graduated in 1597 from the University of Cambridge. He worked at
the University of Padua in Italy for Fabricius, who had discovered how valves work.
Harvey himself was the first to identify the double circulation.
Maths
Introduce some simple calculations by asking students to work out their beats per
minute. To do this, ask students to check the pulse at their wrist by placing two
fingers between the bone and the tendon over the radial artery (which is located
on the thumb side of the wrist). When students have located their pulse, ask them
to count the number of beats in 15 seconds. This number is then multiplied by four
to calculate beats per minute. If students struggle to find a pulse in their wrist, it is
also possible to find one at the side of the neck or just below the collarbone.
Capillaries
Having established how blood is moved around the system, the next step is to
understand how things ‘get on and off’ the transport system. Students know
that arteries and veins work as tubes carrying blood from one place to another
and to do so efficiently, they presumably must not leak.
However, if some molecules, such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and glucose, are
going to enter and leave the blood, there must be a third type of vessel that
does allow molecules to enter and leave. This is the capillary. It is possible to
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see capillaries by placing a drop of cedarwood oil on the skin of one finger,
just below the cuticle of the fingernail (do this yourself!). By looking at the skin
under the microscope, the tiny threads of surface capillaries are visible. You
can project the image, or simply ask one of the students to take a picture of the
image down the microscope with their mobile phone (it works pretty well!), and
then share the image with their classmates.
Technology use
Mobile phones work relatively well in photographing microscope images. Simply
hold the mobile phone lens above the objective lens. Students may need to rest the
phone on an extra finger to ensure it is still enough to view the image clearly (see
Chapter 2).
Capillaries not only let things in and out; capillary beds provide a much
greater surface area for exchange of materials than a single artery would
have done (even if it had a very thin wall). This is fairly obvious (if you split one
tube into many smaller tubes, the surface area is increased). However, you
could use a model to help make it clear. The capillaries are in fact so narrow
that the red blood cells have to squeeze through, pushing up against the
capillary wall and minimising the diffusion distance for solutes.
Blood as a transport medium

Discussion about materials entering and leaving the transport system in
capillary beds provides a natural progression to the nature of blood and the
way it functions as a transport medium. Always take advice from the head
of biology or head of science before engaging in any practical where you
intend to use your own or your students’ blood. Advice is also available from
CLEAPSS Student safety sheet 3: Human body fluids and tissues, or your local
science advisory authority. You may be surprised at what is possible (and you
may find rules and regulations are different between schools and over time),
but unless you take advice at an early stage, you could easily put your own
health or that of your students at risk.
The first step is to look at what is in blood, and then to look at how it transports
materials. It can be difficult to persuade some students that blood is not just
a liquid. If you order some mammalian blood from your local butcher or
laboratory supplier and centrifuge it, it is possible to demonstrate that there
is a yellow fluid (plasma) along with some thicker material (the blood cells).
If you can’t get access to blood, you can see this on YouTube (simply search
‘centrifuge blood’).
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You can find some useful animations of red blood cells on YouTube, and your
department may have some prepared slides of blood that students can look
at under the microscope, to establish that the ‘non-plasma’ part of the blood is
made of red blood cells, white blood cells and small fragments of cells called
platelets. See Chapter 2 for more on the structure and function of specialised
cells.
At this point, you could ask students to work in groups, listing the things that
must be transported around the body in the blood. Invite them to record where
these things come from, where they are going to, and what they are needed
for/produced by. Having spent a few minutes setting out their ideas in a table,
they could swap sheets with another group who then add to their ideas or
correct them.
Set up a game of ‘Blind Date’, where three members of the class have role
cards describing their adaptations (as white blood cell, platelet or red
blood cell). In terms of transport, the white blood cells and platelets have no
role. However, the red blood cells are adapted to carry oxygen. The class
has to ‘choose’ which of the Blind Date participants is involved in oxygen
carriage. To reinforce the ideas on their role card, ask students to produce
a job advertisement in groups, advertising the role of ‘oxygen transporter’
and seeking applicants who have the appropriate adaptations (being small,
having a biconcave shape, lacking a nucleus, having a thin and permeable
membrane, being flexible and containing haemoglobin).
To help students understand how the biconcave shape increases surface
area, you could ask them to make a model of a red blood cell by cutting into
a conventional bathroom sponge. The surface area of the cut sponge can
then be measured by sticking squared paper to the sponge and measuring
the total area of the paper. By comparing this to an intact sponge of the same
dimensions, students can demonstrate to themselves that biconcave cells
have more surface area and can therefore absorb and lose oxygen more
easily. As the difference between the surface area of a biconcave sponge and
a normal sponge is not large, you may need to collate data from each student
to find a class average in order to make the difference clear.
To help older students understand why haemoglobin takes up or loses oxygen
in different conditions, introduce the reaction as an equilibrium, in which
oxyhaemoglobin is on one side and haemoglobin and oxygen are on the
other. Where there is lots of oxygen (such as in the lungs), the equilibrium
moves towards oxyhaemoglobin. Where there is little oxygen (for example
around the body’s cells), the equilibrium shifts to release more oxygen, which
then diffuses out of the red blood cell into the plasma, and out of the capillary
into the tissue fluid that surrounds the cells. If you can obtain blood from the
butcher you can demonstrate this. As soon as you get it, add 5 cm3 of 0.1%
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sodium oxalate per litre of blood to prevent clotting. Place equal amounts in
three flasks and bubble oxygen through one, carbon dioxide through another
and leave the third as a control. The blood in the oxygen flask will turn red,
showing that haemoglobin binds to oxygen in high oxygen conditions. The
blood in the carbon dioxide flask will turn dull red/purple, showing oxygen
being released from haemoglobin in high carbon dioxide conditions.
Finally, ensure students know that glucose and carbon dioxide are transported
around the body in solution in the plasma. These substances diffuse out of
the capillaries and into the tissue fluid on their way to and from the body’s
cells. You could ask students to draw a flow chart depicting the journey of
glucose from the blood plasma to the cells, or carbon dioxide from the cells
to the blood plasma. Oxygen is transported around the body bound to the
haemoglobin in the red blood cells (to form oxyhaemoglobin), but diffuses from
there, through the plasma and tissue fluid, on its way to the body’s cells.
Careers
The cardiovascular and respiratory systems work together to get oxygen to the
working muscles and remove carbon dioxide from the body. During exercise there
is an increase in physical activity and muscle cells respire more than they do when
the body is at rest. The heart rate increases during exercise; this ensures that blood
moves more quickly through the arteries. The rate and depth of breathing increases
and more oxygen is absorbed into the blood, and more carbon dioxide is removed
from it. Students may be interested in the idea of a career as a sports physiologist
or trainer. Such professionals need to understand how oxygen is transported around
the body, in order to set up the correct training regime for athletes. They also
require good knowledge of the circulatory system in order to provide appropriate
training approaches.
Lymph as a transport medium

The lymphatic system operates alongside the blood system. Some students
will be aware of swollen lymphatic glands in their neck and elsewhere when
they are ill, or they may be aware of the role of lymph in the transport of
digested fats in the digestive system. Given that little detail is usually required,
it is commonly adequate, and indeed interesting, for students to identify
similarities and differences between the blood system and the lymphatic
system, both in terms of structure and function. The lymphatic system, or
lymphoid system, is an organ system in vertebrates that is part of the
circulatory system and the immune system. It is made up of a large network of
lymphatic vessels, lymphatic or lymphoid organs, and lymphoid tissues. The
vessels carry a clear fluid called lymph towards the heart.
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Further activities
➜ To bring together their learning so far, ask students to create a board game
that shows how the transport system works either in plants or in humans.
➜ There are numerous opportunities to link social, moral and ethical issues
to students’ work in this topic, and your teaching of any of the ideas above
could be set in any of the following contexts:
– valve bypass operations
– heart transplants
– use of pigs’ valves as a means of treating cardiac disease in humans
– the ethics of developing transgenic organisms to provide organ banks
– blood donation/transfusion
– blood transfusion and HIV
– use of blood for teaching and learning.
Careers
Some students may have experience of having a blood sample taken at hospital.
The person who takes your blood in a hospital is called a phlebotomist. It is such
an important job, that they have their own special name!
5.4 Resources
Standard laboratory equipment, including microscopes, is important in this
topic. Further guidance on resources required is included above, and in the
website protocols below.
Websites
Websites relating to safety
The CLEAPSS website provides clear guidance on practical procedures and
safety for all science teachers: www.cleapss.org.uk
SSERC is an organisation that supports science teaching in Scotland: www.
sserc.org.uk
Websites on why transport and why transport systems

A joint website of the Royal Society of Biology, the Nuffield Foundation and
CLEAPSS (under the umbrella name ‘Practical Biology’) provides many useful
resources. For this topic, search ‘effect of size on uptake by diffusion’ from the
homepage: https://pbiol.rsb.org.uk
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5.4 Resources
Websites on plant transport

Some practical experiments to investigate osmosis can be found on the
Practical Biology website (https://pbiol.rsb.org.uk) by searching ‘osmosis’ and
then ‘investigating osmosis in chickens’ eggs’.
From the Practical Biology homepage, search ‘a window on the past:
measuring stomatal density’ for an interesting practical on change in stomatal
density with changing conditions over time.
The Practical Biology website also has some resources around active uptake
of mineral ions. Search ‘tracking active uptake of minerals by plant roots’ from
the homepage.
Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS) has some excellent resources for
visualising stomata and investigating stomatal density. From the homepage
(www.saps.org.uk) search ‘observing stomata in Tradescantia zebrina’ and
‘measuring stomatal density’. A further investigation into the temperature
around the leaf surface can be found by searching ‘an investigation into leaf
surface temperature’.
The STEM website (www.stem.org.uk/) has some useful information on
transport in plants. Try searching the terms ‘plant transport’ and ‘transport
systems in plants’ from the homepage.
Some simulations and animations about movement of water and sugars in
plants can be found at the following websites:
➜ Search ‘animation – transport of water and sugar into plants’ from the SAPS
homepage (www.saps.org.uk)
➜ https://go.unl.edu/ewi2, a webpage from the New Mexico State University
The activity ‘Can you beat the Giant Redwood’ on the SAPS website provides
a good starter activity for the topic of xylem. The activity can be found by
searching from the homepage: www.saps.org.uk
Websites on transport in humans

Some good virtual heart dissections can be found at the following two sites:
https://biologycorner.com/virtual/heart and http://thevirtualheart.org
The Practical Biology website, mentioned above, has some good information
on various aspects of transport in humans. Search ‘looking at a heart’ from
the homepage for some detailed information on class dissections. The same
website has a practical activity involving students’ blood (please see main
text for safety warning). The activity can be found by searching ‘a closer look
at blood’ from the homepage. A final suggestion can be found by searching
‘observing blood circulation in asellus’. Asellus is a small, freshwater
crustacean. It is possible to see the blood moving in its limbs under a low-
power microscope.
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Further reading
Ainiyah, M. et al. (2018) The profile of student misconceptions on the human
and plant transport systems. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 947. (Can
be found on the website of IOP Science: https://iopscience.iop.org/)
Lester, A. and Lock, R. (1998) Sponges as visual aids – bath time fun for
biologists. Journal of Biological Education, 32, 87–89.
Pelaez, N. J., Boyd, D. D., Rojas, J. B. and Hoover, M. A. (2005) Prevalence of
blood circulation misconceptions among prospective elementary teachers.
Advances in Physiology Education, 29, 172–181. (Can be found on the website
of Physiology.org: https://journals.physiology.org/)
Vitharana, P. R. K. A. (2015) Student misconceptions about plant transport
– a Sri Lankan example. European Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education, 3 (3), 275–288.
Yip, D. Y. (2010) Teachers’ misconceptions of the circulatory system. Journal of
Biological Education, 32 (3), 207–215.
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6 Communication and control
Mike Cassidy and Beverley Goodger
Topic overview
The use of a stimulus–response chain will form the organising principle for
this chapter. It will look at teaching both the process of co-ordination and the
mechanisms of control and communication.
Cross-disciplinary
The concept of control systems should already be familiar to students through their
Design and Technology experiences and their study of the human body.
Control and co-ordination is also recognised as a characteristic of living

things and something that separates the living (or animate) from the non-living
(or inanimate).
However, students will be less familiar with the mechanisms of control (nerves
and hormonal secretions) and the notion that all living things, including
plants and single-celled organisms, will exhibit some sort of control, both
intracellularly and extracellularly.

Students may be familiar with the various behaviours of animals and plants
and their responses to various stimuli – again, necessitating the need for some
sort of control mechanisms.
In primary education, children are introduced to forces (action and reaction),
to the differences between things that are living, that are dead and that have
never been alive, and a recognition of the impact of diet, exercise, drugs and
lifestyle on the way their bodies function. The topics in this chapter are more
likely to have been encountered by older students.
A teaching sequence
A teaching sequence might begin with the complexity of living organisms:
either body complexity (for example, the trillions of cells in the human body)
or cell complexity (the thousands of biochemical activities taking place in
the living cell at any moment in time, along with the variety of intracellular
structures).
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That such complexity requires control is not always self-evident. Students

can be introduced to complex machines (anything from washing machines
to automobiles) and the need to integrate the component parts. A jumble
of ‘spare parts’ cannot function; only when assembled correctly are they
potentially capable of functioning. And there needs to be a stimulus
(switching on, turning the ignition key) to begin an operation. All control
systems, either animate (such as animals and plants) or inanimate (such
as washing machines and automobiles) operate along the same lines. This
commonality of approach is a useful adjunct to study, emphasising how
engineers gain ideas from biology (such as aeroplanes and bird flight)
and, conversely, how biologists gain ideas from engineers (by, for example,
incorporating concepts of systems control into biological thinking).
By the age of 16, students should have explored principles of both nervous
and hormonal control in humans (including the reflex arc and hormonal
control of contraception). Progression will respond to the ‘what’, ‘why’ and
‘how’ questions relating to body control systems. The teaching sequence
will adopt a pattern, starting with the known (organisms are complex and
require co-ordination) and moving towards the unknown (the mechanisms
of control and co-ordination). A process of ‘bridging’ will use inanimate
examples (thermostats, robotic control) to explain the principles of control,
namely:
(sensory) INPUT → (stimulus detection) DETECTOR → (control centre)
REGULATOR → (mechanical response) EFFECTOR → (behaviour or
response) OUTPUT
A typical teaching sequence might then include:
1 Why control?
2 Mechanisms of nervous and hormonal control (nerves, reflex arc, endocrine
glands, plant hormones)
3 Efficient body functioning (homeostasis)
4 Applications (use of human hormones in contraception, use of plant
hormones in regulating flowering, fruiting, etc.)
A useful addition to the teaching sequence above is that the teacher can
underscore both the similarities and differences between animals and plants.
Animals and plants are similar in that they show a range of behaviours that
are carefully co-ordinated and possess survival value. They are different in
that animals are motile and use both fast-acting (nervous) plus slower, more
generalised (hormonal) control systems. Plants, on the other hand, are sessile,
without muscles and so rely on growth behaviours (tropisms) regulated by a
variety of chemical compounds (plant hormones).
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6.1 Communication and control (a study of control systems)
6.1 Communication and control (a study of

control systems)
Why control?
Biological systems are complex. In order to ensure survival, the bodies of
living things must acquire and maintain a source of energy. They also need to
carry out all the other life processes such as growth, reproduction, removal of
metabolic waste, etc.
The bodies of multicellular animals and plants are hierarchical:
cells → tissues → organs → body systems
This complex of trillions of cells (as in humans) requires a high level of control
both for efficient functioning and to ensure that organisms seek out favourable
and avoid unfavourable circumstances.
Control systems
Mechanisms of regulation in living things show features in common with the
regulation of machines. Both organisms and machines achieve stability by
control. The science of control systems is called cybernetics. Communication
in living things is achieved either by chemical means (hormones) or electrical
means (nerves).
The basic components of a control system are:
input → detector → regulator → effector → output
The detector (or in the case of sense organs, the receptor) detects the stimulus
while the effector delivers (or effects) the desired response.
Stability is achieved by establishing a standard operating level (the norm) and
thereafter correcting any deviation from this. The efficiency of the system is
determined by the degree of deviation from the norm. For instance, we might
set a room thermostat at 25 °C. The control system then attempts to maintain
this temperature, turning radiators on when too cold and turning them off
when too hot. Its efficiency is determined by how closely the ‘set’ temperature
is maintained.
In the human body, the temperature norm is around 37 °C (slightly higher
for children). Temperature control (or thermoregulation) is achieved by the
hypothalamus in the brain that is responsible for monitoring and controlling
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core temperature. If there is a deviation from the norm, then various

mechanisms (both behavioural and physiological) come into play (see
Section 6.4).
It can be useful to ask students to name the component parts of a room’s
heating system (or air conditioning system) and to compare them with the
body’s heating and cooling system (see Table 6.1).
Table 6.1 Comparison of body temperature control with a room heating system
Component Thermostatically controlled room heater Body temperature control
input the room temperature body core temperature
detector thermometer specialised blood temperature receptors
regulator thermostat the brain (hypothalamus)

muscles (dilating or constricting superficial
effector room heater (or cooling system) blood vessels and shivering response); sweat
glands
output heat generated and emitted (or turned off) heat generated, heat conserved or heat lost
Effective control systems rely on their components being linked together.

Information flows from detector to regulator to effector. Communication
between component parts is achieved by nerve impulses or hormones.
Feedback is used to inform the control system as to how effective these
corrective mechanisms have been and whether further effort is needed to
return to the norm. A feedback loop is built into most control systems, both
living and non-living. Positive feedback will exaggerate the direction of the
response (for instance, make the room hotter); negative feedback has the
opposite effect (that is, make the room cooler). Feedback loops are found
throughout the animal body, for example in glucose control in the blood where
there are feedback loops with responses when glucose is too high (increase in
blood insulin) and too low (increase in blood glucagon).
The basic components of an animal control system are analogous to those of
a machine:
➜ Machine: input → detector → regulator → effector → output
➜ Animal: stimulus → receptor → central nervous system → effector →
response
The components are linked in a specific way forming a stimulus–response
(S–R) chain (Figure 6.1).
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6.2 Nervous control in animals
Stimulus: a change in Receptors: detect the Co-ordinator: a central,

the external or internal stimulus, transmitting co-ordinating region.
environment. ‘information’ to the central Receives information from
co-ordinating region. the receptors, makes
Receptors are the sense decisions and contacts the
organs. effectors.
Effectors: respond to signals

from the nervous system,
effecting (making) a
response. Effectors are
usually muscles or glands.
Feedback Response
Figure 6.1 The stimulus–response chain
Animal behaviours can be studied as a sequence of stimulus–response

(S–R) chains of increasing complexity, for instance, behaviour of woodlice
in choice chambers or bees visiting different coloured flowers. Perhaps
the stimulus–response chain can be exemplified most easily by the ‘dropping
ruler’ investigation where (working in pairs) the experimenter drops a ruler,
30 cm or longer in length, between the open fingers of the subject. The stimulus
is the sight of the ruler falling, the response the closing of the subject’s fingers.
Different sensory parameters may be used, such as the touch of a ruler on a
blindfolded subject.
Human learned behaviours (such as mirror writing and maze activities) are
more complex than simple S–R routines, but still demonstrate S–R chains; only
this time the (learned) response is mediated by previous experience. Students
can recognise that a ‘practice effect’ is commonly seen in these situations.
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The nervous system
One of the characteristics of the animal kingdom is that all animals possess a
nervous system. A nervous system is a collection of excitable cells arranged in
a meaningful way.
If students are asked to name parts of the nervous system, they often give
responses such as ‘brain’ and ‘nerves’. Show students a diagram of the
human nervous system. It is made up of two parts:
➜ a central region containing brain and spinal cord
➜ associated peripheral nerves (emanating from the spinal column).
The term ‘central nervous system’ is used to label the central region of brain
and spinal cord.
The nerve cell (neuron) is specialised for conducting impulses. Like all body
cells, neurons are microscopic but some (such as those coming out of the
spinal column) can be very long, reaching over a metre in length. A nerve
impulse is actually caused by a change in electrical potential (due to movement
of ions across the outer nerve cell membrane); this is called an action potential.
Nerve fibres are often covered in a fatty sheath for (electrical) insulation.
Neurons:
➜ are separated by gaps (or synapses) at their ends
➜ can make many connections
➜ can modify their connections (the basis of learning).
The speed of a nerve impulse can be estimated by having a group of students
standing in a circle. One student ‘passes on’ a message by squeezing the
hand of the individual to their left, who immediately does the same. The time
taken to pass the message between students is recorded while distance taken
(hand to brain to hand for each person) is estimated by tracing the nerve
pathway using string. Velocity can then be calculated using distance divided
by time (in metres per second, m s–1).
Body reflexes are another way of investigating the nervous system. A
reflex is a rapid, involuntary response to a stimulus. The eye-blink reflex,
knee jerk reflex and swallowing reflex are good examples (though the
swallowing reflex is quite complex, and the knee jerk reflex is unusual in
not having an interneuron (sometimes called a connector neuron)). Using
an example such as removing the hand from a hot object, the survival
value of body reflexes can be seen. One of the characteristics of the animal
kingdom is that all animals possess a nervous system. Even jellyfish have a
simple nerve net.
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Nerve impulses are fast and localised. Different neurons have different roles:
➜ The sensory neuron takes impulses from the receptor (sense organ) to the
central nervous system.
➜ The motor neuron takes impulses to the effector (muscle or gland) from the
central nervous system.
➜ The interneuron joins the input component with the output within the central
nervous system.
sensory neuron
central nervous
stimulus receptor system
connector
neuron
response
effector
motor neuron
Figure 6.2 Components of a reflex arc
Scientific literacy
Students are tempted to refer to neurons as ‘nerves’ (sensory nerve, etc.). Remind
them that a neuron is a single cell, whereas a ‘nerve’ is a collection of neurons.
Typical examples of reflex arcs that might be studied include a range of

human reflexes such as:
➜ a puff of air in the eye causing blinking
➜ withdrawing the hand from a hot or sharp object
➜ the knee jerk reflex
➜ the swallowing reflex.
Swallowing (as mentioned earlier) is a rather complex procedure involving
muscles raising the tongue, moving the epiglottis, etc. Although it begins
voluntarily, it requires a stimulus at the back of the throat to complete. (Try
swallowing continuously. After a while you will run out of ‘spit’ and so there will
no longer be any stimulus at the back of the throat.)
Interestingly and unusually, the knee jerk reflex involves only a sensory and
motor neuron (no interneuron within the central nervous system) and there is
no direct communication with the brain.
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Body senses
Students can discuss the responses made by animals to a variety of stimuli:
➜ bees visiting brightly coloured flowers (colour)
➜ sharks hunting by smell (molecules in water)
➜ houseflies landing on food and ‘tasting’ food with their feet (molecules on
the surface).
Each of the above examples requires a receptor (a part of the body that is
adapted to receive stimuli). A receptor may be a single cell or a complex
structure (such as the eye); it detects stimuli from both the external and the
internal environments.
Essentially, a receptor works by altering the concentration of sodium and
potassium ions on either side of the neuron’s membrane. This then causes the
production of a nerve impulse (or action potential). Nerve impulses are:
➜ very fast
➜ electrical in nature
➜ generated with an ‘all or nothing’ response (no half measures; they either
‘fire’ or they don’t)
➜ unidirectional (travel in one direction only).
We are generally thought to have five senses (sight, hearing, touch, taste,
smell) but others have been identified, most notably proprioception (knowing
where your body is in relation to itself) and sense of equilibrium.
There are many different kinds of receptors in the human body and they are
classified in several ways (Table 6.2). Students usually do not need to know
the names of specific receptors, simply that the body responds to many
different kinds of stimulation, both internal and external.
Table 6.2 Classifying body receptors
Classified by Receptor name Stimulus detected Example

single cells or small groups of pain sense endings, touch
general senses (simple) cells; respond to a variety of receptors, pressure receptors in
receptor complexity stimuli blood vessels
complex sense organs; respond
special senses (complex) eye, ear
to specific stimuli
photoreceptor light eye
stimulus type
chemoreceptor chemical taste buds, receptors in the nose
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Classified by Receptor name Stimulus detected Example

simple receptors in the skin and
thermoreceptor heat
in the hypothalamus
mechanical stimuli (such as pressure receptors and touch
mechanoreceptor
touch) receptors in the skin
pressure receptors in blood
baroreceptor pressure
vessels
Special senses: the eye

Eyes are complex structures adapted to receiving light and transmitting
information to a central co-ordinating region (the brain). Eyes range from
simple eye cups in flatworms (that simply indicate light and shade and the
direction light is coming from) to the complex vertebrate eye with structures
for focusing light into sharp images and detecting different wavelengths as
colours.
In vertical section, the eye is seen to be made up of a spherical bag of jelly
separated by a crystalline lens. Light is focused by the lens (it alters its shape
due to the contraction and relaxation of a muscle ring) onto the light-sensitive
layer, called the retina, at the back of the eye. At the front of the eye (Figure
6.3) the muscular iris (the coloured part) contracts or relaxes, decreasing or
increasing the size of the pupil (the black dot in the centre), thereby altering
the amount of light entering the eye. Too much light and the retina can be
irreparably damaged.
eyelid
eyebrow
eyelash
iris
pupil
sclera (white of eye)
Figure 6.3 External (visible) features of the human eye
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Students find it difficult to appreciate the eye’s internal structure through

diagrams alone. The suspension of the lens is a particularly troublesome area
and it is important to establish that the flexible lens is joined by many fibres to
the ciliary muscle, rather like a circular trampoline is joined to its frame. The
difference here, though, is that the fibres are strong and rigid so that when the
ciliary muscle contracts, it pulls on the lens. Model eyes and eye dissection
are particularly useful in this respect. Check whether your school has a policy
on dissection.
Note that the optic nerve connects the eye to the visual centre of the brain
(located at the back of the brain). The optic nerve is a large nerve. If the
human skull is examined, a hole at the back of the eye socket indicates
where the optic nerve leaves the eye on its way to the brain.
At a point just below the centre of the retina, the optic nerve collects together
sensory fibres from retinal cells. There are no light-sensitive cells (rods and
cones) here. So, in this area, light falling on the retina cannot be detected. We
call this region the blind spot. If you draw a cross and a large dot 10 cm apart
on a sheet of white paper and hold it at arm’s length, both symbols can be
clearly seen. Focus on the cross and close your left eye. Bring the paper slowly
towards the face and you will see the spot disappear. At this point the image
of the cross is picked up by the rods and cones but the image of the spot is
focused on the blind spot, which has no light-sensitive capability.
Cross-disciplinary
The physics of the eye may be studied with reference to work on lenses, refraction,
reflection, wavelengths and energy transformation. If your school teaches separate
rather than combined science, an effective strategy is to plan joint sessions with
physics teaching staff in order to reinforce the basic principles of optics.
Students should cover accommodation (the process of changing the shape of

the lens to focus on near or distant objects) and eye conditions such as myopia
(short-sightedness) and hyperopia (long-sightedness) in which rays of light do
not focus on the retina. Ray diagrams can be used to display these conditions
effectively.
Vertebrate eyes (especially those of birds and mammals) are particularly good
at ‘seeing’. They:
➜ have a lens that can form an image
➜ can adjust the lens to focus on near and distant objects
➜ can generally control the amount of light falling onto the retina
➜ can often work in both low and high light intensities
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➜ can generally distinguish different colours

➜ usually have sharp (acute) vision
➜ come in pairs to provide three-dimensional vision and depth perception.
Horses, for example, and prey animals, such as antelopes and deer, have
eyes on the side of their head, which gives a greater all-round vision.
The retina is made up of light-sensitive cells. Cone cells provide us with
colour vision and, because they are densely packed, give us especially acute
(high-resolution) vision. Rod cells work at lower light levels than cones and
provide us with simple monochrome (black and white) vision. Ask students
to consider what happens to the colour of trees, hedges and flowers as light
falls; everything becomes more monochrome as only the rods work in low
light intensities. Incidentally, rod cells are concentrated at the edges of the
retina (that is, at the periphery of our field of view). Hence, sentries posted at
night in army barracks learn to look at objects through the corners of their
eyes. Students may also appreciate that we have different types of cone cell
(responding to the three colour wavelengths: red, green and blue). Some
students may not be able to discriminate between certain colours due to lack
of a particular type of cone. We call this colour blindness.
Models of the eye can be employed profitably to explore structure, while
functioning can be relatively easily studied, for instance:
➜ Photochemical reactions are commonplace, from the bleaching of coloured
fabrics in sunlight to the action of light on silver nitrate (as used in old style,
pre-digital, photographic films). So, students should not be surprised to
learn that light falling on pigments inside receptor cells (rods and cones)
causes these pigments to break down (a reversible reaction, of course),
thereby causing an action potential and releasing a nerve impulse.
➜ The eye responds to light stimuli, but the eye does not ‘see’. It is the brain
that makes sense of the information from the eye and it is therefore the
brain (or person with the brain) that sees. Students are often excited to view
visual illusions. There are many of these to choose from and all illustrate the
principle that our perception can be tricked into seeing things that are not
there.
➜ What is the function of eyebrows, eyelids and tears? These are interesting
questions for students to consider. Consider their protective functions.
➜ Students could find out about health issues that affect eyes, such as
cataracts, glaucoma and diabetes.
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Science in context
Explain to students that birds and mammals achieve accommodation by altering the
shape of the lens in their eyes, while fish and amphibians normally adjust focus by
moving the lens closer to or further from the retina.
Special senses: the ear

The human ear has a dual function as both an organ of hearing and an organ
of balance. It has a three-part structure:
➜ the outer ear, comprising a twisted ear canal and ending in the tympanum,
or eardrum
➜ the middle ear, comprising three small bones (ossicles) that transmit
vibrations across this air-filled space
➜ the inner ear, a complex, fluid-filled region made up of an upper ‘looped’
region controlling our sense of balance and a lower coiled region where
vibrations in the fluid are detected by sensory cells.
These structures are very small and they are best illustrated by use of models,
posters or diagrams in textbooks. Most of the structures have both common
and scientific names (such as eardrum/tympanum, ear lobe/pinna). Younger
students use the common names; older (examination) groups may need to use
the scientific terms.
Hearing may be best approached through revision of the physics of sound.
Noise comprises waves of compressed air (sound waves) created by a
vibrating object. Reference to guitar strings, drums and ‘twanging’ rulers can
be introduced here. Properties of sound include amplitude of the sound wave
(loudness) and frequency of the sound wave (pitch, high notes/low notes).
Technology use
Students can be shown sound waves visually with a demonstration of the coloured
images found on most amplifiers, MP3 players or music computer programs. (The
oscilloscope found in the physics department is also very useful in the teaching of
sound and hearing.)
How we hear is complex, but in essence it relates to detection of sound waves.

These:
➜ enter the ear to be collected by the ear lobe
➜ are channelled down the ear canal
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➜ cause vibration of the eardrum

➜ ensure vibrations are transmitted through the middle ear via three small
bones (ear ossicles) touching both the eardrum and the inner oval window.
Then:
➜ vibrations are transmitted through the fluid of the coiled cochlea from the
oval window
➜ sensory cells lining the cochlea respond to loudness (how much these small
cells are displaced) and pitch (different patches of cells responding to
different note frequencies)
➜ the sound wave is dampened by hitting the round window (a membrane at
the far end of the cochlea).
The ear also provides a sensation of balance; how we sense position in space
is achieved by:
➜ movement of fluid in the ‘looped’ region, the semi-circular canals (together
with the sac-like region below), depending upon the direction in which our
head is tilted
➜ fluid displacement affecting patches of sensory cells which send information
to the brain.
Exploring hearing and balance

KEY ACTIVITIES
Hearing can be studied indirectly by asking students to respond to various sound stimuli.
Some examples are given below.
l A signal frequency generator (borrowed from the physics department) connected to
a loudspeaker can generate sounds of varying frequency. Young people can generally
hear notes of between 20 and 20 000 Hz (cycles per second); (older) teachers have
reduced frequency discrimination.
l Sensitivity to loudness can be determined by holding a ticking watch at varying
distances from a blindfolded subject.
l Ability to sense the direction of sound can also be determined using a blindfold, a
subject and a ticking watch.
l Use of an ear trumpet (made from thin card) is seen to increase the sensitivity to
sound and directional ability. Ask students why this would be the case.
l Use of a tuning fork can demonstrate how vibrations can travel through air, water and
solids. Tapping a tuning fork and then holding it against a lab bench demonstrates how
well sound travels through a solid. Talking into an inflated balloon (feel the vibrations)
is used to demonstrate this feature to children, particularly those with hearing
difficulties.
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Balance can be explored as follows:

l Have students stand still for three minutes (they will sway slightly). Notice how they
correct their balance. With eyes closed, students find this task much more difficult (no
reference point to focus on).
l A model of the ear’s three semi-circular canals can be made from stoppered, clear
plastic tubing. The three semi-circular canals can be constructed separately but attached
to each other at right angles, as would be the case in real life. Trapped air bubbles will
demonstrate displacement of the fluid as the head is tilted from side to side.
General senses: touch, smell and taste

The skin is the largest organ in the body and home to several senses: pain,
touch, pressure and heat. Taste and smell are chemical senses located in the
human tongue and nose, respectively. All are known as general senses and
detection is brought about by a relatively small cluster of cells.
Little detail is required in most specifications, but some misconceptions may
be addressed here:
➜ What we think we are ‘tasting’ (such as the taste of an onion) is actually a
combination of taste and smell. When wearing a nose clip, an onion tastes
sweet! Students can rarely tell the difference between a slice of apple and a
slice of onion gently placed on the tongue (providing a nose clip is in place,
and there is no looking and no chewing). Do this activity in the dining room
or food hall; there should be no food or drink in the science lab.
➜ The little ‘bumps’ on the tongue are not taste buds. Rather, they are papillae,
designed to roughen the tongue’s surface. (Just think how difficult it would be
to chew and swallow with a smooth, shiny tongue!) Ask students if they have
been licked by a cat or a large herbivore such as a cow!
➜ Our skin is not equally sensitive over the body. Using a small piece of
card with two pins (placed 1 cm apart), ask students to test different skin
areas for sensitivity. This is achieved by students working in pairs, with
the experimenter applying either one or two pins to the skin surface and
the subject responding. (Can they recognise if they are being touched by
one pin or two?) After 20 presentations, the number of correct responses
is recorded. Which areas do students think are more sensitive: fingertip,
back of hand, back of neck, lips? Check your department’s or employer’s
risk assessment before undertaking this activity.
➜ There are now thought to be five taste sensations: the original sweet, salt,
sour and bitter along with umami (a sort of savoury/meaty flavour).
➜ The classic taste map of the tongue (where different tastes are located in
different regions of the tongue surface) is now known to be invalid. Recent
research has shown that there is sensitivity to taste across all regions of the
tongue.
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6.3 Chemical control (in animals and plants)

Animal hormones
Chemical communication is universal in animals, plants and microbes.
Chemical signals, though, are usually relatively slow and diffuse. They work
well over small distances (as in cell-to-cell signalling) or for slow, measured
responses such as growth and reproductive cycles. Chemicals, though,
cannot mediate fast responses such as reflexes; they are also persistent and
therefore need to be broken down.
Students may be familiar with specific examples of hormone action (insulin to
lower blood glucose, sex hormones to control puberty and reproduction) but
are less likely to have an integrated picture of the role chemical signals play in
control and co-ordination.
A hormone is a secretion, released into the bloodstream, which has an
effect on a distant structure (target organ). A gland is any body structure that
produces a secretion. An endocrine gland does not possess a tube or duct to
release its secretion (unlike, say, a sweat gland). The secretion, a hormone, is
released directly into the bloodstream.
A hormone works by attaching to the specific receptor molecule for that
hormone. The receptor molecule is found on the outer cell membrane of the
hormone’s target cells (although the specific receptor for steroid hormones is
found inside the cell). This generally sets up a chain of biochemical reactions
within the cell, causing the alteration of its chemistry together with the
production, and maybe release, of a cell-produced compound.
The hormonal control system generally follows the stimulus–response chain
(as seen earlier). Examples of hormone action for several of these functions
are provided in Table 6.3.
Table 6.3 A summary of major hormones and their effects
Endocrine gland Hormone produced Effects
insulin lowers blood glucose

pancreas
glucagon raises blood glucose
gets the body ‘ready for action’ by raising blood glucose and
adrenaline
adrenal gland increasing chemical activities and general awareness
cortisol helps the body resist stress by raising blood glucose
increases the body’s general metabolic rate (and causes
thyroid gland thyroxine
metamorphosis in frogs)
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Endocrine gland Hormone produced Effects

promotes formation of male secondary sexual
characteristics including sperm formation
testosterone (produced by the male
in the testes and by the female in the involved in male courtship behaviour
ovaries)
promotes healthy musculoskeletal and reproductive
systems in males and females
promotes development of female secondary sexual
characteristics
sex organs oestrogen (produced by the ovary stimulates growth of the uterine lining during early parts of
and the testes) the menstrual cycle
important in the development and production of sperm in
the male
completes the development of the uterine lining and
progesterone (produced by the ovary maintains this lining if fertilisation takes place with an
during the menstrual cycle and by embryo implanted there
the testes)
important in testosterone production by the testes
growth hormone increases growth rate of young animal
thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulates hormone production in the thyroid gland

stimulates production of follicles within the ovary (resulting
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
pituitary gland in the shedding of eggs)
anti-diuretic hormone (ADH)/ stimulates water reabsorption in the kidneys in times of
vasopressin water deficit
stimulates muscles of the uterus during childbirth and milk
oxytocin
release during suckling
Specific information can be introduced at the relevant syllabus point:

➜ Reproductive hormones can be addressed when discussing growth and
development, the menstrual cycle and birth.
➜ Control of blood glucose is explored when discussing transport of the
products of digestion (although this is a popular example when describing
principles of homeostasis).
➜ The action of pituitary growth hormone is included when describing
patterns of vertebrate growth and development. However, the pituitary
gland has such an important co-ordinating role (it affects other endocrine
glands) that it should be treated separately.
Students should be encouraged to locate and identify endocrine glands on an
outline diagram of the human body.
Students might wish to explore a case study of a patient suffering from
diabetes, describing both the symptoms and the mechanism of insulin
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treatment. (Be sensitive to the fact that you may have students in your class
that suffer from this condition or have relatives who do.)
You can also ask students to compare and contrast endocrine and nervous
function (see Table 6.4).
Table 6.4 A comparison of nervous and hormonal function
Factor Nervous response Endocrine response

generally, very fast (a fraction of a relatively slow (hours, days, weeks); the exception to
speed of effect
second) this is adrenaline, which acts in seconds
area of effect localised effect general effect around an organ or around the body
timing short-lived effects long-term effects
blood supply limited very good capillary supply
Table 6.4 provides information about the similarities and differences between
hormones and the nervous system. This should enable students to understand
that slow, moderated and controlled responses such as growth, puberty and the
menstrual cycle are controlled by hormones.
Hormones can also influence the function of the immune system, and even
alter behaviour. A gradual build-up of hormone is often required to activate
change. Hormones travel in the bloodstream and pass through all organs
but generally only cause changes in their target organ. Excess hormones are
broken down after a period of time; some are broken down by the liver and
others are metabolised by the cells that secrete them or the target organ cells.
Hormones are involved in three main areas of physiological function:
➜ growth and development
➜ reproduction
➜ maintenance of the internal environment (homeostasis).
Nerve action potentials move rapidly along nerve fibres and are associated
with much faster changes than those determined by hormones. Action
potentials stimulate muscles to move part of the body or the whole body.
A useful set of questions to draw out some ideas from Table 6.4 are:
➜ Why are nerves much faster than hormones in achieving their effects?
➜ Are there any fast-acting hormones?
➜ If hormones have long-term effects, what happens to excess hormones in
the bloodstream?
➜ What types of body response are controlled by hormones rather than
nerves?
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Pheromones are sometimes called ‘external hormones’ and are important in

several areas of animal behaviour; for example, receptive female mammals in
some species release a scent to attract males, and the queen bee releases a
chemical to control the activities of the hive. In humans it is said that mothers can
recognise their babies by scent alone.
Plant growth regulators (plant hormones)

The term ‘hormone’ (from the Greek meaning to stir up or excite) is normally
reserved for those secretions produced by animal endocrine glands. Substances
that influence growth and development in plants are not produced by specific
glandular structures; they may be transported from the point of synthesis via
the phloem or xylem or they may diffuse locally into neighbouring cells. Plant
biologists generally use the terms ‘plant growth regulators’, ‘plant growth
substances’ (Biological Nomenclature, Society of Biology, 2010) or ‘plant growth
factors’.
Plant responses to the environment can be observed by growing plants on
window ledges (they bend towards the light), by growing plants from seeds
(the shoot always grows upwards, the roots down, irrespective of how the seed
is planted) and by observation (ivy clinging to walls, pea plants growing along
supporting wires).
➜ Phototropisms are responses to light (plants on the window ledge).
➜ Geotropisms are responses to gravity (growth of seedlings).
➜ Thigmotropisms are responses to touch (ivy growing close to walls).
It is better that students observe these responses themselves.
Note that a ‘tropism’ is a growth response. Plants do not have muscles; they
can respond by growing towards (positive tropism) or away from (negative
tropism) a stimulus. Ask students to examine a plant growing towards the light.
They should hopefully see that greatest curvature (that is, greatest growth)
occurs on the shaded side. Ask them, therefore, whether light inhibits cell
growth and cell division. Do they know what happens when plants are grown
in the dark?
Technology use
A very useful animation for students on the action of auxin is available as a
downloadable resource from the Wellcome Trust’s The Big Picture website, issue
24, May 2016 (Plants).
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Demonstrating plant phototropisms

KEY ACTIVITY
In the classroom, plant phototropisms can be demonstrated by growing mustard or cress
seeds on damp cotton wool in a small dish and exposing the seedlings (they germinate in
two or three days) to:
l unidirectional light
l light all around
l no light.
Cardboard boxes can be used to exclude all light or (if openings are made at one end) to
provide unidirectional light. Seedlings outside the boxes are bathed in light all around.
Technology use
Some good video sequences on plant growth are available to show classes, and
several excellent practical investigations can be found on the Science & Plants
for Schools website (see Resources section at the end of the chapter). Student
investigations into tropisms could include the use of time-lapse photography.
The question arises, ‘What are plant growth substances?’. The answer is that
they are compounds produced by cells in particular regions (often the growing
points). Some of the major plant growth substances and their effects are given
in Table 6.5.
Table 6.5 Roles of the main plant growth substances
Hormone Effects Examples

cause cell elongation and growth of stem phototropism, cress bends towards light;
auxins and root used in hormone rooting powders
high concentrations disrupt plant growth synthetic auxins are used as weedkillers
causes leaf ageing important in leaf fall in some trees

ethene/ethylene used commercially to ripen fruits, such as
ripens fruit
lemons and bananas
controls bud dormancy and is involved in can transform the growing tip of trees into
abscisic acid
leaf fall (abscission) dormant buds; used to speed up leaf fall
stimulate seed germination, stem elongation used commercially to increase the size of
gibberellins
and induce flowering seedless fruit such as grapes
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Rapid cycling brassicas (‘fast plants’) can be used to demonstrate plant

responses to growth substances. Suggested investigations, along with details
of suppliers, planting instructions and worksheets, can be found on the
Science & Plants for Schools website.
At this point it can be a useful exercise to ask students to compare and
contrast plant and animal responses.
Table 6.6 Comparing plant and animal responses
Animal responses Plant responses
usually rapid usually slow
short stimulus needed prolonged stimulus usually needed
effect normally temporary effect usually permanent
behavioural responses involve movement growth responses are produced
Garden centres are useful suppliers of selective weedkillers and hormone

rooting powders. Hazard warnings, safety advice and safe disposal methods
must always be followed. Commercial uses of plant growth substances may be
investigated as a project, using product labelling and classroom investigations
such as the effect of rooting powders on plant cuttings. A simple investigation
into the growth of plant cuttings can be found on the Practical Biology website
(see end of chapter for details). The investigation encourages students to
nurture their plants, helping to develop the respect for living organisms that is
a core value of any biology course.
Maths
Practical investigations and the interpretation of primary and secondary sources
of data allow students to develop the following mathematical skills:
l the construction and interpretation of frequency tables and bar diagrams, bar
charts and histograms
l the translation of information between graphical and numerical forms.
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6.4 Homeostasis
Careers
A study of both endocrinology and neurobiology are useful for careers in laboratory
biosciences, while research plant biologists are in demand by a range of agricultural
and horticultural companies. This is also a particularly interesting area for those
students involved in psychology.
A very interesting and thought-provoking interview with a leading plant scientist
about plant survival strategies, growth substances and responses can be found
on the SAPS website (see end of chapter for details). After watching the video,
older students could answer the questions that accompany the video and perhaps
produce a magazine article comparing the ‘root or run’ survival strategies of plants
vs (most) animals.
As a postscript to this section on mechanisms, it is worth discussing briefly

the role of vitamins. Vitamins are micronutrients (needed in tiny amounts)
that play a role in controlling various biochemical pathways. For instance,
vitamin A controls cell and tissue growth while vitamin D controls mineral
(especially calcium) uptake in the maintenance of bones. Most vitamins are
found naturally in the foods we eat and have multiple functions in the bodies of
animals (and plants).
6.4 Homeostasis
Introduction to homeostasis
When observing body functioning, it is significant that humans (and other
mammals) maintain a constancy of internal factors such as temperature,
electrolyte balance, etc. irrespective of external conditions. Claude Bernard
(1813–78), a French physiology professor, was one of the first to recognise and
state this principle of internal constancy that we now know as homeostasis.
The more we understand cell biology, and cell chemistry in particular,
the more we realise that individual body cells are vulnerable to even
slight changes in conditions. Protein molecules, at the heart of much of
our biochemistry, are readily altered by temperature, while the outer cell
membrane can be damaged easily by osmotic changes.
Homeostasis is the ability of organisms to maintain chemical equilibrium. It
involves feedback and self-adjusting mechanisms that return bodily function to
a norm or set point. These mechanisms can be either physiological (sweating,
shivering) or behavioural (standing in the shade, resting).
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The usual stimulus–response chain is important here. For example, in order to

maintain water balance, receptors measure the viscosity (‘stickiness’) of the
blood. Dilute body fluids (too much water) trigger a response leading to loss of
water, while concentrated body fluids cause water retention and thirst.
corrective mechanism, e.g. lower

body temperature or loss of body
water
disturbance existing value new value
in either the internal or the normal value or altered value reflecting the
external environment set point changes
feedback, e.g. inform brain of new

temperature or water balance
Figure 6.4 Use of correction and feedback in maintaining a constant internal environment
Temperature control in animals

Science in context
Temperature control (thermoregulation) is commonly used to illustrate the
principles of homeostasis to students.
Students will be familiar with the terms ‘cold-blooded’ and ‘warm-blooded’,

although these phrases can be misleading (the blood of a tropical fish is
actually quite warm). The terms ‘poikilothermic’ (passive temperature control
using a combination of adaptive behaviour in relation to external temperature)
and ‘homeothermic’, or sometimes ‘homoiothermic’ (active temperature
control using metabolic and physiological processes) are preferred.
Alternative terms here (less technical but useful in some circumstances)
include ‘ectothermic’ and ‘endothermic’. These last two terms reflect the
fact that heat can be acquired externally (ectothermic) or internally, by
physiological means (endothermic).
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6.4 Homeostasis
In humans, several mechanisms are used to raise body temperature:

➜ increase in heat production through raising the metabolic rate of the liver
and other organs; active muscle contraction (shivering)
➜ thermal insulation to maintain existing body heat by body fat and addition of
extra layers of clothing
➜ reduction of active cooling: reduction in sweat production; constriction of
blood vessels near the skin surface.
Having explored these mechanisms, student discussion could then be used to
suggest the inverse mechanisms to lower body temperature in humans.
Inverse mechanisms used to lower body temperature include:
➜ decreased heat production: lowering the metabolic rate of organs
➜ decreased thermal insulation: removal of clothing
➜ increase in active cooling mechanisms: increased sweat production; dilation
of blood vessels near the skin surface; active ‘flapping’ to cool the body
down.
Table 6.7 Temperature control in a small mammal (homeothermic)
External temperature low External temperature high

narrowing of blood vessels near skin surface to conserve widening of blood vessels near skin surface to lose excess
heat heat
small (erector) muscles in skin cause hairs to stand on end,
hairs flatten against the skin
trapping a layer of air
sweat glands produce more sweat, which evaporates from
sweat glands produce very little sweat
the skin surface
general increase in metabolic rate (non-shivering heat
general decrease in metabolic rate
response)
shivering of voluntary muscle (high energy cost, not
efficient for long periods)
behavioural responses, such as moving to a warmer spot behavioural responses, such as moving to a cooler position
result = warming of the body result = cooling of the body
In animals other than mammals and birds (in other words, the ectotherms,
also known as poikilotherms), temperature control is effected by behavioural
methods (see Table 6.8).
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Table 6.8 Temperature control in a lizard (poikilothermic)
External temperature low External temperature high

aligns its body at right angles to the Sun to catch aligns its body parallel to the Sun’s rays to reduce the
maximum rays from the Sun amount of sunlight
changes to a darker skin colour to absorb more heat changes to a lighter skin colour to reflect more heat
opens its mouth (thermal gaping) to lose heat by
evaporation
displays burrowing behaviour to avoid high surface
temperatures
result = warming of the body result = cooling of the body
Modelling heat loss using the ‘Beaker family’

KEY ACTIVITY
The ‘Beaker family’ investigation can be used to model heat loss. Different-sized beakers
(say 500 ml, 250 ml and 50 ml) filled with hot water can be used to compare drop in
temperature (students need to draw cooling curves). A thermometer records drop in
temperature while heat loss can be calculated mathematically knowing both the volume
of water and the temperature drop:
heat loss (measured in joules) = drop in temperature (°C) × volume of water (cm3) × 4.2
Students should note that the smallest beaker has the greatest drop in temperature,
but the largest beaker has the greatest heat loss. Can they explain why this is? What
significance does this have for large and small mammals?
Cross-disciplinary
The physics of heat loss by the following methods can also be introduced to
students here:
l conduction
l convection
l radiation
l evaporation.
Scientific literacy
Many complex terms are fundamental to students’ understanding of the concept of
homeostasis, such as stimulus, co-ordination, control, response, regulation, negative
feedback, dynamic equilibrium, stable internal environment. It is useful to consider
this particular ‘vocabulary set’.
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6.5 Disturbance of the body’s control systems (when things go wrong!)
6.5 Disturbance of the body’s control

systems (when things go wrong!)
This section continues the ‘homeostasis’ theme by looking at scenarios in
animals and plants where co-ordination is interrupted or somehow disturbed.
Different symptoms may appear depending upon the nature of the problem.
Use of drugs
This section will look at the problems of drug misuse in a more general
(homeostasis) context. Such compounds may severely affect the body’s
chemistry and the body’s physiology, thereby disrupting the body’s normal
internal constancy.
Cross-disciplinary
Students will have some knowledge of the effects of smoking tobacco, together
with an awareness of alcohol and drug abuse, from Personal, Social, Health and
Economic (PSHE) studies in school. However, students gain as much knowledge on
these products from friends, family and the wider media as they do from school.
This is a fact we must not overlook. It is probable that their knowledge is detailed in
parts but sketchy overall.
Scientific literacy
The word ‘drug’ is often taken to mean ‘illegal substances’ but a technical
vocabulary is necessary to enable students to use the terms correctly.
l A drug is any chemical, synthetic or natural, that alters the chemistry, physiology
or behaviour of a person.
l Drugs can be described as medicinal (used to treat illnesses) or recreational (such
as stimulants, depressants and hallucinogens).
l Drugs can be legal or illegal.
Drugs provide little or no nutritional value and are taken either to benefit
health (medicinal drugs) or to affect the body artificially (both legal and illegal
drugs).
The former (beneficial) category, sometimes referred to as medicines, include:
➜ quinine, obtained from the cinchona tree, which prevents malaria
➜ morphine, obtained from the opium poppy, which provides pain relief
➜ digitalin, obtained from the foxglove plant, which is used in heart
medication.
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The latter category includes:

➜ nicotine, obtained from tobacco leaves, which stimulates heart rate,
contributes to the build-up of fatty acids and causes physical and
psychological dependence
➜ cannabis, obtained from the plant Cannabis sativa, which acts as a central
nervous system depressant or hallucinogen and can result in psychological
problems such as paranoia
➜ cocaine, made from the leaves of the South American coca plant, which
stimulates the nervous system, rapidly raising the blood pressure; it can
result in high physical and psychological dependence in a matter of days.
Drug abuse is the deliberate use of a drug other than for its intended purpose.
When drugs are misused (such as excessive alcohol consumption) or
abused (for example use of illegal drugs) by someone, that person’s health is
compromised. An individual can develop chemical dependence.
Students could consider the effects of drugs: the huge medicinal benefits of
prescription drugs or the cost of illicit drug use. They might also look at current
trends in food and drink consumption, for instance the rise of decaffeinated
drinks. (How is coffee, for example, decaffeinated?)
The introduction of disease organisms

Agents of disease include microbes: bacteria, viruses and fungi.
An infectious disease promotes a reaction as the organism disrupts
normal body functioning. The body reacts by attempting to neutralise the
effects of the pathogen (harmful microbe) by destroying the pathogen and
breaking down any toxins it produces. These chemicals upset the chemical
equilibrium of the infected host, causing symptoms. Common symptoms
such as fever, lethargy and loss of appetite result; these can also have
useful, adaptive functions, channelling the body systems to attack and
overcome the pathogen and giving time for organs to recuperate and so
aid recovery. There are links here with Chapter 12.
6.6 Resources
General resources
Simple neurobiology is perhaps best studied through images of neurons.
Easily constructed reaction-time activities (reaction timers are now
commonplace on many smartphones) can demonstrate the stimulus–response
principle.
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6.6 Resources
Models of eye, ear and skin can be used to introduce structure, while simple
activities can elucidate functioning.
Plant hormones (rooting powder, etc.) may be purchased commercially and
used to demonstrate growth regulators.
Websites
Edexcel provide a useful website for this topic at various ages including
word mats: www.twinkl.co.uk/resource/t4-sc-344-edexcel-biology-animal-
coordination-control-and-homeostasis-differentiated-word-mat
BBC Bitesize (www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize) includes this topic along with countless
others.
The ABPI schools website contains many interactive resources for schools:
www.abpischools.org.uk/topic/hormones
Zoo trips are useful opportunities to study animal behaviour. For instance,
London Zoo indicates several activities for post-16 students: www.zsl.org/
education/animal-behaviour-study
The tes website has a range of resources (including animal behaviour: www.
tes.com/teaching-resource/animal-behaviour-resources-worksheets-
activities-6039022#) for use both inside and outside the classroom.
Many sites (for instance: www.teachitscience.co.uk/) require a (free)
membership for access.
The STEM Learning Centre (www.stem.org.uk/) has developed a range of
activities and (STEM) clubs in various topic areas.
The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour (www.asab.org/) has both
primary and secondary (behaviour) teaching resources.
The Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS) website (www.saps.org.uk) has some
excellent resources on investigating plant tropisms. There are also suggested
investigations, along with details of suppliers, worksheets and instructions, on
plant responses to hormones. From the homepage, input the search term ‘fast
plants – rapid-cycling brassica kits’.
The SAPS website also includes a fascinating interview with a leading plant
scientist about plant survival strategies, hormones and responses. Search
‘interviews with scientists – plant survival strategies: hormones and responses’
from the homepage.
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The SAPS newsletter from March 2013 has links to some relevant and
interesting teaching resources for secondary pupils on the topic of tropisms.
Search ‘newsletter March 2013’ from the homepage.
The Practical Biology website (a joint project between the Nuffield Foundation,
the Royal Society of Biology and CLEAPSS) has ideas and protocols for
investigations into plant growth and plant growth regulators: https://pbiol.rsb.
org.uk/. The site also includes a simple investigation into the growth of plant
cuttings. It can be found using the search term ‘cloning a living organism’ from
the homepage.
All the learned societies, the Royal Society of Biology (www.rsb.org.uk/) and
the Association for Science Education (www.ase.org.uk/), produce teachers’
materials and have knowledgeable education officers with whom to discuss
issues. Interestingly, the Royal Society of Chemistry also explores the topic of
nerves and hormones: www.rsb.org.uk/education/teaching-resources
Further reading
A new (2019) series of Oxford Biology Primers (Oxford University Press) aims
to look at cutting-edge biology from the point of view of the post-16 student
thinking of studying biology at university. Books in the series may be of use
to staff wanting up-to-date information. For example: Hinson, J. and Raven, P.
(2019) Hormones. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Primary teachers often need a basic text in science in order to understand and
develop ideas for their pupils. The following book by Chambers and Souter
has an interesting chapter on animal behaviour (Chapter 7) with activities
related to body senses: Chambers, P. and Souter, N. (2017) Explaining Primary
Science. London: SAGE.
A comprehensive summary of integration and control in the animal kingdom is
found in: Jurd, R. D. (2004). Instant Notes: Animal Biology, 2nd edition. Oxford:
Garland Science.
The Association for Science Education’s publication, School Science Review,
(www.ase.org.uk) contains short ‘Science Notes’ on a variety of topics. Those
of relevance here include:
➜ Butler, K. G. (2000) Demonstrating hydrotropism in the roots of mustard cress
or cress seedlings. School Science Review, 82 (299), 95–96.
➜ Grant, P. (2006) A model of the ear’s central canal. School Science Review,
88 (322), 11.
➜ Klein, S. and Zion, M. (2015) The characteristics of homeostasis: a new
perspective on teaching a fundamental principle in biology. School Science
Review, 97 (358), 85–93.
➜ Thomason, B. (1992) Plant sensitivity, a historical source for teaching. School
Science Review, 73 (264), 97–101.
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7 Reproduction
Mary Berry and Michael J. Reiss
Topic overview
Reproduction is a crucial phase in the life cycle of any organism. It is the
way in which individuals leave descendants and a species is perpetuated,
given that individuals must eventually die. Most students will know that all
living organisms grow and reproduce. However, they may have only limited
understanding of reproductive processes, including asexual reproduction.
Students’ previous experiences of practical work with plant materials, such
as flower structures, can be developed and gaps in knowledge addressed.
Extending students’ knowledge of different types of seed dispersal (to include
wind, water and animal dispersal) is also helpful. Students frequently confuse
seed dispersal with types of pollination, and they may also confuse pollination
with fertilisation. Clarification can be followed up with more detailed work on
the reproduction of a specific animal, such as a frog or fish.
Care will be needed in planning for practical work with respect to the seasons
and availability of specimens. Observation of the cycles of reproduction in
plants generally requires long-term planning, though SAPS (Science & Plants
for Schools) resources using rapid-cycling brassicas can make this more
easily achievable. Find out if students have had the opportunity to grow or
propagate plants or examine in detail a variety of living organisms. Providing
students with this opportunity need not be expensive nor require a lot of space.
It will be rewarding and inspiring if every student can plant a seed or take, and
subsequently root, a cutting. Students should know the structure of a typical
seed and appreciate how this relates to germination and the stages in a
plant’s life cycle.
The topic of reproduction provides abundant opportunities for bringing living
things into your laboratory or classroom and providing students with hands-
on experience. While many schools may not have a well-stocked school
greenhouse or pond, windowsills or communal areas can provide access
to a variety of seasonal plant species. The value of this cannot be over-
estimated, since this is a key opportunity to provide students with skills and
understanding for life, as well as to fulfil aspects of the science curriculum. It
can also engender in students a sense of success and manifest the ‘awe and
wonder’ of how a single, small seed can give rise to something as impressive
as an oak tree or the food we eat.
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7 Reproduction
Science in context
Linking ideas of basic science to the wider issues of food security and the global
environmental is desirable to aid students’ understanding.
Animal sexual reproduction presents good opportunities for maintaining and

observing a variety of organisms throughout their life cycle. Some species
need little laboratory space and may have a life cycle that can be watched
over just two weeks and independently of the seasons (such as the fruit fly).
Others may demand more extensive maintenance, space and equipment,
requiring observation over many weeks or months, and within specific
breeding seasons.
The whole topic of reproduction links directly with ‘growth and development’
in plants and in animals. Basic microscopy skills are assumed in this chapter,
and students’ ideas to do with size and the concept of magnification can be
reinforced and extended. It is useful for students to know how to estimate the
size of the cells they are examining (see Chapter 2). It is important to include
examples of plant cells and to reinforce the similarities and differences
between plant and animal cells.
Finally, your students need a firm understanding of the basics of nuclear and
cell divisions, which lead to the formation of either genetically identical cells
(as a result of mitosis) or gametes (as a result of meiosis) (see Chapter 2). They
also need a grasp of the role of DNA in the control of the cell’s activities by the
nucleus (see Chapters 2 and 8). Plant examples, such as growing cloves of
garlic in the top of a test tube of water and using these for observing mitotic
division of cells, can provide simple and effective practical activities.
Cross-disciplinary
Teaching about human reproduction and other aspects of sex education can present
challenges to any teacher. Schools vary in their delivery of this area, in some cases
deploying a well-integrated, whole-school approach; in other cases devolving much
of the area of study to the science department. It is crucial, as a teacher of biology,
that you are well informed about your school’s policy for sex education and about
the precise part that you, as a science teacher, are to play in this sensitive area
of education. Science teachers not only need to provide accurate information to
students about reproduction and sexual health, but also to have strategies ready to
deal with questions, some of which may be awkward, that might arise.
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7.1 Asexual reproduction in plants and animals
7.1 Asexual reproduction in plants and

animals
Students are likely to have met aspects of reproduction in plants and animals
but that will mostly have been concerned with sexual rather than asexual
reproduction.
Advantages of asexual reproduction

Using a variety of examples, teachers can show students that asexual
reproduction has several advantages over sexual reproduction:
➜ no energy is wasted in finding a mate
➜ many offspring are produced rapidly
➜ favourable circumstances can be exploited very efficiently
➜ desirable traits are ensured in offspring.
Examples of asexual reproduction

A variety of organisms can be used to show that there is only one parent
in asexual reproduction. In each case some part of this parent divides to
produce an identical individual, which then separates from the parent. A
circus of activities (suggestions are largely seasonal) can provide an overview
of the range of mechanisms for asexual reproduction in plants and animals:
➜ Estimation of the number of plantlets associated with a spider plant or
Bryophyllum: ask students to suggest reasons for the production of so many.
Refer to the common name of Bryophyllum (mother of thousands) and ask
students why this might be relevant.
➜ Illustration of reproduction (fission) in a bacterium or a unicellular
organism, such as Amoeba proteus: use a sequence from a video.
➜ Bread-mould cultures: observe the development of colonies of mould (a
fungus) and the tiny black dots (sporangia) containing the spores. Ask
students to suggest how these may be dispersed. Some fungal spores can
trigger asthmatic and other allergic responses, so keep cultures in closed
plastic bags.
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7 Reproduction
Technology use
The use of a visualiser would be helpful for mould cultures. This can limit potential
hazards associated with allergic responses, while allowing for whole class
participation and engagement.
Mitosis
Build on your students’ basic knowledge of mitosis. Explore with them the
role of this division: it allows cells to reproduce themselves to form genetically
identical ‘daughter’ cells. You can extend this to make links with the role of
mitosis in allowing multicellular organisms to grow and to repair themselves.
Mitosis should eventually be understood as the basis of asexual reproduction
(see Chapter 2). Refer students to practical work on plants; this helps to link
theory securely to context.
Cloning and tissue culture

Asexual reproduction results in genetically identical individuals and
means that a clone (for example, a clump of daffodils) results from a single
organism. You can consider examples from horticulture and agriculture
(including strawberries and pineapples) where the advantage is that
particular genetically based characteristics of the crop plant can be
maintained from one generation to the next. Consider also how a change
in an aspect of the environment, such as a prolonged drought, can be a
disadvantage to a species that is reliant on asexual reproduction. Notice how
a range of wild plants (such as grasses) use both methods of reproduction,
so that the disadvantages of cloning become less significant (see Chapter 9).
Emphasise the fact that the term ‘clone’ applies to individuals produced
naturally by asexual reproduction as well as those produced by artificial
cloning. This is something students often do not appreciate.
Careers
Tissue culture is a way of conducting asexual reproduction on a massive scale; the
process is now a routine laboratory and commercial procedure, and examples can
help students to appreciate the extent to which this is part of everyday life.
This is an ideal opportunity to encourage students to discuss cloning in

a balanced way in order to highlight and clarify some of the advantages
to society of these techniques. Cloning animals is not as easy as cloning
plants. The activity of cloning cauliflowers can be used here to show
the advantages of cloning in context. If this is not available to do as a
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7.1 Asexual reproduction in plants and animals
demonstration or class practical, use the SAPS video clip showing the
technique (details at the end of the chapter). There are teaching notes,
student worksheets and illustrated worksheets.
Science in context
Few young people have a good understanding of what constitutes cancerous
growth. You can provide help by making the link with asexual reproduction in
terms of uncontrolled cell division (mitosis). A video sequence can demonstrate
the irregular mass of cells (a tumour) that may have come about as a result of
mutation in the genes that control cell division (see Chapter 8). Students need
to understand that plants also show periods of unchecked cell divisions with the
development of a tumour. Understanding this should help to reinforce the fact that
plants have many of the same processes as animals.
Treat the topic with some sensitivity since a student may have/have had a relative
or friend who has suffered from, or is being treated for, cancer. It is unlikely that
everyone in a class will have been unaffected, and shared experiences can also
be an opportunity to highlight students who need additional support, but never
pressurise students to speak of their personal experiences.
Science in context
Useful secondary data can raise older students’ awareness of the ways in which
scientists begin to correlate the incidence of a disease with a particular factor. This
is also an opportunity to talk about different carcinogens (ionising radiation, certain
chemicals) and some viruses, all of which are linked with the promotion of cancerous
growths in both plants and animals.
Further activities
To explore asexual reproduction in a practical context, record numbers
of duckweed in a particular area of a pond over several days in spring to
demonstrate the rate of increase. This can be done on a micro-scale in the
laboratory, using an old ice cream container and samples of duckweed.
Maths
The duckweed activity provides a good opportunity to focus on data analysis and
representation with the use of graphs and tables.
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7 Reproduction
Investigating horticultural methods of plant

KEY ACTIVITIES
propagation
You could try some common horticultural methods with students.
l Late spring: stem cuttings (geranium, Coleus); leaf cuttings such as Begonia rex or
African violets; layering (‘pinks’).
l Early summer: rooting the ‘buds’ of runners (strawberry), or rooting plantlets from
spider plants (Chlorophytum comosum) or mother of thousands (Bryophyllum
daigremontianum).
More advanced students could research tissue culture procedures, finding

out how a callus is formed and how tiny plants are grown from subdivisions of
this. Introduce this activity with a video sequence together with literature from
commercial plant breeders (such as producers of hybrid orchids). The video
clip from the TV series Botany: A Blooming History (SAPS secondary teaching
resources: Genetic engineering to increase productivity in rice) could be used
as it discusses the importance of genetic engineering for feeding a growing
population.
Science in context
Encourage students to make links between plant reproduction and the increasingly
important issue of global food security. Further cultural context can be gained from
considering how supermarkets can provide herb plants all year round.
Enhancement ideas
Examine yeast cells for signs of budding. Under the microscope, students can watch
cells reach a certain size and produce outgrowths (buds), which eventually split to form
new individuals. The use of a graticule on the eyepiece lens of the microscope allows
students to judge the size of the cells.
A digital microscope linked to a data projector/screen or a visualiser could also
allow whole class observation of yeast division.
A deflated balloon can be attached to a vessel containing a mixture of yeast, sugar
and warm water. Students are always entertained when the balloon is inflated
by the gas produced (carbon dioxide), usually within an hour lesson. Time-lapse
photography could be used to show the production of the gas over time.
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7.2 Characteristics of sexual reproduction in plants and animals
Maths
A mathematical link could then be to provide students with data on volume of gas
production over time, or students could plot data they have collected. Get students
to think how the rate of production of gas is related to the number of yeast cells.
Working scientifically
Extend the work for investigative activities in which advanced students might
explore the effects of culture temperature, or the amount of sugar, on the
rate of cell division in yeast. Withdraw a drop of culture from the starter flask
every 15 minutes and count the number of cells in the field of view. Plot a line
graph to illustrate the increase in numbers of cells over time or pool class data
entered on a spreadsheet and obtain mean values and plots of rates of the
increases in numbers.
Using Figure 7.1, ask students to explain what might be happening at X, Y and
Z. Explore possible reasons for why yeast eventually stops budding.
Z
Numbers
X
Time
Figure 7.1 The growth curve for yeast
7.2 Characteristics of sexual reproduction in

plants and animals
Students will have met the idea of life cycles and will know the main stages of
the human life cycle: humans produce babies who grow into children and then
into adults. Similarly, they will have been introduced to the main stages of the
flowering plant life cycle, including growth, pollination, seed dispersal and the
germination of seeds to form new plants. However, students are frequently unable
to relate the life cycles of humans and plants. Often, students are unaware of
the structure of a seed and are unclear as to how and why seeds germinate.
Similarly, students can often label parts of a plant and describe the role of
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7 Reproduction
pollinators in pollination but are not clear about the mechanism of fertilisation in
plants, and how this leads to production of seeds. Students may have a broad
grasp of the fact that seeds disperse, but not the detail of mechanisms. Introduce
students to the intriguing and sometimes bizarre ways that plants ensure their
seeds are placed in the most advantageous position for subsequent germination.
A teaching sequence
The sequence should try to explore the question, ‘Why sexual reproduction,
given the various advantages to asexual reproduction?’. The fundamental
reason is that sexual reproduction gives rise to genetically based variation
among the offspring of the individual that is reproducing. This makes it more
likely, especially in a changing environment, that at least some offspring will
survive and, in turn, reproduce themselves.
By considering and comparing different reproductive patterns in a range
of animal species, students can be helped to forge links with the human
reproductive pattern (Section 7.3).
Examples of plant sexual reproduction

Use every opportunity you have to check students’ understanding of plant
reproduction and different plant life cycles, building on teaching sequences
from earlier stages. The idea that many plants can reproduce both asexually
and sexually should be reinforced, using examples from across the plant
kingdom as well as flowering plants, including grasses.
Science in context
This is a good opportunity to reinforce with students the role of grasses as food
crops and make links to food security and global climate changes.
Many flowering plants have interesting mechanisms for the production of

specialised gametes; the male gametes are the pollen cells, found in the
anthers; the female gametes are the ovules, found in the ovary. Meiosis
is the special cell division that produces these gametes (see Chapter 2).
Students could observe pollen under the light microscope and deduce
whether the pollen is from a wind-pollinated or an insect-pollinated
species. Students can be introduced to the idea that many (but not all)
flowering plants are hermaphrodite, with the capacity to produce both
male and female gametes. Try also to present examples of single-sex
plants, such as the holly (Ilex) with its separate male and female plants.
Students could compare these with other species of plants (for example
birch, Betula) which are hermaphrodite. Students could then be asked
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to suggest mechanisms which prevent self-fertilisation in hermaphrodite

species and explore the advantages of out-breeding.
There are a number of films and practical protocols on the SAPS website to
study pollen, its role in reproduction and its link with hay fever in more detail.
Germinating seeds
KEY ACTIVITY
Soaked white icicle radish or broad bean seeds provide younger students with
independent, observational homework (over 4–6 weeks). Each student needs a jam jar
and a roll of thick, absorbent paper, ensuring the seed is clamped to the side of the jar
by the paper. The paper sits in 2 cm of water and acts as a wick. Ask students to keep
diaries, supported by drawings, for the whole life cycle.
For older students, this could be set up as a demonstration and shown each lesson
with students making their own notes to add to ones from the previous lesson.
Photographs could be taken and put on Google Classroom or similar sharing
platforms. Students need to be able to label the main parts of a seed and appreciate
its subsequent growth. Reinforce here the emergence of the radicle first and then
the plumule.
Science in context
Students might consider how fruits are formed without seeds (such as seedless
grapes and satsumas). (These are generated by spraying with hormones that
stimulate fruit production without prior fertilisation.) They can deduce that the
normally prerequisite stage of fertilisation has been bypassed and the resulting
fruit, while popular with consumers, is of no use in producing another generation.
Introduce students to a range of seeds, fruits and vegetables. Many students

do not realise how many of their foods come from plants, and this is an
opportunity to make this clear. Show students multigrain bread, rolls with
poppy seeds, and mustard with wholegrain mustard seeds. Help students to
appreciate that chickpeas can be ground to make flour and hummus. Have
a range of dried beans to show students along with various cans of beans,
including kidney beans, baked beans and mixed beans. Get students to
appreciate the plants and plant parts that are used for popcorn, sweetcorn
and tortillas.
Allow students to explore seeds and introduce some seeds more familiar
to students from different cultural backgrounds, such as coriander seeds,
cardamom seeds, black cardamom seeds, chilli seeds, onion seeds, chia
seeds, seeds in various types of gourd, fenugreek seeds, chickpeas, nigella
seeds, pomegranate seeds and dill seeds.
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7 Reproduction
With more advanced students, illustrate the starch food store in seeds and
demonstrate the role of the (starch-digesting) enzyme amylase, using halved,
soaked barley seeds placed with the outside in contact with starch agar in
a Petri dish. This can also be done with broad beans, halved and placed
surface downwards on the surface of the starch agar. After 24–48 hours
at room temperature, flood the dish with iodine solution. The zone around
each grain remains clear while the iodine on the rest of the starch agar is
blackened. Ask students to account for the lack of starch in the clear zone.
Eye protection is needed when handling iodine solution.
Working scientifically
How do particular seeds fall? Ask students to use dandelion or sycamore
seeds (technically, fruits) in order to examine the relationship between height
above ground and rate of falling. Consider how this can be achieved safely
with careful supervision.
You can also ask students which variables (mass, shape, etc.) might affect
the rate of fall of seeds. Data can be entered into a spreadsheet for further
analysis.
Model seeds, made from paper/card and ‘weighted’ with paperclips, can be
made to test ideas further. Ask them why a slower rate may be an advantage
to the plant producing the seeds. The video clip from ‘Earth Unplugged’ of
exploding cucumbers (found at the end of the chapter) is an excellent clip to
show seed dispersal by explosion.
Examples of animal sexual reproduction

The idea that most animals reproduce sexually as a result of the production of
specialised gametes needs reinforcing; the male gametes are spermatozoa
(singular: spermatozoon), abbreviated to sperm; the female gametes are ova
(singular: ovum). Meiosis is the cell division that produces the gametes (see
Chapter 2).
Students can be supported in discussing the reasons for sexual reproduction,
particularly mammalian reproduction, which is technically more complex than
asexual reproduction. Encourage them to deduce that it requires more energy
and specialised organs that produce gametes, and also results in fewer
offspring in a population. The crucial advantage is that individuals are slightly
different from either parent and from other offspring of the same parents. In a
changing environment some of these individuals may be better adapted and
able to exploit new resources or colonise new areas. An organism’s ‘fitness’
for a particular environment is a useful concept since it links environmental
features and the organism’s individual characteristics (see Chapter 9).
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Specialised sex cells, courtship and fertilisation

Students should appreciate that most species can reproduce sexually,
even those that also reproduce asexually. Examples might include species
on a coral reef, including invertebrates such as sea anemones, corals and
jellyfish. Show students some filmed sequences from Malice in Wonderland
(1994), available from BBC Active Video. Such sequences present visually the
specialised sex cells (gametes), one from each parent of the same species,
which join to form the first cell (zygote) of the new individual. Examples should
also show that there are some species where individuals are able to produce
both male and female gametes; these are described as hermaphrodites
(including earthworms and many molluscs, such as snails and slugs).
By providing stimulating materials and sources of information including texts,
images (both photographs and diagrams), data and video clips, your students
can be encouraged to study the life cycles of certain animals in more detail
(such as fish or frogs):
➜ Discuss how eggs are fertilised externally/internally, pointing out the
numbers of eggs that are fertilised at any one time. Students can be helped
to think why species with internal fertilisation typically produce fewer
offspring than do species with external fertilisation.
Enhancement ideas
Ask students to identify any pattern across different species in the relationship between
the number of eggs, whether fertilisation is internal or external, whether the period of
post-fertilisation internal development is brief or extended, the extent of parental care
once offspring are no longer inside the mother, and the chances of offspring surviving to
maturity.
Video sequences can helpfully illustrate courtship patterns, as well as the act
of copulation and fertilisation, in a variety of animals, such as amphibians, fish
and birds. BBC Trials of Life (1990) has two episodes, Courting and Continuing
the Line, which illustrate a variety of breeding activity (BBC Active Video) and
there are plenty of more recent examples that can easily be accessed online.
External versus internal development; aftercare

Discuss the advantages of retaining the young offspring in the body of a
parent; this is usually the female but note, for example, the use of the male
pouch in seahorses (students can search for a video of this on YouTube).
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7 Reproduction
Science in context
You can also draw on students’ own experiences of a variety of newborn pets if
there are any. Students can discuss the extent to which humans and other mammals
provide for emotional as well as physical needs of their offspring.
Further activities
The advantages of sexual reproduction can also be seen as the
disadvantages of asexual reproduction, where only a stable environment will
ensure reproductive success. Students can compare and then summarise in a
table the advantages and disadvantages of both types of reproduction.
7.3 Human reproduction and sex education

Legal framework for sex education
Countries, both within the UK and beyond, vary greatly in the role that they
expect schools to play in sex education. In England a helpful summary of the
legal framework is provided by a House of Commons Briefing Paper (Long,
2019). A DfE document (DfE, 2019) provides the statutory guidance. The key
points for secondary schools in England are that from September 2020:
➜ All secondary schools (whether state or independent) need to teach age-
appropriate ‘relationships and sex education’.
➜ Schools must ensure that they comply with the relevant provisions of the
Equality Act 2010, under which sexual orientation and gender reassignment
are among the protected characteristics.
➜ Schools should realise that students may need support to recognise
when relationships (including family relationships) are unhealthy or
abusive (including the unacceptability of neglect, emotional, sexual and
physical abuse, and violence, including honour-based violence and forced
marriage).
➜ Parents still have the right to withdraw their children from sex education
outside of National Curriculum science but all children, even if their parents
disagree, are entitled to receive one term of sex education in the three terms
before they reach the age of 16.
As a science teacher, you are likely to be involved in teaching aspects of
sex education whether or not you are a biology teacher, though the extent to
which this is the case varies from school to school and between countries.
You must be aware of your school’s policy on sex and relationships education
and you must stick to it! Do not invite in outside speakers or take students out
on visits unless you have cleared this with a senior colleague, such as the
appropriate Head of Year.
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Cross-disciplinary
In some schools, anything to do with ‘relationships’ is dealt with outside of biology
lessons, often in a programme to do with Personal, Social, Health and Economic
(PSHE) education issues.
Your own classroom relationships with students are important for being
effective in this sensitive area, and you should not be deterred from
encouraging, wherever possible, open and frank discussion about issues,
though never about particular personal circumstances. Where a student
might approach you to share some personal information, you should use your
professional judgement about keeping confidentiality, while at the same time
never promising confidentiality. You can always provide details of alternative
(non-school) sources of advice and of treatment and your school may have a
school nurse who can be a tremendous asset.
Developing your own sensitivities to the personal circumstances of individual
students and their families is important in your class work, and teaching
this topic in particular may expose you to potential signs of child abuse.
Identification is often not easy and, in addition to more obvious physical
signs such as bruises, burns, bites and scars, a general indicator is often
neglect. Indicators of sexual abuse include sexually transmitted infections,
recurrent urinary infections, inappropriately sexually explicit behaviour,
young students with too much sexual knowledge, sexually abusive behaviour
towards other children and pregnancy. Emotional abuse is often indicated by
low self-esteem, lethargy or attention-seeking behaviour, and delayed social
development. As a teacher, always take steps to share any concerns with the
designated member of the school staff – the School Child Protection Officer
(SCPO) – writing down dated, factual details as well as reporting them orally.

Students will almost certainly have been taught something about aspects
of human reproduction and relationships, at primary school and/or in their
families, but research shows such teaching is often patchy. In addition, at
this age, students’ physical and emotional developments are highly variable
and this partly determines the extent to which they will have absorbed or
questioned information given earlier on. There will be differences in the
provision from different homes, social and cultural backgrounds, different
primary schools and different teachers within any school.
National surveys to find out what young people really want in this area
generally find that teaching is often provided too late. Targeting younger
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7 Reproduction
secondary students is, therefore, important. Boys generally have lower levels
of knowledge of reproduction, contraception and contraceptive services than
do girls, and so a school needs to take steps to ensure that this is rectified.
Girls often say that they want more discussion and explanations in order to
counterbalance an overemphasis on biological facts. Clearly boys require
this too.
Educational videos and other material in this area of the curriculum should
be chosen with care for their appropriateness and always be used in such
a way that there is time for reflection, clarification and discussion of sexual
issues in the classroom. Many schools have a system where parents are able
to come in and see materials that are used for teaching sex education and
meet staff who will be teaching it.
A teaching sequence
As a science teacher you can do a great deal of good when teaching sex
education and you have the advantage when teaching in this area that your
students are not likely to forget most of what you teach them! Many teachers
initially find it embarrassing to teach sex education. However, this generally
eases over time and science teachers can communicate a lot of extremely
valuable information even if not everyone, in the first year or two of teaching,
feels comfortable at handling discussions in this area. For younger secondary
students, you are aiming to extend knowledge about human reproduction
and to relate the ways the body changes in adolescence to your students’
developing understanding of human reproduction, growth and the menstrual
cycle.
Use terminology with care. In mammals, including humans, the fertilised
ovum is called a zygote and it develops to form an embryo and subsequently
the fetus. Students should appreciate the size and approximate number
of gametes produced by males and females, and older students
should identify the similarities and differences between the structure
of an ovum and a sperm. Try to assess and then extend your students’
present knowledge of puberty, anatomy, conception and its prevention,
the development of relationships and the medical and other problems
associated with sexual involvement early in life.
Scientific literacy
Bear in mind that some students may have the technical vocabulary but their
actual understanding can be poor. They may need help in knowing where various
anatomical parts are located as well as what the parts do.
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Aim to make your audience feel comfortable about not knowing things,
while at the same time making it possible for them to find out. Laughter and
appropriate joking can help to make everyone feel less awkward and more
comfortable while at the same time enabling you to address every question
seriously and with respect.
Physical and emotional changes at puberty

and during adolescence
Between the ages of 10 and 14, most young people will be entering puberty
and will be interested in hormones, how they will be affected by them, the
menstrual cycle, wet dreams, erections, fertility, pregnancy (including how it
can be avoided) and safer sex. They may also be wondering if their physical
development is ‘normal’. They may want to know about the difference between
sexual attraction and love and whether it is normal to be attracted or in love
with someone of the same sex. They are likely to be asking questions about
relationships, when is the right time to have sex and where they can get more
information if they need it, including the best websites, confidential services,
etc. Ascertain what materials your school uses for teaching in this area and if
you want to use different ones, check with your Head of Department first.
An exploration with your students of how males and females differ physically
should enable you to summarise the key changes at puberty. A useful ice-
breaking activity might be to place each key point describing a secondary
sexual characteristic (such as breasts, wider hips, facial and body hair, voice
changes, stronger body smell) on a separate card; small groups of students
can then discuss and arrange the cards under one of the two headings ‘males’
and ‘females’.
Stress the wide variation in the age of onset of puberty and the generally
earlier age of onset for girls and the fact that puberty does not happen all at
once but takes place over a number of years. Help students understand that
changes in hormone concentrations result in the development of secondary
sexual characteristics and emotional changes at puberty. Explore possible
reasons for the earlier onset over the last 50 years (better diet, fewer infectious
diseases).
Male and female reproductive systems

Many younger students tend to have muddled ideas about how many urinary,
genital and defaecatory orifices people have (females have three, males
two) and often both boys and girls do not know from where a girl urinates.
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7 Reproduction
Students should understand that the urethra has a dual function in the male.
In the female the urethra has only one function, which is in connection with the
urinary system.
Scientific literacy
The similarity in sound and spelling of ‘ureter’ and ‘urethra’ can also be confusing
for many students.
Older students need to know the structure and function of the parts of the
urinogenital (= genitourinary) system; younger students can be presented
with a reduced list of key terms or simplified terminology. It is generally best
to provide accurate, but unlabelled, line diagrams that students can then
label themselves. This activity can be extended into a card-sorting/matching
exercise in which students are provided with key names on one set of cards
and a second set of cards with the key functions of the parts.
Help students to understand that the erectile tissue of the penis becomes firm
as it fills with blood when the penis is stimulated either manually or indirectly
through specific visual or other stimuli. Some male students may need
reassurance about the normality of wet dreams and masturbation. The dual
role of the urethra in the male will need some clarification: glands at the base
of the bladder produce secretions that wash away the urine in the urethra
(urine can deactivate sperm).
Masturbation for female students also needs mentioning, particularly as it is
sometimes omitted from school textbooks. Indeed, the clitoris is sometimes
rendered invisible by being absent from diagrams as well as absent in any
discussion about structure and function (see Cohut (2018)).
Muscle rings in the sperm duct squeeze the sperm along the passage. This
action can be simulated by pushing toothpaste along in its tube, which
is similar to peristalsis in the intestinal tract. Further glands mix nutrient
secretions with the sperm to form semen. Ask students why this is necessary.
Illustrate the volume of the ejaculate: about one teaspoon of semen is
produced at ejaculation. The prostate gland is often incorrectly referred to as
‘prostrate’! It is frequently enlarged in older men and students can deduce the
effect of any enlargement on the frequency of and difficulty in urination.
Since the female reproductive organs are largely invisible, and therefore
particularly mysterious, ask students (male and female) to site the position of
the ovaries by placing their fingers on their own abdomen. To do this, suggest
they feel for the front points of the pelvis and move in towards the navel an
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inch or so. Ask students to feel the tip of their nose with a forefinger. Say
that this feels rather like the cervix, the ring of muscle that closes the lower
end of the uterus where it joins the vagina. Use a model of the human torso,
and a skeleton, to help pupils understand the 3D arrangements of the key
reproductive organs, since diagrams are presented as 2D arrangements,
which can be confusing.
There is a very small hole in the cervix to permit sperm to enter. The cervix
dilates during labour; check that students understand why. Students can
estimate the size of the adult vagina (which they often conflate with the vulva)
and the size of the adult, non-pregnant uterus. For comparison use a medium-
sized inverted pear (about 10 cm long) and tilt it backwards slightly to illustrate
the angle of the uterus with respect to the vagina.
Point out the need for a good blood supply to the uterus and explore why this is
so. Ask students to suggest how long the egg takes to be moved from the ovary
to the uterus (24–48 hours). The vagina is a muscular tube with sensitive nerve
endings and glands that can secrete mucus. Explore with your students the
reasons for these.
Sperm swim towards the oviducts aided by movements of the female
reproductive system. After an hour they no longer swim but they can survive in
the uterus or oviducts for three or even more days. Explore with your students
why it is important to be aware of this and how the timing of ovulation can
influence the chance of fertilisation.
Scientific literacy
One way to address questions from students is to provide them with a box in which
they can place their questions at the end of a lesson. Read the questions away from
students and deal with as many as possible the next time you teach the students.
This can become an extended writing activity – an agony column in a teenage
magazine – where you provide stimulus questions/issues that require answering.
Students then write a response to provide factual and supportive answers. The
extent to which you share this writing across the class should be considered
carefully.
Use video sequences and pictures to illustrate and discuss the processes
which lead to fertilisation and implantation of the zygote. Students can devise
flow diagrams (electronically or on paper/cardboard) to represent the key
events leading to implantation. The emotional as well as the physical aspects
of sexual relationships should be addressed through discussion, though only if
the school sex education policy allows for this.
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7 Reproduction
Textbooks and other teaching materials sometimes assume intercourse is

heterosexual and that sexual activity is penetrative (vaginal) intercourse.
Such texts can also be sexist since intercourse is sometimes presented only
from a male’s point of view. Ejaculation by the male is frequently mentioned;
orgasm in the female less often. Accounts of loving relationships, or indeed
the passions or pleasures associated with sex, are all too often notable by
their absence. It is important to create a balance between an anatomical
account and a psychological and emotional account. Again, you must act in
accordance with your school’s policy.
Finally, you can take the opportunity to review fertilisation in terms of fusion
of male and female nuclei and discuss how this results in characteristics
being passed from parents to offspring (see Chapter 8). Twin and multiple
pregnancies are always of interest to young people: provide some statements
containing some correct and incorrect explanations and ask them to select
the correct explanations of how identical and non-identical twins can arise.
Factual examples of conjoined twins and how they arise are often of interest.
There are always examples to share with students. This is also an opportunity
to establish that, generally, humans have one offspring at a time, and that
the reproductive system and post-natal care, including breastfeeding, have
evolved to make sure that the one offspring is as likely as possible to survive.
Enhancement ideas
Encourage students to speculate about different causes of infertility in men and
women, linking their ideas to the structures and functions of the reproductive
systems. Causes can include low sperm counts, blocked oviducts and infrequent
ovulation. This could be extended to include information on chlamydia, cervical
cancer and testicular cancer. Students could be encouraged to find out more about
the technological treatments now available, and some of the social and ethical
issues surrounding the practices of fertility clinics.
Menstruation and the control of fertility

Menstruation tends to remain a taboo subject in our society, which is unhelpful
to an adolescent girl for whom it is acutely realistic. The physical, emotional
and practical aspects of ‘periods’, particularly in the school setting, do very
little to reassure girls of the positive experiences of becoming a woman. When
young people are asked ‘What is menstruation?’, research has shown that
over one-third of 13- to 14-year-old students do not mention menstrual fluid
and, when questioned specifically, the actual source of the menstrual blood
as the shedding of the uterine lining is frequently misunderstood. Try to aim
for a balance between a purely physiological approach and a more personal
account that goes some way to acknowledging the reality of this event for half
the school population!
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Many schools have the ‘Red Box Project’ to provide free menstrual products
within school. This is particularly important in ensuring that girls do not miss
out on education because they cannot afford sanitary protection.
Science in context
This is also an opportunity for students to think about how girls and women in
other parts of the world deal with their periods. This can make cultural links more
explicit.
The teaching and associated discussion of the natural and artificial methods
of preventing pregnancy (in other words, birth control or ‘family planning’)
frequently fall to the science teacher. Much of what follows is for older students
(14 years plus), so be guided by your school sex education policy and be mindful
that the use of artificial contraception is not acceptable to all adults or young
people. The health risks, both physical and emotional, of under-age sex should
always be discussed. Students need both general and local guidance about how
to seek information and advice (such as ‘drop-in sessions’ with a school nurse
or at a youth clinic) and how to buy items or to access the particular medical
services that supply them (the diaphragm, intrauterine device, contraceptive pill
and the ‘morning after’ pill, usually referred to as ‘emergency contraception’).
In relation to fertility, you may wish to point out that an unfertilised egg will not
survive for more than three days, although sperm can remain alive for a day
or two longer. Challenge any idea that fertilisation cannot take place if male
ejaculation takes place outside of the vagina, and explain why.
Thinking about contraceptives

KEY ACTIVITY
Ask older students in groups of three to five to make a PowerPoint presentation

advertising a particular contraceptive. They should consider how the contraceptive
works, for whom it would be most useful, and present the chief risks. Alternatively, using
desk top publishing, small groups of students might produce a leaflet concerned with one
type of contraceptive.
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7 Reproduction
Science in context
The control of fertility raises a number of points of social and ethical concern. The
following technologies provide an opportunity for your students to think about the
links between the science and society:
l Artificial insemination (AI) of a woman with her male partner’s sperm can allow
an infertile couple to have a child without a third party being involved. If the
male cannot produce fertile sperm, sperm from a donor may be used (AID).
You can explore with students how this might be similar to, or different from,
adoption of a child by the couple. Ask them to make a list of issues that might be
of concern with AID.
l In vitro fertilisation (IVF) (‘test-tube babies’) provides a particularly useful
discussion topic. It is used to treat women whose ovaries are functioning but
whose oviducts are blocked, or where sperm motility of the partner is poor.
The woman is treated hormonally to super-ovulate. Ask students to consider
advantages and possible disadvantages of IVF.
l IVF for same-sex couples or for single women wishing to have a baby could be
discussed.
Sexually transmitted infections

A detailed study of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) may best be done
within the topic of microbiology (see Chapter 12). The modes of transmission
should be considered for the six commonest STIs: chlamydia (bacterial),
genital warts (viral), gonorrhoea (bacterial), genital herpes (viral), hepatitis B
(viral) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV; viral). Other STIs that might be
considered include syphilis (bacterial), pubic lice (insect), urethritis (bacterial),
thrush (fungal), bacterial vaginosis and trichomoniasis (protozoon).
Students should learn how STIs are passed on to another person and how
they are best avoided. Offer the reassurance that, with early detection, almost
all can be treated successfully. Aim to dispel any misunderstandings. Find out
what your students do, or do not, know about STIs; challenge prejudices about
those who may catch an STI. Students need to know that nowadays people
infected with HIV generally look as healthy as anyone else.
Human papilloma virus (HPV), sometimes called ‘genital wart virus’, can be
passed from one person to another through sexual contact. Younger students
(11 years plus) need to be prepared for the HPV vaccination programme,
which is offered to all students in the UK, boys and girls. The programme is
cutting drastically the rates of cervical cancer.
Since the routes of transmission of STIs involve sexual contact, an important
teaching objective is to raise students’ awareness about the need for safer sex.
They should be informed about the risks of transmission through the mixing of
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7.4 Human pregnancy
body fluids, which include semen, vaginal secretions and blood. This may best
be addressed when teaching about contraception so students can weigh up
the ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ of the various contraceptives in terms of effectiveness in
preventing transmission of STIs.
Schools may decide to invite health professionals into the classroom to
support the teaching in this area: SRE Advisors (local authority), Teenage
Pregnancy Co-ordinators/Managers (NHS) or other personnel from GUM
clinics can often provide expert help. There are good video sequences, too,
though it is important to check that these are up to date and to plan carefully
so students always have the opportunity to talk about the topics and issues
that arise.
7.4 Human pregnancy

Students are likely to have met some of the processes of fetal development;
some understanding of the role of the parents and childcare will also be
present.
A teaching sequence
Your aim is to extend students’ ideas about how offspring are protected and
nurtured following the fertilisation of the egg through pregnancy and up to
birth itself. Students should learn that the fetus develops within a membranous
bag, supported and cushioned by amniotic fluid. They should develop their
understanding of the placenta: this supplies nutrients and oxygen to the fetus
via the umbilical cord, and removes carbon dioxide and other waste products.
Students will need help in making the links with other important biology
topics such as the circulatory system, so they can appreciate the route taken
by nutrients from the mother’s digestive system to the fetal brain and other
tissues. They will need to link their broader knowledge of diffusion gradients
to explain how oxygen, water and digested food pass from the mother’s blood
to the fetal blood in the placenta, and, in the reverse direction, how carbon
dioxide and other waste materials leave the fetal blood and enter the maternal
blood.
The frequent reality of miscarriage might be discussed.
Ask the students for which body organs the placenta acts as a substitute.
Stress that fetal and maternal blood supplies are very close but completely
separate. Students need help to appreciate that harmful substances can cross
the placenta to the fetus and affect development.
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7 Reproduction
The processes of birth can be summarised by students, using photographs

and diagrams as illustration and alongside a flow chart that shows the
main stages of labour. Describe how the newborn baby obtains nutrients
and oxygen vital for survival and growth. The many excellent videos and
photographs that are available should always be used with care, to avoid
embarrassing or distressing those students who may find that some
sequences make them feel squeamish or faint. Always be sensitive, where
pregnancy and birth are concerned, to their impact on young people and their
families (for example, adoption, miscarriage or neonatal death).
Students should also be helped to understand the importance of breast milk
in providing antibodies to protect against infection from common micro-
organisms. Be aware that some cultures do not encourage breastfeeding.
Students could find out more about newborn reflexes, such as head turning
when a newborn’s cheek is touched.
Further activities
The whole topic of pregnancy, birth and neonatal care provides good
opportunities for students to get to know more about the medical, maternity
and welfare services provided by GPs and other parts of the NHS, as well as
parenting issues.
Careers
A school nurse, local midwife or health visitor may be helpful in providing your class
with accurate information and detail about Caesarean sections, induction of birth,
breech births, modern monitoring techniques, good-quality childcare and so on. In
advance of a session with a visitor, let students draw up a list of possible questions
they might ask.
You can help students prepare for talking with professionals about health-
related aspects with a range of suggestions. (Why are pregnant women
offered additional iron supplements? Why can obesity be a health problem
in pregnancy? Do fathers have to watch the birth? What is a good role for
a new father?) Students can find out more about the composition of breast
milk and the value of the colostrum that is produced immediately after birth
as the first feed, and appreciate why some women use bottles for feeding.
Social and ethical issues

Abortion is a particularly sensitive issue that needs careful handling, and
with due consideration for some religious and cultural groups. Again,
consultation of your school’s policy is essential here, as is discussion
with relevant staff. You should endeavour to remain neutral at all times
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7.5 Equipment notes
when presenting the debate and allow your students to try to work out for
themselves the position they may wish to adopt. Be particularly cautious
about how you might use the materials and resources produced by some of
the key pressure groups.
Animal clones can be introduced as genetically identical individuals formed
by taking a body cell, such as a skin cell, removing its nucleus and inserting
this into an egg cell that has had its
nucleus removed. The zygote that
is formed grows into a ball of cells,
as was the case in Dolly the sheep
– the first mammal to be cloned
from an adult cell. The ball of cells is
planted into the prepared ‘pregnant
uterus’ of the recipient. Ask students
to summarise the advantages and
potential issues of such processes in
animal breeding.
Science in context
Explain to students that the cloning of livestock embryos is an important technique
in animal breeding.
There have been claims that various research groups have cloned humans
but none of these have been substantiated and accepted by the scientific
community. From a technical perspective, cloning humans and other primates
is more difficult than cloning other mammals. One reason is that the spindle
proteins, which pull the chromosomes to opposite ends of the cell during
cell division, are located very close to the chromosomes in primate eggs.
Consequently, removal of the egg’s nucleus to make room for the donor
nucleus can unintentionally remove the spindle proteins, halting the cell
division process. Clearly, human cloning would raise huge ethical issues and
students may enjoy discussing these.
7.5 Equipment notes

Asexual reproduction in plants and animals
Bread mould cultures require moistened pieces of stale bread in dishes
exposed to the air for 24 hours. Keep the bread slightly moist to prevent it
drying out, and then keep in closed plastic bags. Ensure that students do not
open the bags.
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7 Reproduction
A cell suspension of actively growing yeast cells can be made at the bottom of
a small flask, using 8 g fresh baker’s yeast and 10 g glucose (or cane sugar),
made up to 200 cm3 with distilled water. Plug with cotton wool and leave in
a warm room (22 °C) for 20 minutes before use with the class. Always pre-
test culture conditions before the lesson to ensure that cell division is taking
place. In a small pipette, transfer one drop of the culture to a microscope slide
with a small amount of methylene blue stain and cover with a coverslip. Use
methylene blue for staining living cells as follows: 1 g methylene blue; 0.6 g
sodium chloride; 100 cm3 distilled water. Methylene blue is harmful.
Sexual reproduction in plants

A specially selected, mutant, rapid-cycling brassica provides a versatile and
easily maintained resource to develop students’ understanding of the life cycle
of a flowering plant in 4–6 weeks, when grown under a specially constructed
artificial light bank in the school laboratory. Its versatility lies in the opportunity
to study its life cycle at any time of the year; it can be ‘grown to order’ to obtain
germinating seedlings, pre-flowering or flowering plants for a particular
teaching day. There are numerous investigative ideas available for teachers
as part of extensive resource packs. Contact Science & Plants for Schools
(SAPS).
Starch agar plates are made up as follows: make a starch suspension with
10 g starch and 1 dm3 distilled water. To do this, mix a little of the starch with
cold water, bring the rest of the water to the boil and add the starch mixture to
the boiling water. To make up the iodine solution use 3 g iodine crystals and 6 g
potassium iodide. Dissolve the potassium iodide in 200 cm3 distilled water, add
the iodine crystals and make up to 1 dm3 with distilled water. Make up 24 hours
before it is to be used to allow the iodine to dissolve fully. Iodine crystals are
harmful; use gloves and eye protection when handling.
Sexual reproduction in animals

Using a scale of 1 : 200,
diameter 0.1 mm
students can make scaled,
two-dimensional models
of an egg and a sperm. To membrane
jelly coat
do this for the egg, draw
a circle with a diameter of cytoplasm
20 cm. For the sperm draw nucleus containing
a head of diameter 0.8 cm, genetic material
and overall length including

head of 10 cm. The actual
dimensions are indicated the head of the sperm has a diameter
on Figure 7.3. of 0.004 mm while the overall length is 0.05 mm
Figure 7.3 Relative sizes of the human egg and sperm
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7.6 Resources
7.6 Resources
Local organisations
AIDS support services
Department of genitourinary medicine (GUM)
Family planning clinic and/or young person’s clinic
Health promotion centre
Lesbian and gay communities resource centre
Rape crisis centre
National organisations
AVERT: information and education on HIV and AIDS: www.avert.org/
Brook: advice and information for under 25s within the UK on STIs/
contraception/relationships/pregnancy: www.brook.org.uk
Sex Education Forum: collaborative network, representing many organisations
in England, all involved directly or indirectly in the provision or support of sex and
relationships education (SRE). It provides SRE resources, web materials, and
training: www.sexeducationforum.org.uk
Websites
The SAPS website (www.saps.org.uk) has many valuable resources, including
a video clip showing the technique of cauliflower cloning. From the homepage,
use the search term ‘cauliflower cloning – tissue culture and micropropagation’.
YouTube has a video clip from ‘Earth Unplugged’ showing exploding
cucumbers. This is an excellent way to show seed dispersal by explosion:
www.youtube.com/watch?v=wOIHzl2h9a8
References and further reading

Callahan, G. N. (2009) Between XX and XY: Intersexuality and the Myth of Two
Sexes. Chicago: Chicago Review Press.
Cohut, M. (2018) The clitoris: What is there to know about this mystery organ?
MedicalNewsToday. Available at: www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/322235.
php
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7 Reproduction
Department for Education (DfE) (2019) Relationships Education, Relationships

and Sex Education (RSE) and Health Education. London: Department for
Education. Available online via the government website, www.gov.uk
Halstead, J. M. and Reiss, M. J. (2003) Values in Sex Education: From Principles
to Practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer.
Long, R. (2019) Relationships and Sex Education in Schools (England). London:
House of Commons Library. Available online from the website of the House of
Commons Library: https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/.
Reiss, M. J. (2018) Reproduction and sex education. In: Kampourakis, K. and
Reiss, M. J. (eds) Teaching Biology in Schools: Global Research, Issues, and
Trends. New York: Routledge, pp. 87–98.
Reiss, M. J. (2019) Thinking like a fox: Queering the science classroom when
teaching about sex and sexuality. In: STEM of Desire: Queer Theories and
Science Education, Letts, W. and Fifield, S. (eds). Leiden: Brill | Sense, pp.
255–267.
Stanger-Hall, K. F. and Hall, D. W. (2011) Abstinence-only education and teen
pregnancy rates: why we need comprehensive sex education in the U.S. PLoS
ONE, 6 (10), e24658.
Yip, A. K.-T. and Page, S.-J. (2013) Religious and Sexual Identities: A Multi-faith
Exploration of Young Adults. Farnham: Ashgate.
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8 Variation
Paul Davies and Neil Ingram
Topic overview
The differences that exist between living things are termed ‘biological
variation’, and this occupies a central part of how biologists think about the
living world. Variation is important to many broad areas of biology, from
the molecular level of how genes function to the diversity of species and the
vastness of geological time and evolution. This makes teaching and learning
about variation exciting but also potentially daunting for teachers and hard
for students to access. For example, some concepts are very abstract, while
others require students to bring together different knowledge from across the
curriculum in order to understand complex ideas properly.
Considering some of these challenges is important for teachers when thinking
about a teaching sequence and the approaches they will take in the classroom.
Central to this thinking is helping students make links between the abstract and
invisible nature of how genetics explains variation, including the structure and
function of DNA, and the observable features in nature. Students also need to
be able to explain variation in terms of genes and the environment interacting
together, often in ways that cannot be observed directly. Overarching all of
this is the complex language and specialist vocabulary used to talk about
inheritance and variation. Given these challenges, it is important to think about
how a route through the topic might best suit students.
It is probably most sensible to begin by considering what inheritance means
and what material is passed on from one generation to the next. This then
leads on to considering the nature of genes, how they function and their
relationship to the rest of the cell. Once that is understood, students can begin
to consider the types of variation that are observed in biology and reasons that
help to explain this. This leads on to thinking about the complexities of how
genes interact with the environment and how selection acts on populations
(see Chapter 9 Evolution). Finally, we come to the exciting developments to do
with humans controlling genetics for themselves (see Chapter 12 Microbiology
and biotechnology).
Most of this chapter concentrates on variation in eukaryotic organisms, that
is organisms which have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
This reflects the content of the school curriculum, where most of the discussion
of variation is focused on animals and plants. Prokaryotic organisms (those
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8 Variation
without membrane-bound organelles) are only briefly considered here.

However, they do have an important role in biotechnology, which is the focus of
Chapter 12.
The topic of variation is both wonderful and mysterious to students and provides
opportunities to explore complex biology and the history of science and
introduces students to an array of scientists, all of whom have interesting stories
to tell. We begin this journey by considering what is meant by inheritance and
the concept of the gene.
8.1 Inheritance and genes

All students will have a rudimentary understanding that offspring ‘get’
something from their parents which explains why they look similar. It can be
useful to introduce this topic by considering some historical ideas to explain
this phenomenon: for example, the idea of blending where it was believed that
organisms arose from a mixing of their parents where parental features were
‘averaged out’. It is also fruitful to provide a quick review of arguments for and
against species being fixed entities. The concept of the gene is a complex one
and something which is not easy to pin down. However, there are useful ways
of building up the idea of the gene that students can then use when they have
to think about how genes move between generations and their roles in protein
production. Increasingly, the term ‘genome’ is used for the genetic material
inside the nucleus. This means that the term ‘gene’ can be restricted to those
sections of DNA coding for proteins. This is discussed more fully in Section 8.4.
A teaching sequence
Developing a coherent teaching sequence is essential for a complex,
multi-faceted topic such as variation and inheritance. An engaging way to
start students thinking about inheritance is to play the game of matching
baby photographs to students. Students could bring in physical or digital
photographs, which can be collated and numbered on one sheet of A3 paper,
and the activity run as a quiz. It is important to note the need for sensitivity
surrounding students having access to photographs and so the activity is
best run as an optional one. It can, of course, be fun for the teacher to include
their own baby photograph. The activity prompts conversations about why we
look the way that we do and how we can explain how specific features might
be observed throughout several generations in a family. This second point
is useful for challenging the idea of ‘blending’. You can look like a mixture of
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8.1 Inheritance and genes
both parents, with your ‘mother’s eyes’ and your ‘father’s nose’, for example.
It is often more complex than this, of course. You can be the average of the
heights of your two parents and sometimes certain features seem to ‘skip’ a
generation. Even so, inheritance patterns are often discrete and predictable,
and are caused by units. These ‘units’ are what we call genes and what the
father of modern genetics, Gregor Mendel, termed ‘factors’; see the section on
‘Mendel and single gene inheritance’ later in the chapter.
Scientific literacy
When considering genes, it is important that teachers focus on simple definitions
and explanations so that students can start to build up a model of both their
structures and functions.
A useful way to build up these ideas is to define genes as:

➜ being made of DNA
➜ having a specific sequence of DNA bases which provides a code for
building specific proteins
➜ being found on chromosomes in a specific place or locus
➜ being found as different versions called alleles which have slightly different
DNA base sequences.
Getting students to engage with these ideas is a very useful starting point
because it helps them recognise genes as a set of discrete instructions which
make things happen in living things. This is especially important because
research shows that students struggle to conceptualise genes as entities,
despite careful teaching (Venville and Donovan, 2008).
One of the problems is that teachers do not give students the opportunity
to build mental models of the hierarchy of connections between DNA,
chromosomes and genes, before they consider how genes work. Physical
models can be a useful way of conceptualising the relationships. Everyday
items like modelling clay, pipe cleaners and coloured counters can represent
DNA, chromosomes and genes. Students should be encouraged to say how
their models fit with biological structure and how their models are not like
the biological structure. Often the models represent only one feature of the
structure. A token representing a gene, for example, shows that the gene is a
single discrete factor, but it says nothing about the relationship of that gene to
the DNA molecule. Evaluation of models is always a good activity in helping
students understand the usefulness and limitations of such models in relation
to the biology structure or concept.
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8 Variation
What are genes?

Students sometimes think that genes are only found in ‘complex’ living things
and that there is a clear relationship between complexity of an organism and
the number of genes and chromosomes it has.
Comparing chromosome number in different

KEY ACTIVITY
organisms
A useful way of introducing the idea of all living things having genes is to ask students to
research the number of chromosomes in a list of organisms which you will provide.
This type of activity works best when students make predictions before they carry
out research, providing reasons for their predictions. It also opens up discussion about
whether viruses are living organisms, and the presence of genes in living things as
providing evidence for the genetic relationships between living things. Students might
also be surprised by the results, and this can open up discussion about how humans view
themselves as being genetically related to other species.
Table 8.1 Chromosome number in some common organisms
Does this organism contain
Organism Does this organism contain genes?
chromosomes and, if so, how many?
lion yes 38
Euglena yes 45
banana yes 33
measles virus yes 0
Salmonella yes 1
yeast yes 16
Where do we find genes?

Having explored the idea of genes as being universal in the living world, it
makes sense to consider where genes are found: in eukaryotic organisms
this is mainly inside the nucleus. Drawing a scale bar and placing the names
of structures in their relevant positions can support students in getting some
appreciation of scale and the relationship between the cell and genes. A
suitable hierarchy is:
➜ the cell
➜ the nucleus
➜ chromosome
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8.2 The discovery of DNA
➜ DNA molecule
➜ section of DNA (gene).
This type of activity can be developed by asking students to produce a
diagram of the cell and the nucleus and then imagining the order of hierarchy
of size inside the nucleus to reveal the size and relationship between
chromosomes, DNA and genes as sections of DNA, such as Figure 8.1.
cell
DNA
nucleus
genome
gene
C G
chromosome A T
T
G C
T A
A T
Figure 8.1 Diagram showing the hierarchical organisation of the cell, nucleus, chromosome, DNA and gene
This is also an opportunity to encourage students to think about how DNA is

packed tightly into the nucleus. Taking a metre length of cotton and asking
students to organise it into a structure that would fit inside a very small space
is a good way of encouraging students to visualise the coiling of DNA into
chromosomes. A demonstration of the teacher coiling up a long piece of rope
has a similar effect. Observation of prepared microscope slides of various
stages of mitosis is also helpful in thinking about the relationship between the
relative sizes of DNA molecules and chromosomes.
8.2 The discovery of DNA

Students enjoy listening to stories in science and it can help them to both
make sense of complex scientific ideas and see science as an endeavour
which involves the development of ideas, and appreciate the impact of
different personalities involved in scientific discovery.
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8 Variation
Science in context
The story of the elucidation of the structure of DNA provides an excellent
opportunity for students to learn something about the history of science.
The story of how the structure of DNA was determined is well known and well
documented and opens up discussion about how scientists collaborate and the
‘jigsaw’ nature of scientific discoveries. It forces students to consider science as
a profession and not some romantic image that they may have about scientists
searching for truths in an altruistic way. It also questions the role and position that
women have played in science and how history remembers the victors of scientific
discovery. Exploring these ideas with students is always useful. The resource section
at the end of the chapter contains a DNA story task which would support this kind
of activity.
The key aspects of the story of the discovery of DNA are detailed below.
➜ Scientists had been working on a model of the structure of DNA for a long
time.
➜ Different groups of scientists had different ideas about the structure of DNA,
despite having access to the same evidence.
➜ In the early 1950s, Francis Crick and James Watson, working at the
University of Cambridge, were interested in the heritability of the molecule,
and this drove their desire to work out its structure.
➜ Maurice Wilkins and Rosalind Franklin, working at King’s College London,
were working on the crystal structure of DNA and were interested in its
shape.
➜ Watson was friends with Wilkins and visited his laboratory to discuss their
ideas about the structure of DNA. During these discussions, Wilkins showed
Watson a photograph that Franklin and her colleague Raymond Gosling
had taken which revealed specific details about the structure of DNA. Using
this information, Crick and Watson were able to complete their model.
➜ Crick and Watson published their model of DNA in the scientific journal
Nature in 1953.
➜ Controversy surrounded how Crick and Watson gained access to Franklin
and Gosling’s work, including the famous photograph and unpublished
research papers.
➜ In 1962, Crick, Watson and Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for their ground-breaking work.
➜ Franklin died in 1958 and was unable to receive a Nobel Prize for her work.
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8.3 Variation within and between species

Students have a good sense that variation exists within species, and certainly
within their own species. Students are ‘natural taxonomists’ in the sense that
they readily recognise that living things are organised into groups. However, they
lack much understanding about the explanation for these differences, and this is
where thoughtful introduction about variation with and between species can be
very powerful.
Having explored the discovery of the structure of DNA, students can be
reminded that DNA is found in all living things. This can then be expanded to
consider the question that if all living things contain DNA, what accounts for
the differences within and between species? This is at the heart of variation
and is a useful inquiry question to form the basis for subsequent teaching and
learning.
Understanding that living things show variation that allows humans to classify
them into groups with shared characteristics requires knowledge from
different areas of biology: taxonomy and classification, and the genetics of
variations. The former is dealt with in Chapter 10; the latter is addressed here.
Once students have understood that genetic information is coded within DNA
and that it can be passed on to successive generations, they can consider that
differences in genes explain variation between species. It makes sense to start
thinking about this idea by exploring differences between species. Some of
these differences are obvious (such as fur of many mammals versus feathers
of birds); others are much more subtle. If students have a good understanding
of the relationship between genes and characteristics, they can appreciate that
many differences between individuals of different species will be influenced by
genes.
This then naturally leads on to a consideration of how variation within a
species can be explained. Although students sometimes struggle with
understanding the notion of alternative versions of genes, often by conflating
genes and alleles (see below), they are well placed to explain that the genes
within the same species must be able to function differently if we are to be
able to explain differences in characteristics such as eye colour, for example.
Differences between species

A species is defined as a group of organisms that are able to reproduce with
each other successfully to produce fertile offspring. The reason that there
are distinct species is because they do not mix their genes, and are therefore
genetically isolated.
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8 Variation
Comparing the genomes of different species

KEY ACTIVITIES
To begin to explore this idea, students could be asked to research the percentage
similarity between the genomes of closely and less closely related species. Completing
a table such as Table 8.2 will reveal to students that more closely related species share
more DNA in common.
Table 8.2 Exploring the percentage of DNA that various organisms share with humans
Organism Percentage of DNA shared with humans
chimpanzee 99
cat 90
dog 84
cow 80
mouse 73
zebrafish 73
platypus 68
banana 60
chicken 60
fruit fly 60
yeast 26
mustard 15
Students could also be asked to make predictions about the percentage of DNA each
organism shares with humans; they might be surprised by the data. This can then open
out into a discussion about evolutionary relationships and why analysis of genes might
be a more appropriate method of building a tree of life than observable characteristics.
The Tree of Life website (see Resources) has a useful tool for exploring these patterns.
Versions of genes
Having considered that there are different genes in different species,
students can be introduced to the idea that there are differences between
the versions of genes within a species; these different versions are called
alleles. Understanding that genes have different alleles can be challenging for
students, with research showing that they find it hard to make links between
how the alternative version of a particular gene might actually differ in
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structure and how this gives rise to the cell or organism appearing different.
Understanding alleles as alternative versions of genes is really important, as
this helps explain variation within a species and is therefore central to the topic
of variation.
A useful way to introduce students to this idea is to collect data from the class
about variation that they exhibit which is caused by genes. While humans in
general have multiple genes associated with a characteristic, there are a few
that can be looked at in terms of single gene traits. Relevant characteristics
could include eye colour, hair colour, attachment of earlobes, straightness
of thumbs and the presence of a widow’s peak hairline. Asking students to
sort these features into categories can be an interesting way of opening up
discussion about the binary nature of the way that genes sometimes work (also
see below about how this discussion extends into thinking about how multiple
genes and the environment affect the way that people’s characteristics vary.
Variation within a species

Having collected data on variation within a class for characteristics that are
controlled by genes, students are well placed to explore how these types of
data can be represented and investigate some of the different types of variation
exhibited within species. Many characteristics are determined by a combination
of genes and the environment. Take, for example, height in humans: there
are genes which control the length of bones and muscles and the structure of
tendons and other body tissue. However, inheriting alleles that build tall bodies
is not enough for an individual to achieve their full, potential height. Ideas about
diet, exercise, absence of disease and general health are also important in
determining the final height that an individual reaches (see page 202).
Students will be familiar with the idea that they look different from one another and
can be encouraged to make a list of characteristics which are straightforward to
measure which they think are controlled by both genes and the environment (for
example, height, hand span, personality, skill at playing a musical instrument).
They can also be asked to make predictions on the extent to which genes or the
environment influence such characteristics. The aspect of this type of activity that
students will find most challenging is how to collect and present these data.
Students find it hard to visualise how numbers can be organised in ways that
allow them to make meaning from these numbers. There are two ways of
approaching this problem as a teacher: the first is through direct instruction
and the second is through exploration. Research does not support either
approach as being better but the latter has been shown to help students make
more meaning in their learning (Wong, 2017, or Boohan and Needham, 2016).
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8 Variation
Investigating variation
KEY ACTIVITY
An exploration approach would involve first getting students to collect data about
themselves (or by providing them with secondary data). The data should cover
characteristics which are traditionally thought to be controlled by genes alone (such as
eye colour and earlobe shape) and characteristics where both genes and the environment
have influence (such as height and personality).
In principle, no characteristic can really be entirely controlled by genes or the
environment. All characteristics, to a greater or lesser extent, are produced by
interactions between genes and the environment (see the section on ‘How the genome
interacts with the environment’ later in this chapter). In practice, some characteristics
are so stable across a wide range of environments that any environmental effects can
be ignored, and they appear to be entirely controlled by genes. This is particularly true
for the characteristics studied by the early geneticists (see the section on ‘Mendel and
single gene inheritance’). It is important, especially in the later stages of the course, that
students understand that the production of most characteristics is dependent on many
different interactions between the genome (the complete set of genes in an organism)
and the environment.
Maths
Students can be asked to organise the data in as many ways as they can. This will
open discussion about the appropriateness of charts and graphs and how the choice
of data presentation and manipulation affects the meaning attached to it.
This will help students to realise that they should pay attention to the frequency of
particular characteristics. For those controlled by genes alone this is straightforward;
individuals displaying the different characteristics can be counted and plotted in bar
charts. These types of data are described as being discontinuous because they fall into
discrete categories (for example, blue, brown, green eye colour). It is more challenging
to organise data where characteristics show a range of values; this is called continuous
variation and includes height. Here students should be guided to produce histograms.
In biology, simple histograms are required; they should be direct counts and with
equal-sized categories. Histograms of this type are easily interpreted by students
and, for the higher-attaining students, this can lead to conversations about
distribution patterns. Whichever approaches are taken when teaching students
about constructing and using charts and graphs, it is important to allow enough
time for this to be taught explicitly. See Boohan and Needham (2016) for further
ideas about teaching mathematical skills in the science classroom.
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8.4 The genome
Cross-disciplinary
A discussion with colleagues in both the mathematics and geography departments
will be useful to discover when these types of chart are taught and the approaches
that are taken. It is likely that students will find it hard to construct histograms if
your approaches to teaching about them, and your use of them, are significantly
different to other subjects. The two most common differences are that in
mathematics, students might produce histograms with unequal-sized categories
and in geography they might be required to complete frequency histograms.
8.4 The genome

During this century, the term ‘genome’ has become popularised, and it is
likely that students will have an awareness of its meaning, although there is
a real possibility of misconceptions. The term ‘genome’ was first used in 1920
to describe the genetic information in a haploid set of chromosomes, such
as those found in a human sperm or egg. Thus, an individual would have
‘paternal’ and ‘maternal’ genomes, inherited from the father and mother.
From its inception, the term combined the idea of the physical material of
chromosomes with the idea of genetic information. These days, the term
is used to describe all of the genetic information an organism has, while
retaining the idea that it can also describe the complete set of chromosomes
in a cell.
In humans, only about 1% of the genetic information in a genome are ‘genes’
coding for the amino acids in proteins, while much of the remaining 99%
regulates when and how the protein-coding regions are used. Thus, when
talking in general about an organism’s chromosomes or genetic information,
it is probably better to use the term ‘genome’. It can be introduced in the early
stages of the course, when students observe the nuclei of their cheek cells, by
saying that the nucleus contains the genome.
Although most of the genome is found in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells, small
amounts are also found in mitochondria and in the chloroplasts of some plant
cells. In bacteria, the cytoplasm contains the genome, which consists of a
single large circular loop of DNA and, sometimes, smaller loops of DNA called
plasmids.
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8 Variation
Scientific literacy
Strictly, the term ‘gene’ ought to be limited to specifically named regions of DNA
that code for proteins, and the term ‘genotype’ to a description of the factors in a
Mendelian analysis (see the section on ‘Mendel and single gene inheritance’ later in
the chapter). Encouraging the use of the term ‘genome’ would also prepare students
for a future in which genomics will increasingly be used in medical diagnoses.
It is possible to extract the genomes from the nuclei of plant cells (such as
onion, strawberries, kiwi or bananas) as DNA, using only salt, detergent and
ethanol, and this can be a key part of education for students in the lower part
of secondary education.
How the genome interacts with the

environment
The majority of the genome of eukaryotic cells resides within the nucleus of a
cell, which has a double membrane with pores connecting the genome with
the rest of the cell. It is a common misconception that the nucleus is the ‘brain’
of the cell or that genes ‘control’ cell activity. Contemporary biologists no
longer think in such a way and genes are now seen as being one component
of a wider functioning genome. There are continual two-way interactions
between the cell and its nucleus, involving chemicals that act as messengers.
The proteins that a cell makes can be determined by the chemical
environment in and around the cell.
The process illustrated in Figure 8.2 continues as long as the levels of glucose
in the blood stay high, stopping only when the level of glucose returns to
normal: an example of negative feedback.
The ‘gene for insulin production’ is the DNA sequence containing the
information needed to allow the ribosome to build the insulin molecule, but
many other parts of the genome are also involved in the regulation of the
gene and the production of ribosomes, the cell membrane and the signalling
mechanisms. Protein production is an interaction between the genome and
the physio-chemical environment in and around the cell. This is what biologist
Conrad Waddington called the ‘epigenetic landscape’, a useful metaphor for
describing these metabolic pathways. At its simplest, the prefix ‘epi-‘ means
‘above’ or ‘around’ and refers to the actions of chemical messengers that
increase or decrease the production of protein by the genome. In advanced
studies, students will encounter more specific examples of the term, but this
general definition will provide a sound introduction for future elaboration.
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8.4 The genome
Beta cells in the islets regions of the pancreas produce the protein insulin
only when the concentration of glucose in the blood rises above normal.
This is detected by the surface membrane of a beta call, which triggers

a sequence of chemical changes within the cell.
This leads to a DNA sequence on chromosome 11 of the genome

being copied into mRNA.
This mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters a ribosome in the cytoplasm.
The information in the mRNA molecule is used to assemble amino acids

to form the protein insulin, which is exported from the cell into the blood.
Figure 8.2 A flow chart illustrating the process by which insulin is produced
Mendel and single gene inheritance

Traditionally, genetics is the study of variation: how variation arises and
how it is transmitted from parents to offspring. It has largely grown from the
pioneering work of Austrian monk Gregor Mendel. Human genomics is a
new science that investigates the effects of variation of individual DNA bases
on the expression of characteristics in different people. It is also built on the
principles established by Mendel. Mendel is properly considered to be the
father of genetics and the grandfather of genomics. This section considers
these principles, which are essential to a full understanding of genetics and
genomics.
First, Mendel was a careful experimentalist. His breeding experiments with
pea plants selected seven contrasting characters which were inherited
independently; he ensured that his parental generations were pure breeding
(they only produced offspring of the parental type when self-pollinated).
He also grew large numbers of offspring in his experiments (28 000 in total
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8 Variation
between 1856 and 1863). He, and his assistants, counted and recorded the
characteristics of the plants in the first and second generations. Without this
careful and systematic approach to his study, the experimental data would
have been meaningless.
Secondly, Mendel built a theoretical model to ‘explain’ his data. This
was a tool for thinking with, and it is still used as a basis for thinking
about genetics and genomics. It has a specialist vocabulary, which can
be bewildering for students when they first encounter it. The observable
characteristic being studied is called the ‘phenotype’. The term ‘genotype’
describes the particular alleles of a gene that are inherited from parents to
offspring affecting the characteristic.
We will follow the inheritance of a single gene for stem length with two alleles:
A (tall; the dominant characteristic) and a (short; the recessive characteristic).
Mendel called these alleles ‘factors’.
Mendel’s principles are described below:
➜ The parents of Mendel’s crosses were chosen to have pairs of contrasting
factors, AA and aa. The factors in each parent were the same. Later
geneticists called these factors ‘homozygous’ alleles.
➜ This parental cross is AA (female parent) with aa (male parent).
➜ Each gamete produced by these parents contains only one of their factors.
➜ Gametes combine at random at fertilisation. An offspring receives one
factor from the female parent (A, via the female gamete) and one factor from
the male parent (a, via the male gamete).
➜ Mendel called the offspring of the parental cross the filial generations,
abbreviated to F. Thus, the F1 generation contains the offspring of the
parental cross and the F2 generation contains the second generation.
➜ The parents in the F1 generation will have different factors, because they
have inherited A and a and have the genotype Aa. Later geneticists called
these factors ‘heterozygous’ alleles.
➜ The gametes of an F1 organism will contain only one of the two factors,
which will be produced in equal proportions ( 1 A and 1 a). Each male
2 2
gamete has an equal chance of fertilising any female gamete.
The English geneticist Punnett (the world’s first professor of genetics, at
Cambridge University) expressed these relationships in terms of a square,
which now bears his name (Table 8.3). The frequencies of the genotypes in the
F2 generation are obtained by:
➜ multiplying together the frequencies of the female and male gametes for
each possible fertilisation
➜ adding together the frequencies of the heterozygotes, Aa
➜ giving a total F2 genotype frequency of 1AA : 1Aa : 1aa.
4 2 4
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8.4 The genome
Table 8.3 A Punnett square showing genotype frequencies for an F2 generation for two alleles, A and a
Female gametes
Male gametes 1A 1a
2 2
1 1AA 1Aa
2A 4 4
1a 1Aa 1aa
2 4 4
The phenotypes of the F2 generation show that the recessive character (short
stem) is hidden if there is a dominant factor present. Since AA and Aa both
contain an ‘A’ factor, they express the tall-stem phenotype. Only aa expresses
the recessive short-stem phenotype. This means that the F2 phenotypic
frequencies are three tall stems : one short stem.
Mendel’s legacies are a rigorous experimental approach and a new way of
thinking, which was largely confirmed by later biologists. Mendel’s contrasting
characters became identified with genes and his ‘factors’ became alleles of
those genes, which were shown to be located on chromosomes at identical
(homologous) positions. Pairs of chromosomes are segregated at random
during meiosis.
This led to the firm conception of characteristics being ‘controlled’ by genes,
neatly contained, like ‘beads’ on a chromosome necklace. This conception is
being challenged by genomics and is now regarded as an oversimplification.
Mendel’s stem length character is a good example of this oversimplification. In
peas, the difference between the tall and short stem phenotypes is associated
with a single base change from G to A in the allele of the LE gene on
chromosome 4. This leads to a change in the amino acid sequence (alanine to
threonine) of the active site of an enzyme, which disrupts its normal function.
This change prevents the synthesis of gibberellin, a major plant hormone that
leads to the growth of stems. Thus, homozygotes for the mutant allele have
short stems. The recessive alleles exert such a large effect by disrupting the
normal growth of the plant. Many single genes with major effects often work by
disrupting the normal processes of metabolism.
Breeding experiments, like Mendel’s, are designed to discover the genetic
differences between the parents for a character. In the case of stem length,
a DNA base difference acted as the factor which was inherited from parents
through to the F2 generation. The genetic similarities between the parents,
which are considerable, could not be studied in this way. Thus, it is a
misconception to say that stem length is controlled by a single gene, since the
whole of the genome is involved in the production of both tall and short stems.
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8 Variation
Science in context
Mendel’s model of inheritance can be explored using card games. The cards are
the ‘alleles’ of genes in gametes that can be shuffled and combined in pairs. This
represents the random process of fertilisation. Genotype cards can be linked with
the appropriate phenotype card. Students can repeat this numerous times to
produce values for the genotype frequencies for the next generation.
Variation in living material can be represented by growing genetic seeds of

parent, F1 and F2 generations (such as tomatoes or rapid-cycling brassicas)
and using model organisms such as vestigial-winged and long-winged fruit
flies. These can all be purchased from commercial suppliers, such as Philip
Harris, SAPS or Blades Biological Ltd, in the UK.
8.5 Sex determination in humans

Punnett squares can show how chromosomes can be transmitted from parents
to offspring. In the following example, the factors being inherited are the
mammalian sex chromosomes, X and Y. Females have XX chromosomes and
males have XY chromosomes.
The Punnett square in Table 8.4 shows how the balance of sexes is
maintained at 1 : 1 in each generation. Females produce eggs containing an X
chromosome; males produce two kinds of sperm,
1 carry the X chromosome and 1 carry the Y chromosome. The frequency of
2 2
the offspring of the cross being either biologically male or biologically female
is obtained by:
➜ multiplying the individual gamete frequencies together
➜ adding together the XX frequencies and the XY frequencies.
Maths
Punnett squares are a good opportunity to cover both fractions and percentages
with students, as well as probability.
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8.5 Sex determination in humans
Table 8.4 A Punnett square showing how to calculate the frequencies of biological males and biological females in the
next generation.
Female eggs
Male sperm
1 1
2 X 2 X
1 1
4XX 4XX
1
2 X
1 1
1 4
XY 4
XY
2 Y
The probability of a biologically female child being born is 1, the same as

2
the probability of producing a biologically male child. Statistically speaking,
each fertilisation is an independent event, so the probability of producing a
sequence of two female children is the probability of producing each child
independently, multiplied together, i.e. 1 × 1 = 1.
2 2 4
In humans, the sex chromosomes, X and Y, are very different in appearance.
The X chromosome is larger, with about 800 protein-coding genes, while the
Y chromosome only has about 70. The Y chromosome contains the gene
SRY, which triggers male sexual development. The protein produced from
the information on SRY is used to activate the genomes of the cells that will
develop into testes, to produce the hormone testosterone, about 6–8 weeks
after conception.
This topic should be taught with sensitivity. A person’s biological sex (being
male or female) is not necessarily the same as the gender that a person
perceives themselves to be. The presence of a Y chromosome does not
always stimulate the production of male genitalia and secondary sexual
characteristics. Gender is a complex character, which is partially socially
constructed.
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8 Variation
You may want to refer to your school policies to ensure you understand how
your school requires you to discuss issues of gender.
Science in context
Genetic cards can be developed to allow students to experience the randomness
of the fertilisation of the gametes. This time the cards show X or Y chromosomes,
rather than alleles.
Some diseases, such as haemophilia, result from inherited recessive alleles

on the X chromosome (Xh). These alleles have different patterns of inheritance
from the tall- and short-stem plant example in the previous section. Because
male children only have one X chromosome, a recessive allele on that
chromosome will always be expressed (XhY). This means there is a greater
frequency of haemophilia in male children than female children. Students can
be encouraged to consider why haemophiliac female children are uncommon.
Science in context
The symptoms of haemophilia are caused by the failure to produce a factor
essential for blood clotting (factor VIII). Queen Victoria was heterozygous for the
haemophilia allele (XhXH) and one of her sons (Leopold) died aged 30 from bleeding
after a fall.
It is known that the haemophilia allele spread through her descendants into the
royal families of Spain, Germany and Russia. The impact of haemophilia on the
Romanovs, the last generation of Russian czars, is well documented and could make
a fascinating extension activity for students.
8.6 Genomics and medicine

Genomics reveals the DNA base sequence of our genomes. At present,
genetic tests only sample parts of our genomes but, as laboratory costs fall,
whole genome sequences will become routinely available in a few years’ time.
Genome sequencing allows scientists to develop tests for diseases that have a
genetic basis.
Cystic fibrosis, for example, is caused by DNA base changes (mutations) in the
CFTR gene, which prevent the CFTR protein from transporting chloride across
cell membranes. The most common CF allele is DeltaF508, which deletes
a single amino acid, phenylalanine, from the CFTR protein, preventing its
successful production. People will develop cystic fibrosis if they have two faulty
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8.6 Genomics and medicine
copies of the gene, because these CF alleles are recessive. A genetic test for
the DeltaF508 allele will show whether a person has copies of the recessive
allele.
There are three different combinations of alleles for the CF DeltaF508 allele,
which are shown in Table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Three possible combinations of alleles for cystic fibrosis; C = normal allele, c = CF DeltaF508 allele
Effects of alleles on the Can transmit CF allele to
CF alleles Combinations of alleles
phenotype the next generation?
CC homozygous dominant no symptoms of CF no
Cc heterozygous no symptoms of CF yes
cc homozygous recessive symptoms of CF yes
Scientific literacy
The terms ‘homozygous’ and ‘heterozygous’ refer to combinations of alleles. Strictly,
it is a misconception to apply the terms to organisms, although it is sometimes
done informally in conversation. We ought to discourage students from writing
‘she is a homozygote’ or ‘the heterozygous mice’, unless they refer explicitly to the
combination of alleles under consideration.
There are over 1500 different mutations in the CF gene known across the
world, and a test for DeltaF508 will detect only 70% of the potential cases of
CF. This can lead to a false-negative result, where a person can be given a
negative result for DeltaF508, but still have CF, because of the presence of two
other CF alleles. Likewise, some tests can give false-positive results, where
an allele is reported as being present when further, more rigorous, testing
shows that it is absent. Recent reports suggest that some consumer DNA
testing companies are reporting high levels of false-positive results, which is
concerning medical professionals.
Furthermore, the presence of homozygous alleles associated with disease
does not mean that the disease will necessarily develop. The APOE gene
is associated with the development of Alzheimer’s disease, and tests for its
alleles are becoming increasingly available. One of its alleles is called E4.
A person homozygous for two E4 alleles has about a four-fold increased
risk of developing the disease compared to other people. In addition to the
E4 alleles, certain lifestyle factors are also needed to trigger the condition,
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8 Variation
such as high cholesterol levels and blood pressure. The risk of developing
Alzheimer’s disease can be significantly reduced by healthy diet and
exercise.
Careers
Health professionals are increasingly using genetic tests as a basis for diagnosis.
They are looking to see how differences in DNA bases can make us susceptible to
diseases, such as cancer, and to adverse reactions to medicines and recreational
drugs. Testing of genomes is undertaken by teams of people with a range of
different expertise. Technicians undertaking the laboratory work are supported by
statisticians, software engineers, psychologists, doctors, nurses, counsellors and
administrators. The field is changing rapidly and could make an interesting career
for many students.
Science in context
This is the emergence of the era of personalised medicine, and teachers will need to
be sensitive to the backgrounds of the students in their classes. What is academic
for some will be deeply personal for others. Even so, students should be given the
opportunity to discuss and debate the ethics of these controversial issues. How do
people respond to the results of genetic testing? What is it like to receive false-
positive or false-negative outcomes? These can be followed up in news reports
(such as on the BBC News website).
8.7 Polygenic inheritance

Most characteristics are produced by the combined effects of many
different genes interacting with the environment. Each individual gene has
a small effect on the characteristic and the effects of hundreds of genes
might combine together. This is called polygenic inheritance. Polygenic
characteristics, such as height in humans, show continuous variation in a
population, as shown in Figure 8.3.
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8.7 Polygenic inheritance
50
Number of people 40
30
20
10
0
150 165 180 195
Height/cm
Figure 8.3 Height in humans is a characteristic controlled by many genes, resulting in continuous variation.
The heights of people in the population can be any value from the minimum
to the maximum. With large sample sizes, the frequency distribution becomes
close to a symmetrical ‘bell-shaped’ curve, called a normal distribution. Other
examples of normal distributions for human variation include body mass,
intelligence and blood pressure.
Maths
This is a good opportunity to discuss with students data analysis in relation
to distribution and how frequency charts and graphs can be used to represent
these data.
As described above, human height is a good teachable example of a

continuous characteristic. It is easy to collect frequency data from a class
to show continuous variation. Comparisons of the DNA bases in human
genomes suggest that there are about 700 DNA base-pair differences (called
‘genetic variants’) between people that affect height, distributed across
the whole genome. Most of these genetic variants have individually small
effects, typically changing height by less than a millimetre. A few genetic
variants seem to have a larger effect on the final height, each adding up to a
centimetre.
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8 Variation
Many of the genetic variants detected for height will be within protein-coding
genes, as we would expect, but some are not. They may be in the parts of
the genome that help the protein-coding regions to function correctly. This
suggests that scientists have yet to understand fully the influence of the whole
genome on a character like height.
Even so, the genetic variants discovered so far account for less than 30% of the
differences in height between people; other analyses suggest that up to 75% of
the differences between people can be explained by the wider genome. Current
genome analyses only detect differences in DNA bases between people.
There must be many DNA bases that are the same in everyone, that make a
contribution to human height, but which cannot be detected by current genome
analyses.
We also know from other studies that about 25% of the differences in height
are caused by environmental differences (such as nutrition, exercise and
healthcare) between people. In countries with malnourished diets, the
differences can be even larger.
One way to explore this in the classroom is to consider the average height
of male skeletons from different periods of history (Table 8.6). This is largely
based on the research of Steckel in 2004 (see References section, paper
published in Science Daily).
Table 8.6 Average male heights for Europeans during different periods of history
Time period Average male height/cm
9500bc 166
10th century 173
17th century 167
21st century 176
It is interesting to note that Stone Age hunter-gatherers were not much shorter
than humans living before the modern era. Assuming the genomes are more
or less unchanged across the ages, the fluctuations in height are thought
to be due to differences in the environment; in particular, the changes in
climate affecting agricultural productivity and food availability. The increase in
average height in the twenty-first century is thought to be due to a significant
increase in the quality and amount of food available.
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8.8 The importance of genetic variation in populations
8.8 The importance of genetic variation in

populations
The human genome contains about 3.2 billion pairs of nucleotide bases
and about 20 000 protein-coding genes. The pairs of bases are mostly the
same across everyone, and only about 0.6% of our genome varies from
person to person. That is a difference of about 20 000 000 base pairs between
two unrelated individuals. The figure is lower between family members.
In total there are currently about 350 million genetic variants known in
human genomes, although this figure is likely to rise as more genomes are
sequenced.
The similarities are associated with those structures and processes that keep
us alive and are maintained by natural selection. Mutations to DNA bases
linked to vital life processes are likely to be harmful and are selected against.
The differences are important, too. They form the genetic basis of the variation
we see between organisms, which enables natural selection to occur and
evolution to proceed. Populations of blue tits in England, for example, are
evolving slightly longer bills, which enable them to feed more easily from bird
feeders. Evolution is selecting from the genetic variation naturally present
in the population to respond to changes in the environment, as discussed in
Chapter 9.
The similarities in the structure of DNA and the genetic code across all living
organisms suggest that all life on Earth is descended from a single common
ancestor, thought to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago. Scientists think that
it contained about 355 protein-coding genes, which are the originators of the
genes of today’s organisms. All of the different forms of life that have existed
since then have evolved by natural selection acting on genomes, through
mutation, and subsequent modification.
The universal genetic code across all living organisms means that a human
protein-coding gene can be inserted into another organism, which would then
be able to produce a novel protein. This is the fundamental basis of much of
contemporary biotechnology.
One common misconception is that genes ‘belong’ to their donor organisms,
so that introducing a human gene into a bacterium makes it more human. This
is incorrect; the similarity of our genome with other organisms is significant
(human genomes share a 96% similarity with chimpanzees and 60% similarity
with bananas), and we share many genes with these organisms.
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8 Variation
8.9 Resources
Websites
General websites
This website provides a range of teaching resources focused on genomics:
www.genome.gov/about-genomics/teaching-tools
The OneZoom tree of life explorer allows students to explore the phylogenetic
relationships between different living things: www.onezoom.org
Websites about DNA

This activity on the STEM Learning website allows students to make jewellery
while learning about the base-pairing rules in DNA and the coding nature
of the molecule. From the STEM homepage, input the search term ‘DNA
sequence bracelets’: www.stem.org.uk
This is a paper-based activity where students make models of DNA.
It provides opportunities to discuss the advantages and limitations of
scientific models: www.yourgenome.org/activities/origami-dna
An activity where students extract DNA, and its associated proteins, from fruits:
www.genome.gov/Pages/Education/Modules/StrawberryExtractionInstructions.
pdf
Another modelling activity which explores the base-pairing rules of DNA: www.
yourgenome.org/activities/yummy-gummy-dna
This is a useful website for students to use when researching the discovery
and importance of DNA: https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/
Background information about DNA and its discovery: bbsrc.ukri.org/
documents/fullbooklet-pdf
These activities support role play of the central characters in the DNA story:
www.thinkib.net/files/biology/files/activity%20worksheets/genetics/NOS_
biologist-masks-activity--Rosalind-Franklin.pdf and www.thinkib.net/biology/
blog/18601/a-new-way-to-role-play
Websites about inheritance

This website contains materials that Mendel wrote, including his important
research paper: www.esp.org/foundations/genetics/classical/gm-65.pdf
These two websites explore inheritance through building a baby dragon:
concord.org/teaching-genetics/dragons and https://serendipstudio.org (search
‘dragon genetics’ from the homepage)
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8.9 Resources
This story-based card game from Philip Harris explores inheritance

in humans. Search ‘gene-packs b8r06974’ from the homepage:
www.philipharris.co.uk
Genetic seeds of parent, F1 and F2 generations (such as tomatoes or rapid-
cycling brassicas) can be purchased from SAPS (search ‘rapid cycling
brassica kits’ from the SAPS homepage, www.saps.org.uk), Philip Harris Ltd or
Blade’s Biological Ltd.
Other interesting websites

www.centreofthecell.org
www.genome.gov/
www.rsb.org.uk/get-involved/biology-for-all (search ‘genetics and DNA’)
www.scienceinschool.org
www.wellcomegenomecampus.org
www.yourgenome.org
References
Boohan, R. and Needham, R. (2016) The Language of Mathematics in Science.
Hatfield: The Association for Science Education.
Ingram, N. R. (2019) Genetics for tomorrow’s world. School Science Review,
101 (375), 26–30.
Ingram, N. R. (2020) Introducing the epigenetic landscape into middle years
biology teaching. School Science Review, 101 (377), 32–36.
Pearson, H. (2006) What is a gene? Nature, 441 (25th May), 399–401.
Science Daily (2004) Men from early Middle Ages were nearly as tall as modern
people. Available at: www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/09/040902090552.htm
Venville, G. and Donovan, J. (2008) How pupils use a model for abstract
concepts in genetics. Journal of Biological Education, 43 (1), 6–14.
Wong, V. (2017) Variation in graphing practices between mathematics and
science: Implications for science teaching. School Science Review, 98 (365),
109–115.
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8 Variation
Further reading
Albright, R. N. (2014) The Double Helix Structure of DNA: James Watson,
Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin (Revolutionary
Discoveries of Scientific Pioneers). New York: Rosen Classroom.
Boerwinkel, D. J., Yarden, A. and Waarlo, A. J. (2017) Reaching a consensus
on the definition of genetic literacy that is required from a twenty-first-
century citizen. Science & Education, 26 (10), 1087–1114.
Knippels, M. C. and Waarlo, A. (2018) Development, uptake, and wider
applicability of the yo-yo strategy in biology education research: A
reappraisal. Education Sciences, 8 (3), 129.
Schultz, M., Cannon, Z. and Cannon, K. (2009) The Stuff of Life: A Graphic
Guide to Genetics and DNA. New York: Hill and Wang.
Watson, J. (2003) DNA: The Secret of Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
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9 Evolution
Alistair Moore and Chris Graham
Topic overview
Evolution by natural selection is not only a big idea of biology education, it
is a unifying concept in the biological sciences. As the Russian geneticist
and evolutionary biologist Theodosius Dobzhansky famously asserted
in 1973, ‘nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution’.
Understanding the theory of evolution by natural selection enriches our
understanding of the vast array of forms and behaviours that we see in
nature – including the seemingly miraculous – as adaptations that exist
and proliferate because they enable living creatures to survive, reproduce
and thrive. It helps to persuade us that the structure and function of every
biological entity and system at every level of organisation, from biological
molecules to ecosystems, has been powerfully honed by selection over
countless generations, resulting in the incredible biodiversity we see today. It
enhances our ability to explain the connectedness, similarities and differences
between species, and challenges our perspective on our place in nature.
Crucially, it helps us understand crises of our time, including the rise of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria and the disappearance of species unable to adapt
quickly enough to survive rapid climate change. Teaching and learning about
evolution need not be a daunting prospect; it is a chance to inspire students
with the tremendous explanatory power of science.
This chapter starts by discussing the teaching and learning of evolution by
natural selection. It then discusses how the topic of adaptation can be used to
reinforce and assess students’ understanding of evolution by natural selection
and the language they use in their explanations. It also discusses how the
teaching of the evolution of adaptations can be used to help students develop
their scientific thinking skills.
9.1 Evolution by natural selection

At the beginning of secondary education at about age 11–12, students are
likely to have a wide variety of ideas about evolution. While some of these
may be derived from earlier formal teaching, others will have come from
everyday life – from sources as varied as museums, natural history television
programmes, family members, religious teachings, and extraordinary
tales of mutation and evolution in comic books and movies. Some students
may be feeling understandably conflicted, as not all of these sources will
offer accounts that are consistent with one another or with the scientific
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9 Evolution
explanations presented in biology lessons. Many students will be familiar with

fossils, ‘survival of the fittest’ and perhaps even the name Darwin, but may
not appreciate their relevance to the scientific explanation for the evolution of
species.
From prior learning, students should know that:
➜ there is a great diversity of organisms with many similarities and differences
between them
➜ organisms reproduce to produce offspring that are similar, but not identical
➜ organisms have features (adaptations) that enable them to live in habitats
that provide for their needs
➜ fossils provide information about organisms that lived a long time ago,
including many that are now extinct.
Some teaching programmes specify that students should be taught explicitly
about evolution before their secondary schooling, but the breadth and depth of
treatment is likely to vary.
A teaching sequence
Put simply, the characteristics of all species change (evolve) over time, and
the theory of evolution by natural selection is a widely accepted scientific
explanation for this. Secondary biology education should aim to develop
students’ appreciation of natural selection as a scientific explanation. Students
should be provided with opportunities to explore evidence from which the theory
was developed, including: differences between fossils and extant species; the
effects that selective breeding has had on the characteristics of particular plants
and animals; and differences between populations living in different conditions.
Exploring the scientific explanation for evolution is an excellent opportunity
to explore the work of scientists, including Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel
Wallace, and appreciate how scientific explanations are developed and modified
using evidence.
From their education at primary level, and from everyday experiences, students
at age 11 should appreciate that there is a vast variety of living things on
Earth, including many species that are now extinct. They may also have been
introduced to the idea that the characteristics of species change over time, and
that this is called evolution.
Secondary education should draw together and develop the key ideas
that biologists use to explain evolution, including variation (see Chapter 8),
competition, fitness and natural selection. These ideas will enable students to
develop their understanding of classification and speciation (see Chapter 10).
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At first, the key ideas can be explored at trait (phenotype) level; by age 16, more
able students should be able to explain variation and natural selection at the
genetic level, including the idea that alleles associated with advantageous traits
become more common in populations over generations due to natural selection.
Students who progress to further study of biology after age 16 may begin
to develop their understanding of population genetics and the effects of
selection, gene flow and genetic drift on allelic frequencies. They may study
different types of selection (stabilising, directional and disruptive), speciation
(such as allopatric and sympatric), co-evolution and symbiosis. They may
begin to explore the complexities of heritable variation using ideas from
genomics and epigenetics.
It is difficult to find consensus within the science education research literature
on the best sequence for developing students’ understanding of evolution by
natural selection, but one possible sequence is outlined below.
Fossils: evidence that species change over time

The characteristics of all species change over time (or, more precisely, over
generations); a process called evolution. This is an uncontroversial fact for
which there is ample evidence, including fossils that can be examined during
lessons in the lab and in the field.
Science in context
Many students are keenly interested in and knowledgeable about fossils in general
and about dinosaurs in particular, and thus fossils can be used as a starting point for
learning about evolution (Borgerding and Raven, 2018; Hunter et al., 2018).
Investigating fossils
KEY ACTIVITIES
Allow students to examine fossils (ideally real, but also models and pictures) that
include examples of some organisms very similar to and some very different from
extant species. Fossils illustrating differences between modern horses and their
evolutionary ancestors are a well-used example of a sequence of change over time,
from smaller, multi-toed animals with low-crowned teeth to larger, single-toed animals
with high-crowned teeth (see Figure 9.1). As with most depictions of evolution, this
should be presented with some caveats: the evolution of the horse was not a linear
march through distinct stages to a final, perfect form – it was branched and tree-like,
with many co-existing species and evolutionary dead-ends. Also well known are the
fossils of Archaeopteryx – bird-like dinosaurs that had feathers and broad wings like
a bird and also sharp teeth, three-fingered claws and a long, bony tail like a dinosaur.
Archaeopteryx are transitional species that provide evidence that birds evolved from
dinosaurs.
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9 Evolution
Recent Skull Forelimb Hindlimb Teeth Height (cm)

top side
view view
Equus
150
Pleistocene
Pliocene Pliohippus 125
Miocene Merychippus 100
Oligocene Mesohippus 60
Palaeocene Eohippus 28
Eocene hypothetical ancestor with five toes

on each foot and monkey-like teeth
Figure 9.1 Selected fossil evidence showing differences between the modern horse and its evolutionary
ancestors
It can be difficult to incorporate practical work into teaching about evolution, but
working with fossils provides an opportunity for students to develop their skills in
scientific observation, recording and classification. It also provides an opportunity
to develop and challenge their thinking on the nature of evidence and how much
confidence we can have in explanations based on incomplete evidence. The fossil
record is notoriously incomplete, partly because relatively few organisms were
preserved as fossils, and fossils are often incomplete representations of the original
organisms. For example, fossils of fewer than ten Stegosaurus have ever been found,
the most complete of which (nicknamed Sophie) now resides in the Natural History
Museum in London. All of our knowledge of Stegosaurus comes from these few
individuals, which may or may not have been typical representatives of the genus.
A sense of scale: geological time

Learning about fossils and evolution requires an appreciation of the
timescales involved, but these can be so vast that students can struggle to
comprehend them. Students can find it difficult to appreciate the absolute
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ages of fossils; one study found that when students aged 10–11 were asked to
estimate when dinosaurs lived, their answers ranged from 1000 to ‘millions’ of
years ago (Trend, 1998).
Students may also be under the impression that all the dinosaurs that they
are aware of lived at the same time. In fact, the T. rex is closer in time to us
in our modern day lives than it is to the Stegosaurus, which became extinct
nearly 80 million years before the emergence of T. rex.
The ‘year of life’ timeline

KEY ACTIVITY
A ‘year of life’ timeline could be constructed (see Table 9.1) to model the history of
life on Earth compressed into a single year. Students could undertake this activity
through group discussion, attempting to reach a consensus on where to put each
event on the timeline; listening in to the group conversations will give insights into
students’ thinking.
Table 9.1 Key events for a ‘year of life’ timeline (all dates approximate, based on reported estimates)
Event Years ago Position in imaginary year
the Earth is formed 4.5 billion 1st January
first living (unicellular) organisms 3.8 billion 25th February
the oldest fossils ever found are formed 3.5 billion 21st March
first cells with a nucleus 2.1 billion 14th July
first land plants 850 million 24th October
first mammals 200 million 15th December
extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million 22nd December
first modern humans (Homo sapiens) 350 thousand 31st December, 11:19 p.m.
present day 0 31st December, midnight
Note: A billion is defined here using the ‘short-scale’ definition of one thousand
million (109).
Maths
If students struggle to conceptualise a billion, a simple challenge to their thinking
may be helpful: ask them to estimate a thousand seconds, a million seconds and a
billion seconds in other units of time. A thousand seconds is just under 17 minutes;
a million seconds is 11.5 days; a billion seconds is almost 32 years.
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9 Evolution
Selective breeding: evidence that selection can cause species to

change over time
Selectively bred plants and animals are essential for human food security, but
also played an important part in the development of the theory of evolution
by natural selection. Selective breeding has produced varieties of plants and
breeds of animals that are quite different from their wild ancestors. This was
noted by Charles Darwin in the first chapter of On the Origin of Species, in
which he discusses the ability of ‘artificial selection’ (as he called it) to cause
changes in species over generations. This is part of the evidence that led him
to theorise that a process of selection in nature could also cause changes in
species, and could have created new species.
Science in context
Ask students whether they have ever seen a wild cow – the answer is no!
Domesticated cows that could be put to work and farmed for meat and milk were
selectively bred from wild cattle called aurochs, horned herbivores about the size of a
bison. Aurochs became extinct in 1627, replaced entirely by the selectively bred cows
and bulls we recognise today.
Darwin and others: developing a scientific explanation for

evolution
A simplified account of the development of the theory of evolution by natural
selection can be used to illustrate how scientists can develop a scientific
explanation by:
➜ asking a question about the natural world
➜ making observations and collecting evidence
➜ suggesting an explanation to account for the evidence
➜ taking account of other scientists’ work, and sharing their suggested
explanation
➜ modifying the explanation as new evidence becomes available.
In the nineteenth century, Charles Darwin, Alfred Russel Wallace and
many other naturalists before them had wondered if there was a scientific
explanation for how the vast diversity of species arose.
Darwin and Wallace collected specimens and made observations of species
living in different places, Darwin famously on a round-the-world trip aboard
the HMS Beagle, and Wallace notably in Singapore and Indonesia. They
collected evidence of differences between fossils and living examples of
organisms, of differences between individuals within populations, and
of adaptations that helped related but isolated species to survive in their
particular environments (for example, the Galápagos tortoise).
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Science in context
The Galápagos tortoises are native to seven of the Galápagos Islands. On humid
islands with highlands, the tortoises are larger, with domed shells and short necks.
On others, with dry lowlands, the tortoises are smaller, with ‘saddleback’ shells and
long necks.
Darwin and Wallace, working independently, drew together some key ideas to
explain their observations. These ideas became the backbone of the theory of
evolution by natural selection:
➜ Variation: there are differences between members of a species, some of
which can be inherited.
➜ Competition (or ‘the struggle for existence’): over-production of offspring
means organisms compete with one another for limited resources, including
mates and sources of nutrients and energy.
➜ Fitness and natural selection: some individuals have features that give them
a better chance of surviving to reproduce, especially when environmental
(biotic and abiotic) conditions change, and these individuals are more likely
to pass on heritable features to their offspring.
Darwin and Wallace’s ideas were shared with the scientific community in the
1850s, and Darwin’s book On the Origin of Species was published in 1859.
Originally, the theory of evolution by natural selection could not explain what
caused variation or how it was inherited. Since then, the theory has been
modified and improved by the work of many scientists to include ideas about
inheritance, DNA, genes and genomes.
The story of Darwin and Wallace provides historical insight, can increase
engagement and can help to develop students’ appreciation of how scientific
explanations have been developed. Rich, open-access online collections of
information related to Darwin and Wallace are available, including many of
their original notes, drawings and letters (see the websites section at the end
of the chapter). Many excellent suggestions for ways to use Darwin in lessons
are presented in a collection of essays from the Charles Darwin Trust entitled
Darwin-Inspired Learning (2015).
Consolidation of the key ideas: variation, competition, fitness and

natural selection
An important learning objective of teaching about evolution in secondary
science is to develop students’ understanding of the key ideas that biologists
use to explain evolution, including: variation, competition, fitness and
natural selection. At first, it may be appropriate to explore these ideas only
at trait (phenotype) level, as Darwin did, to help students develop a secure
understanding of the concepts and how their interactions lead to evolution.
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9 Evolution
Modelling natural selection

KEY ACTIVITY
A simple activity can be used to model the key natural selection ideas. Red and green
cocktail sticks are used to model a population of insects in which there is variation in
colour. A square of grass (around 15 m × 15 m) is marked out to model a habitat. The
cocktail sticks are randomly distributed within the square. A group of students act as
‘birds’ feeding on the red and green ‘insects’, competing to collect as many ‘insects’ as
possible in 30 s. From the results, students should be able to draw out the ideas that
the green ‘insects’ have a selective advantage in this environment and that the ‘bird’
predators vary in their ability to detect prey (red/green colour blindness is particularly
disadvantageous). Ask students to think about possible outcomes for the insect and bird
populations over a longer period of time.
When students are secure in their understanding of the key ideas of variation,
competition, fitness and natural selection, they can begin to appreciate and
explore some of the implications of them, including that:
➜ advantageous features become more common in subsequent generations
due to natural selection
➜ populations of the same species may evolve differently, especially if they are
isolated and/or exposed to different conditions, and thus new species with
different adaptations may evolve from existing species
➜ if we imagine pressing the ‘rewind’ button on evolution, we might see that all
species evolved from earlier simpler forms, and that different species can
share a common ancestor.
Once students have learned something about the structure and function of the
genome, it may be appropriate to consider the key ideas at the genetic level,
including random mutation as a cause of heritable variation, how the natural
selection of advantageous traits leads to the passing on of alleles associated
with these traits to subsequent generations, and thus that these alleles will
become more common in a population over a number of generations.
Controversy? The scientific explanation and students’ worldviews

Evolution is sometimes regarded as a controversial topic in teaching.
Evolution itself is not controversial; fossils and other evidence show that the
characteristics of species change over generations. What has been subject
to controversy is the theory of evolution by natural selection – a scientific
explanation for the observed changes in species, and for how the vast variety
of species arose. The theory is strongly supported by evidence and is widely
accepted by scientists. However, bones of contention in the wider discourse
have included the perception that the theory implies the lack of a ‘Creator’,
the timescales involved (and implications for the age of the Earth), and the
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idea that humans evolved from simpler (or ‘lower’) forms. In a 2017 poll
conducted by YouGov, 64% of surveyed adults in the UK (n=2129) found it very
easy, easy or somewhat easy to accept evolutionary accounts of the origin of
species (including humans). Among those adults who identified as religious or
spiritual, the figure was 53%.
Learning about natural selection as a scientific explanation for evolution need
not conflict with religious beliefs; for example, the theory does not make any
claims about how life started – rather, it explains the development and diversity
of life after it arose. But for some students, particularly those with literalist
religious beliefs, learning about evolution in biology lessons may leave them
feeling conflicted. It has been suggested that evolution should be treated as a
sensitive issue rather than a controversial one (Reiss, 2019a), and that students’
‘worldviews’ – complex collections of concepts that help us to understand
as many elements of our experiences as possible, and which can contain
incompatible ideas – should be accommodated respectfully.
Tip
Rejecting a student’s religious views or forcing them to choose between science
and religion is not likely to help them understand the scientific explanation
for evolution, but biology lessons can help all students to appreciate how this
explanation was developed from evidence and why the great majority of scientists
(including many with religious beliefs) therefore see it as robust.
Cross-disciplinary
Teaching strategies for evolution should be discussed and agreed within your
school’s science department, and possibly also with the religious studies
department. In some schools, strategies may have to be approved by the senior
leadership team.
Further activities
Modern examples of natural selection in action can be used to engage
students, and to consolidate and check their understanding. Useful examples
are:
➜ colour change in populations of the peppered moth (Biston betularia) as a
consequence of air pollution during the Industrial Revolution
➜ the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (such as MRSA)
➜ increasing beak length in great tits (Parus major) as a result of bird-feeder
usage in the UK
➜ the discovery of a bacterium (Ideonella sakaiensis) that survives by digesting
man-made plastic.
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9 Evolution
All of these are examples of changes in the frequency of a trait within

populations of a species, in which human activity indirectly caused a selection
pressure.
Diagnostic questions and activities can be used to probe students’ thinking
about evolution, for example at the start of teaching the topic to reveal
preconceptions from everyday life, and during teaching to provide evidence
of learning and of misunderstandings. The evidence they provide can be
used formatively to decide how best to help students progress towards
understanding the scientific explanation for evolution.
Learning about evolution by natural selection is rife with misunderstandings,
which could be the subject of diagnostic questions. Newall (2015) groups these
into four broad categories as follows.
1 Teleology and anthropomorphism: it is common for students – and grown-
ups! – to think and use language that implies that adaptations arise by
design, intention or in order to fulfil a need (teleology), and that evolving
organisms are clever or ‘want’ to adapt (anthropomorphism). Richard
Dawkins described natural selection as a ‘blind watchmaker’ in his book of
the same name, because evolution does not plan in advance but can build
functional structures of incredible complexity. See Section 9.2 (Adaptation)
for a fuller discussion of teleology and anthropomorphism.
2 Lamarckism: this is belief in the inheritance of acquired characteristics,
whereby evolution proceeds because organisms pass on characteristics
they have acquired through use or disuse during their lifetime. Such
ideas are wrong, and examples such as a weightlifter’s muscles or even
something as simple as a scar can be used to probe and challenge
students’ Lamarckian ideas. A similar and common misunderstanding is
that changes within an individual’s lifetime constitute evolution (they do not;
evolution refers to changes in populations over generations).
3 Terminology: terms such as ‘evolution’, ‘fitness’ and ‘mutation’ are used in
everyday life in ways that do not reflect the scientific usage. The phrase
‘survival of the fittest’ is often used without (or in order to avoid having to
demonstrate) understanding of the mechanisms involved. Many students
incorrectly think ‘fittest’ refers to the most athletic or strongest individuals
rather than to the best adapted.
4 Views about the status of humans: students may incorrectly think that
evolution has finished, that the present form of a species (particularly
humans) is the final or perfect form, or that humans are exempt from
evolution by natural selection. The notions that life on Earth evolved to
support humanity and that humans therefore have the right to abuse
ecosystems are dangerous misconceptions.
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9.2 Adaptation
Scientific literacy
The phrase ‘the theory of evolution by natural selection’ is often abbreviated to
‘the theory of evolution’, incorrectly implying that evolution itself is theoretical.
The scientific use and meaning of the term ‘theory’ is commonly misunderstood in
classrooms (Williams, 2013). In everyday use, ‘a theory’ often refers to something
that is theoretical in the sense that it is unproven or untested. A scientific theory is
an explanation that applies to a large number of situations or examples, and which
has been tested and evidenced by collecting data.
9.2 Adaptation
From earlier formal teaching, students will be familiar with the idea that
animals and plants have features which allow them to do certain things well.
For instance, students may have investigated survival in cold climates or may
have compared the teeth of carnivores and herbivores. Students are often
encouraged to ask questions about ‘why’ something is the way it is, or asked
to make predictions before investigating something, such as heat transfer and
insulation.
Some students will bring knowledge, sometimes a considerable amount of
it, from their experiences outside of school. Most often these come from trips
to zoos or aquaria, reading books or watching nature programmes. Some
of these students have a particular interest in one group of organisms (such
as dinosaurs). These experiences and interests provide students with many
examples of adaptations. However, the thinking behind them (particularly in
terms of how they came about) and the language used to describe them is
likely to need moving to something more scientifically appropriate.
A teaching sequence
When this topic is first introduced it is worth starting with students sharing
their examples of adaptations. These can be used to differentiate between
an individual organism adapting (for example, dilation of pupils in dim light)
and adaptations that have evolved. How adaptations evolve can then be
taught (see the previous section of this chapter). Students can then practise
using the precise terminology to describe the evolution of adaptations with
some of their own examples.
Further examples of adaptations can be provided to enthuse students about
the amazing things that life does. Students can practise explaining each
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9 Evolution
example, allowing assessment of, and feedback on, their understanding of

how adaptations evolve and their use of appropriate terminology.
Once students are adept at using the appropriate terminology, this topic
provides a great opportunity to help students develop their questioning and
thinking skills.
While this topic, when taught as a topic, tends to focus on adaptations
for specific habitats (for example, camouflage or mimicry, carnivorous
plants, Arctic vs desert animals, hydrophytes vs xerophytes), the concept of
adaptation runs throughout biology education (and research). Many students
thoroughly enjoy exploring ideas of how something evolved and what adaptive
value it has. This enthusiasm can be exploited to enrich the teaching and
learning in any topic (such as enzymes, DNA, organelles, mass transport
systems, gas exchange) rather than reserving that way of thinking exclusively
for the topic of ‘Adaptation’.
The relationship between the environment and adaptations is an interesting
one. The biotic and abiotic factors in the environment provide selection
pressures which, by the process of natural selection, result in adaptations in
species. This process occurs over a long time period. On a shorter timescale,
the adaptations species have (including their ability to disperse) determine
where successful populations of them are likely to be found. This idea is at the
heart of ecology.
Students often come to adaptations first from an ecological angle. Then they
learn how adaptations are generated by natural selection acting on variation
within a species. Later, students learn to describe this variation and the
process of natural selection in terms of genetics.
As well as developing students’ understanding of adaptation, there is the
opportunity in this topic to develop students’ questioning, logical thinking and
investigative skills. In that order, students can develop their ability to think like
a research scientist: ask a question, hypothesise one or more logical answers,
come up with a way to investigate which (if any) answer seems to be correct.
Having come to adaptations from an ecological angle, students are already
likely to have thoughts on what an adaptation allows a species to do. However,
there are many other questions that can be asked, such as:
➜ How might that adaptation have evolved? Do we have any evidence from the
fossil record?
➜ Why do some species in that environment have that adaptation and others
do not?
➜ Why might two different species with similar adaptations have differences in
the details of the adaptation?
Through encouraging this line of thinking at a ‘habitat’ level, students can
be led towards questioning other biological topics, particularly those that
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9.2 Adaptation
require an understanding of ‘structure and function’ along similar lines. For

example, they could explore exchange surfaces as adaptations or consider
why transport systems evolve and the similarities and differences between
transport systems in animals and plants. This could link with a consideration
of surface area : volume ratios in Chapters 2 and 4. Following on from that,
students can be encouraged to question biology at a much more profound
level:
➜ Why is life cellular?
➜ Why do some cells have a nucleus and others do not?
➜ What are the advantages of being multicellular?
➜ What challenges does multicellularity impose on a species and what
adaptations have evolved because of these selection pressures?
The skills students develop through these lines of enquiry are likely to be
transferable. They are useful wherever situations require an inquisitive mind,
a reluctance to take things at face value, an ability to suggest explanations
and an ability to suggest ways to find out which explanation is correct. On top
of this, students with this approach are likely to increase their enthusiasm for
biology as more and more of life’s elegant solutions to its problems are studied.
What adaptations do students know already?

This topic could start with a collation of examples of adaptations from the
class by using an open task that is broad enough to include things that are not
adaptations as well as eliciting plenty of adaptations.
Thinking about adaptations

KEY ACTIVITY
Ask students to do something similar to the following: ‘List things that animals or
plants have, or things that they do, that make them good at living in different places
and good at doing the different things they do’. Doing this in pairs, or small groups, with
mini-whiteboards encourages discussion and commitment to writing something down
to share initial ideas.
Science in context
To ensure that students think broadly, it helps to give a few examples at the start.
These should be accessible to students considering their prior knowledge. Examples
could include the following:
l people visiting high altitudes for several weeks adapt to the lower oxygen content
in the air by producing more red blood cells
l the leaves of some plants have ‘hairs’ which reduce water loss by evaporation
l plants grown in nutrient-poor soils invest a higher proportion of their resources in
root growth than individuals of the same species grown in nutrient-rich soils
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9 Evolution
l plants adapt to limited water availability by closing stomata

l on entering a dark room, human eyes take a few minutes to adapt to the lower
light intensity
l dolphins have a streamlined shape which reduces the effort needed to swim
l chameleons can quickly change the colouration and patterns on their skin to blend
in with their background.
A quick way to collate the class responses involves all students standing up and the
teacher going round the class comparing answers, noting similar ideas and novel answers.
Students cross off ones that have already been said from their own list and sit down when
no novel answers remain on their whiteboard. Only students who remain standing are
asked again. The teacher could collate the responses by compiling two lists (those that
are adaptations and those that are not) without telling students the reasoning behind the
division. Then students discuss the reason for having two lists as well as common features
of members of each list. This activity exposes the difference between adaptations and
individuals adapting to different environments. The characteristic of being able to adapt to
different environments is an adaptation in itself and so statements about ‘adapting’ can
sometimes be interpreted as either adaptation or adapting. If this causes disagreements
between students then the activity is likely to have done its job!
Teleology and anthropomorphism

One of the trickiest aspects of talking and writing about adaptations is the
use of language. It is very easy to discuss adaptations in a way that can be
misleading about how they came about. Inadvertently using phrases such as
‘The coat of the mountain hare turns white in winter in order for the animal to
be camouflaged in snow-covered country’, ‘The leaf of a plant is designed to
bring about efficient gaseous exchange’ or ‘The walls of the alveoli need to be
thin so that diffusion of gases is efficient’ can give students the impression that
there is a sense of purpose involved, a deliberate intention to make something
to achieve an objective. Indeed, this is often how the word ‘adapted’ is used
in everyday language; for example, ‘An old chimney pot can be adapted for
use as a plant container’. When statements indicating intent are used about
aspects of biology, they are said to be teleological. Many teachers, and
indeed scientists, use phrases like these as a shorthand way to link structure
to function when discussing adaptations; however, caution is needed when
students are first learning about the mechanism by which adaptations evolve.
Another language tool that teachers, scientists and particularly reporters
of scientific discoveries use is anthropomorphism. That is where human
emotions, needs or competencies are attributed to other living things such as
‘the mountain hare knows that winter is approaching and grows a white coat’
or ‘a virus tricks the cell into copying its genetic code’. This language is used
to engage people with the biology by making it easier to relate to what is going
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9.2 Adaptation
on. However, as with teleology, caution is needed when using this terminology
with students.
It may well be best to tackle these language pitfalls head on. Providing
students with a variety of phrases to critique and then to rewrite using
scientifically accurate language (in other words, without using teleology
or anthropomorphism) would help students avoid misinterpretation when
they inevitably read or hear less scientifically precise language. Using the
mountain hare (Lepus timidus) example, three statements to critique, followed
by a more scientifically appropriate version, are given below:
➜ ‘The coat of the mountain hare turns white in winter in order for the animal
to be camouflaged in snow-covered country.’ (Teleological: it might give the
impression that the hare does it purposefully.)
➜ ‘The mountain hare knows that winter is approaching and grows a white
coat.’ (Both teleological and anthropomorphic as it might be taken as
meaning that the hare is consciously aware of what is to come and makes a
purposeful decision in response to that knowledge.)
➜ ‘Mountain hares change the colour of their coat to adapt to the changing
background colour of the landscape when it snows.’ (Due to the use of the
word ‘adapt’, this statement’s focus is the individual adapting rather than
on the adaptation (the ability to change coat colour) that has evolved in this
species. The statement is also teleological.)
➜ ‘Mountain hares that have inherited a tendency to grow a white coat at the
approach of winter (triggered by a change in day length) are less likely
to be eaten and so leave more descendants, leading to the spread of the
characteristic through the population.’ (This statement is more scientifically
appropriate and is what students should be aiming to be able to do. It is,
admittedly, pretty long-winded, which is why statements similar to the first
one are often used instead.)
Sometimes activities are purposefully teleological such as ‘Design an animal
that lives in … and feeds on … Say why you gave it the features you did’. The
activity is good for linking structure to function but to address the teleological
issues of the activity, the students could be asked to suggest how each feature
could have evolved.
It is important to get students to practise using the appropriate language when
describing adaptations and suggesting how they might have evolved.
This also provides a wonderful opportunity to enthuse students about the
bizarre and incredible adaptations that exist as well as opening their minds to
the diversity of life beyond the often mammal-centric view of students. Some
suggestions are:
➜ caterpillars (for example, Hemeroplanes triptolemus) that look like snakes
➜ plants releasing volatile organic compounds to attract carnivorous insects
that eat the herbivores that eat the plant (for example, Brassica spp.)
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9 Evolution
➜ the sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica) folding up its leaves when touched
➜ earwigs (Forficula auricularia) showing parental care
➜ bombardier beetles (for example, Brachinus spp.) producing a hot noxious
chemical spray from their abdomen when disturbed
➜ acacia trees (some Acacia spp.) producing ethene when eaten that is
detected by other parts of the plant, and even other plants, triggering them
to produce toxins in their leaves
➜ extra-floral nectaries attracting ants in cherry trees (some Prunus spp.) and
cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus).
Developing thinking skills through learning about adaptations

Investigating adaptations is inherent in all biological research. Scientists
are constantly asking ‘why’ something is the way it is, and the answer lies
in understanding the adaptive value of the thing being studied (alongside
evolutionary constraints and trade-offs). Encouraging students to constantly
ask ‘why’ is a valuable tool in engaging them with biology, as well as helping
them to develop a deeper understanding and better memory recall of the
information being asked about.
It is important to phrase questions in a precise way to elicit the thought
processes wanted from students, and ‘why’ questions have two alternative
(and equally correct) ways of being answered unless additional clarification
is used. Sometimes, though, it may be of value to leave a ‘why’ question
open ended to see if students can be agile in their thinking and come up with
different answers. The two alternative answers to ‘why’ questions are termed
‘proximate’ and ‘ultimate’.
➜ Proximate explanations are the immediate reason why something happens
or is the way it is. (For example, the mountain hare’s fur turns white because
the days are getting shorter; red blood cells don’t use the oxygen they are
carrying because they don’t have mitochondria that use the oxygen in
aerobic respiration.)
➜ Ultimate explanations are the adaptive reason why a characteristic has
evolved. (For example, the mountain hare’s fur turns white as it maintains
camouflage in the winter months and so fewer hares with this adaptation
are eaten by predators; not using the oxygen in transit means that more
oxygen can be delivered by each red blood cell, thereby providing a more
efficient transport system.)
When trying to explain the survival value of an adaptation and how it came to
evolve, it is worth considering the thought process as a reverse engineering
of what natural selection has produced. The environment has imposed a
selection pressure that has acted on variation within a species, over many
generations, to produce an adaptation. To understand the evolution of an
adaptation we can see the adaptation, we know the mechanism which created
it (natural selection), but we have to try to discover the selection pressure that
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9.2 Adaptation
led to its evolution. Students can be encouraged to come up with their own
suggestions for the survival value of an adaptation and how it has evolved
but also to suggest ways to investigate whether their hypothesis is correct.
Exposing students to different ways of exploring the evolution of adaptations
and then providing students with enough information to have a go for
themselves can help students develop their logical thinking and investigative
skills.
Scientists use careful observation and experiments to see whether the
survival value hypothesised stands up to scrutiny, or for comparisons of the
characteristics of different species to generate a logical argument for a particular
selection pressure. Richard Dawkins (2009) describes an excellent example of
using careful observation and experiment in his book, The Greatest Show on
Earth. This is the work of John Endler on colouration in male guppies and how
bright colouration attracts females but when predation is high, camouflaged
colouration evolves. The logical thought process involved in suggesting a
selection pressure by comparing different species is wonderfully described by
Steven Vogel (1992) in his book Vital Circuits: On Pumps, Pipes and the Workings
of Circulatory Systems. He compares birds and mammals with alligators and
insects to explore the evolution of a closed, double circulatory system in birds
and mammals, concluding that gas transport is the most demanding circulatory
function and that this is particularly demanding in ‘warm-blooded’ animals.
Another approach to investigating adaptation is to look at a particular selection
pressure and to consider the range of impacts this has on the evolution of
adaptations across all life. As an example of this way of thinking Matt Wilkinson
(2016), in Restless Creatures, explores the impact that the selective advantage
which locomotion provides has had on a wide range of organisms and organ
systems. Along these lines, students could be asked about how the selection
pressures involved in the colonisation of the land may have led to certain
adaptations in both plants and animals. (They could think about the need for
support, a different form of locomotion, dehydration and reproduction, among
others.)
Another important feature of adaptations, and one that again provides the
opportunity to develop thinking skills, is that evolution does not act on a blank
canvas. It can only act on variation present in a population. So, if a common
selection pressure acts on different groups of organisms, adaptations that
perform the same function can evolve in different ways. The ability to fly is
clearly a selective advantage in different groups of organisms and wings
have evolved several times (birds, bats, pterosaurs, insects) but they all look
different. Students could be asked to explain why.
The evolution of one particular adaptation cannot be taken in isolation. Being
even better at one thing might mean being poor at another. Trees, for instance,
could invest a lot more in strengthening trunks and anchorage by the root
system and be able to survive much stronger winds than they do. However,
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9 Evolution
investment there means that there is less to invest in producing seeds and so,
given that extremely strong winds are rare, there is a selective advantage to
be strong, but not too strong. Students could be asked to explain why certain
adaptations have not gone to great extremes or do not exist; this could be due
to some trade-off occurring or because sufficient variation does not exist in the
population for natural selection to act on.
Adaptations across all of biology

Beyond the lessons used specifically to teach about adaptations, taking
advantage of discussing adaptation across the whole of biology is useful to
help students embed the thinking and questioning skills mentioned previously,
as well as to enthuse students about biology. Table 9.2 contains some ideas
that could be used to stimulate discussion among students, or to enrich the
teaching of a topic. The use of these ideas within their own topic helps to
demonstrate the importance of evolution in understanding biological ideas.
Table 9.2 Ideas for stimulating discussion in other topics
Topic area Discussion points

What is the selective advantage of having a cell-surface membrane? The answer here
lies in the value of compartmentalisation and being able to keep hold of water-soluble
molecules that have been made.
Why do some cells have a nucleus and others don’t? Possibly as a tool to separate
Cells and organelles
transcription from translation needed because eukaryotes have introns that need cutting
out before translation whereas prokaryotes do not.
Nick Lane discusses the evolution of cell-surface membranes and the nucleus in The Vital
Question (2015).
Enzymes that have iron and sulfur ions as part of their active site and are universal to all
Enzymes life may have evolved as a way of life taking the catalytic activity of the geology in which
it first evolved with it as it ‘escaped’ its rocky confines (see Lane, 2015).
Why is genetic information stored as DNA and not RNA? This may be due to the stability
of DNA compared to RNA and so linked to the different roles of DNA and RNA.
DNA
Why does the genetic code match particular codons with particular amino acids? Nick
Lane discusses the genetic code in Life Ascending (2009).
How could lungs in terrestrial vertebrates first evolve? Students could suggest selection
pressures as well as suggesting variation that could be acted on (such as differences in
vascularisation of parts of the alimentary canal).
Gas exchange
Why don’t land-living mammals have gills? This should highlight the idea that the
structures of the gill that provide a large surface area (gill filaments and lamellae) in water
clump together in air and so don’t allow sufficient gas exchange.
What problems were generated by the evolution of multicellularity and what adaptations
Organ systems evolved as a consequence? This can be asked about both plants and animals and covers
transport systems, gas exchange, cell signalling and much more.
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9.3 Resources
Topic area Discussion points

If an organism is the best adapted to its habitat, why isn’t it found dominating that habitat
everywhere? This could be about the limits and randomness of dispersal as well as, in
Ecology
plants, the idea that young plants cannot usually outcompete older plants, even when of a
different species.
How can new adaptations evolve if an organism already needs to possess adaptations
to be able to be successful in a particular habitat? This can be answered by the idea that
habitats change (in both their biotic and abiotic factors). Another consideration is that
where a niche is vacant (for example, the first colonisation of land by plants) an organism
does not have to be very well adapted to the habitat just so long as it can survive to
Evolution reproduce successfully. Adaptations to that habitat can then evolve by natural selection.
This highlights an important point that being well adapted is a relative thing: organisms
need to be well adapted enough to survive (and reproduce) considering other species that
are present (such as pathogens, predators, parasites and competitors) and abiotic factors.
Natural selection then selects the ‘best’ of whatever variation exists within a species even
if no individuals are ‘brilliant’.
Why aren’t plants black? Why don’t they use the green light as well as the other colours?
Photosynthesis One possible answer to this is problems with overheating if too much light energy is
absorbed and that light availability may not be the limiting factor for growth anyway.
Why haven’t we evolved to digest cellulose? Maybe there hasn’t been the appropriate
Diet and digestion
variation in humans that would have enabled this adaptation to evolve.
9.3 Resources
General resources
➜ Fossils and other preserved specimens, to enable students to explore
adaptations and the similarities and differences between species.
➜ Identification guides and other fieldwork apparatus, to enable students to
investigate adaptations in local habitats.
➜ Clips from natural history television programmes, to illustrate the incredible
variation and adaptation of life on Earth; examples include Planet Earth,
Blue Planet, Life in the Undergrowth and The Private Life of Plants.
Websites
A Stegosaurus brought to life (Natural History Museum). The full story of how
Sophie the Stegosaurus was reconstructed from the most complete fossil
remains ever discovered, including videos in which Sir David Attenborough
explains what the fossil skeleton can tell us about how Sophie moved: www.
nhm.ac.uk/discover/stegosaurus-brought-to-life.html
Best Evidence Science Teaching (BEST): free diagnostic questions and
activities to help build students’ understanding, developed from research
evidence: www.stem.org.uk/best-evidence-science-teaching
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9 Evolution
Darwin and Wallace Online: rich online collections of information related

to Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace, including many of their
original notes, drawings and letters: http://darwin-online.org.uk and
http://wallace-online.org/
The Fittest: a simulator in which stick creatures of various shapes compete in
a race. After each round, the one that made it the furthest gets to reproduce,
and its offspring race again. Over time, mutations and natural selection lead
to faster and faster creatures: https://testtubegames.com/fittest.html
Tree of Life: an interactive tool to explore the evolutionary links between
living things with Sir David Attenborough (Wellcome Trust): www.stem.org.uk/
elibrary/resource/30498
References
Borgerding, L. A. and Raven, S. (2018) Children’s ideas about fossils and
foundational concepts related to fossils. Science Education, 102 (2), 414–439.
Dawkins, R. (2009) The Greatest Show on Earth: The Evidence for Evolution.
London: Bantam Press.
Dobzhansky, T. (1973) Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of
evolution. American Biology Teacher, 35 (3), 125–129.
Hunter, J. C., et al. (2018) Capitalizing on pre-existing student engagement with
fossils: a gateway to generate student interest, participation, and learning.
Education, 139 (1), 19–37.
Newall, E. (2015) Routes to conceptual change in teaching and learning
about evolution: experiences with students aged between 11 and 16 years.
In: Boulter, C. J., Reiss, M. J. and Sanders, D. L. (eds) (2015) Darwin-Inspired
Learning. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
Reiss, M. J. (2019a) Evolution education: treating evolution as a sensitive rather
than a controversial issue. Ethics and Education, 14 (3), 351–366.
Trend, R. (1998) An investigation into understanding of geological time among
10- and 11-year-old children. International Journal of Science Education, 20,
973–988.
Vogel, S. (1992) Vital Circuits: On Pumps, Pipes, and the Workings of
Circulatory Systems. New York: Oxford University Press.
Williams, J. D. (2013) “It’s just a theory”: trainee science teachers’
misunderstandings of key scientific terminology. Evolution: Education and
Outreach, 6 (12), 1–9.
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9.3 Resources
Further reading
Boulter, C. J., Reiss, M. J. and Sanders, D. L. (eds) (2015) Darwin-Inspired
Learning. Rotterdam, The Netherlands: Sense.
Darwin, C. and Costa, J. T. (2011) The Annotated Origin: A Facsimile of the
First Edition of On the Origin of Species. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard
University Press. (The first edition of 1859 complemented by an accessible
guide and additional insights from a working field biologist and evolutionary
theorist.)
Dawkins, R. (1986) The Blind Watchmaker. Harlow: Longman.
Jones, S. (1999) Almost Like A Whale: The Origin of Species Updated. London:
Doubleday. (A modern re-telling of the Origin of Species, with up-to-date
evidence and genetic perspectives.)
Lane, N. (2009) Life Ascending: The Ten Great Inventions of Evolution. London:
Profile Books.
Lane, N. (2015) The Vital Question: Why is Life the way it is? London: Profile
Books.
Poole, M. (1995) Beliefs and Values in Science Education. Buckingham: Open
University Press. (See Chapter 7, ‘Darwin in context’.)
Reiss, M. J. (2019b) Evolution: as a religious professor of science education, we
need to rethink how we teach it [Online]. The Conversation. Available at: http://
theconversation.com/evolution-as-a-religious-professor-of-science-education-
we-need-to-rethink-how-we-teach-it-118311
Vogel, S. (2013) The Life of a Leaf. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Wilkinson, M. (2016) Restless Creatures: The Story of Life in Ten Movements.
London: Icon Books.
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10 Biodiversity
Marcus Grace and David Slingsby
Topic overview
Biodiversity is one of those words that everyone has heard of and knows is
somehow important, but which most people do not quite understand. Any
attempt to define it as, for example, ‘the variety of life both within and between
species’ is somehow inadequate. But once someone has seen, either in person
or on film, the abundance of life on a coral reef, in a rainforest or in a sample of
clean stream water from a nature reserve, they are more likely to feel a sense of
awe at the wonders of nature and the incredible biodiversity that can be found
on this planet. Then the science becomes exciting because it helps to make
sense of it in the context of how ecosystems work. Many secondary students
will have already looked at a variety of organisms in primary school so it will be
important to build on this and carry it further.
Science in context
Biodiversity is virtually everywhere on the Earth’s surface. It is literally on our
doorstep: there might be microscopic creatures such as tardigrades living in small
clumps of moss; and of course, whether we like it or not, there are a large variety
of organisms living in and on our own bodies. Students may be fascinated to know
that recent estimates suggest that we have three times as many non-human cells as
human cells (Sender et al., 2016).
The greatest biodiversity is probably found in tropical rainforests. It has been

estimated that tropical forests comprise only 6% of the world’s surface area
and yet contain between one-half to three-quarters of the Earth’s species
of plants and animals. Rainforests are being destroyed by human activity,
particularly through logging and large-scale agriculture. Rates of species
extinction are rising and so biodiversity is decreasing. There are probably
many species which will become extinct before anyone discovers them.
Science in context
Ask students how many species of animals and plants there are on the Earth
today. The short answer is that we don’t know. The number of species that have
been recognised has been estimated at between 1.5 and 1.8 million (Rainforest
Conservation Fund, 2019). Since new species keep being discovered, the total is
likely to be much more than this, with estimates ranging from 10 to 30 million. A
lot anyway!
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Biodiversity

Although students may not arrive at secondary school knowing the term
‘biodiversity’, they are likely to know the word ‘habitat’ and should be able to
identify some common animals and plants from various local habitats. They
will have observed how some of these depend on each other as sources of
food and shelter and may be able to construct some simple food chains (such
as grass → cow → human). They will have used basic keys to sort and classify
plants, animals and micro-organisms into broad groups based on observable
characteristics, and they should be able to appreciate that the environment
can change and that this can endanger some organisms while benefiting
others. At secondary school, students develop a grasp of the importance of
maintaining biodiversity and the use of gene banks to preserve hereditary
material. While students generally have a good understanding of biodiversity
as being the variety of species, they often have considerable difficulty
explaining why protecting biodiversity is important.
A teaching sequence
As discussed in Chapter 1, one of Wynne Harlen’s ‘big ideas of science’ is
that ‘The diversity of organisms, living and extinct, is the result of evolution’.
Life continues to adapt and change due to the process of evolution through
natural selection (see Chapter 9), and the complexities of biodiversity soon
become apparent when we ask why it is important and how we can set about
measuring it.
A suggested way of progressing understanding at secondary school is as
follows:
➜ 11–14-year-olds might collect data about biodiversity in one or more
habitats using a variety of appropriate ecological methods. This would be
accompanied by class discussions about why biodiversity is important to
the populations themselves and to people and society. At this level, the term
‘biodiversity’ could refer to the number of different species in a particular
area: what older students might refer to as ‘species richness’ (see below).
➜ 14–16-year-olds might explore biodiversity in one or more habitats using a
more statistical approach and could also begin to consider the relationship
between biodiversity, ecosystem stability, feeding the world’s human
population and climate change. At this level, more able students could
be introduced to the idea that the biodiversity of a particular area is also
called species diversity and is a combination of two measurements: species
richness and species evenness (see page 248).
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10 Biodiversity
10.1 What is biodiversity and why is it

important?
In general terms the word ‘biodiversity’ refers to the variety or number of
species within a particular area, habitat, ecosystem or the whole biosphere.
However, the definition can be more complex than this and can include the
diversity of genes within species. Variation in species due to environmental
factors may not strictly constitute biodiversity unless the plasticity – the
capacity to respond to environmental factors in certain ways – has itself a
genetic basis. Some animal species, such as chameleons and octopuses, for
example, can change colour in response to different coloured backgrounds.
Changing colour against a green, brown, yellow or red background is a purely
environmental response, but the ability to respond in this way is the product of
natural selection.
How did all these species appear?: speciation

arising through natural or artificial selection
As with human populations, groups of individuals of the same species in a
particular area are generally referred to as ‘populations’, and populations
can evolve to become distinct species through a process called speciation.
The term ‘species’ is actually hard to define because the ongoing evolutionary
processes cause continual changes within populations. A familiar and
traditional definition of a species is a group of organisms in which individuals
can sexually reproduce to produce fertile offspring.
Following on from this, it was generally thought that sexual reproduction
between individuals from different species could only result in hybrid
offspring which are sterile (for example, a mule is the sterile offspring of
a male donkey and a female horse). However, recent advances in DNA
analysis have shown that hybrid speciation is actually quite common in
both plants and animals, where two closely related species can reproduce
to create a new species which is fertile. To thwart the definition further,
some species only reproduce asexually. But despite these problems with
definitions, species can usually be readily identified, and scientists generally
try to work with the concept of species as a recognised ‘unit of biodiversity’.
This is a topic where just how much detail is appropriate for a particular class
is, of course, something for the sensitivity and judgement of the teacher. Older
students should understand the steps that gives rise to new species. Given
enough time (which may be thousands or millions of years), due to random
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10.1 What is biodiversity and why is it important?
genetic mutation and environmental pressures, a population may change

to the extent that it becomes a new species and is unable to reproduce
successfully with individuals from the original species. However, it is worth
noting that speciation can also be induced by artificial selection: crop plants
and domestic animals can differ from their wild ancestors to the extent that
they can no longer interbreed.
There are two main types of speciation: allopatric and sympatric. In
allopatric speciation, a population is divided into two isolated populations
by geographical or ecological barriers: for example through continents
drifting apart, mountains rising or rivers changing course; or though
habitat fragmentation; or just by being separated by vast distances. This is
exemplified by the finches on the Galápagos Islands, made famous by Darwin
(and hence known as ‘Darwin’s finches’) who noticed that they differed from
one island to another and figured that they had become separate species as a
consequence of their isolation from each other.
Sympatric speciation is the formation of new species which remain in the
same geographical location as the original species.
Science in context
Students could consider, for an example of sympatric speciation, the apple maggot
fly (Rhagoletis pomonella) in North America which has different populations that
feed on different fruits. The original species used to feed on hawthorn, but a new
and distinct population emerged in the nineteenth century when apple trees (a
non-native species) were introduced. Now, there are populations that only feed on
apples and populations that only feed on hawthorn, and they do not interbreed.
Over time they have also developed other noticeable differences, such as the time
of year at which they mature, and these behavioural barriers will separate the
populations, thus further driving the process of speciation.
The importance of biodiversity

The United Nations designated 2011–20 as the UN Decade on Biodiversity
(United Nations, 2011), so it must be important. But why?
It is thought that high levels of biodiversity help to make ecosystems more
stable. The loss of species may threaten this stability and could lead to the
collapse of the ecosystem. A useful analogy is to imagine an aeroplane in
flight which has rivets holding on the wings. If one rivet pops out it probably
won’t make any difference, and neither will the loss of two or three, but as you
lose more and more rivets, there will come a time when the wing will fall off.
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10 Biodiversity
Science in context
Students might be interested to learn about an example of near ecosystem collapse
which occurred with the cod fisheries in the North Sea in the 1990s. This near collapse
was partly due to overfishing the cod itself, but the story is more complex, involving
the North Sea food web, and required considerable scientific research to unravel.
At the same time there was a decline in seal populations and in the populations of
certain sea birds in Shetland, particularly puffins, kittiwakes and guillemots.
Most of the food chains in the North Sea depended on small fish from a number of
species, collectively known as sand eels. Overfishing of sand eels, mainly to supply
salmon farms and pig farms in Denmark, was part of the problem (Jónasdóttir
et al., 2010), but sand eels feed on the plankton Calanus, which itself feeds on
microscopic algae.
In the 1980s the Calanus was mainly of the species Calanus finmarchicus. This
survived the winter in the deep water beyond the edge of the continental shelf and
emerged into the shallow water of, for example, the Dogger Bank, as the sea warmed
up in spring. Global warming caused this emergence into the shallows to happen
earlier but before the phytoplanktonic algae – the primary producers on which the
whole ecosystem’s energy input depended – had started multiplying in spring.
As global warming increased, Calanus finmarchicus tended to move north (from the
warmer south) but as it did so, another species of Calanus moved in from the south
replacing it (Maar et al., 2013). This is an example of the importance of biodiversity
in maintaining the stability of an ecosystem. The presence of more than one species
of Calanus species, each with slightly different ecological requirements, helped to
avoid collapse of the North Sea ecosystem.
Some conservationists take the point of view that all species have a right to
live and that biodiversity therefore has an intrinsic value of its own. In the past,
scientific research relating to biodiversity conservation tended to concentrate
on documenting the richness (and loss) of genetic, species and habitat
biodiversity. However, international efforts have recently adopted a different
approach by focusing on ‘ecosystem services’ (Raffaelli, 2017), which refers to
the role biodiversity and natural systems play in supporting human health and
wellbeing. Humans use different species in different ways (for food, medicine,
clothing, firewood, and for constructing the buildings where we live and work,
etc.), but we also value species and biodiversity for a wide range of social,
economic, cultural and aesthetic purposes. Let’s look more closely at some of
these and consider their implications:
➜ The value of biodiversity for food. Three-quarters of the global food supply
depends on just 12 crop species and five livestock species (Bioversity
International, 2017). Some of our most popular foods are single varieties with
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limited genetic diversity and grown over large monocultural areas, and they
are prone to devastating attacks from pests and diseases which could wipe
them out completely. This means there is a strong argument for conserving
a wide range of wild species just in case they might one day help protect our
sources of food.
➜ The value of biodiversity for medicine. At least 80% of people around the
world depend on medicines derived from plants, animals and micro-
organisms (Chivian and Bernstein, 2008). Many vital drugs have been
isolated from specific organisms, especially plants. Some are very common,
like the foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), which provides medicines for treating
heart conditions; others are more rare, such as the Madagascar periwinkle
(Catharanthus roseus) which originally only grew in Madagascar and
has been discovered to contain chemicals now used to treat cancer. But
medicinal chemicals are not only extracted from plants: the antibiotics
streptomycin and neomycin come from tropical soil fungi, and the venom
of particular snake species has been used to treat a range of conditions
including blood pressure and Type II diabetes. New medicines are
continuously being discovered. The richer the diversity of life, the greater the
opportunity for medical discoveries.
➜ Aesthetic and cultural values. It is said that ‘variety is the spice of life’, and
it is human nature to seek out and enjoy a diversity of shapes, colours,
textures and sounds which ultimately enhance the quality of our lives. This is
demonstrated by the large numbers of people who visit zoos, museums and
botanic gardens, the popularity of wildlife and gardening programmes, and
the increasing membership of wildlife organisations. Nature tourism is now
one of the fastest-growing leisure activities among wealthier people. Wild
species have inspired songs and poetry and are often used as symbols of
a country’s heritage, as with the bald eagle in the USA and the kiwi in New
Zealand. We do have a tendency to prefer colourful flowers and pretty, furry,
intelligent animals; perhaps as biology teachers we should also be extolling
the virtues of the less-loved organisms such as snakes, spiders, moths and
slime moulds!
Careers
Several careers require an understanding of biodiversity and its conservation.
The GreenJobs website advertises job vacancies for such roles as biodiversity
conservation officers, biodiversity science researchers, biodiversity managers,
biodiversity monitoring experts and biodiversity policy experts. There are also
an increasing number of biodiversity-related careers requiring technology skills,
particularly in the field of biological monitoring.
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Science in context
Students may be fascinated to know that 99% of all exported bananas are of a
single variety – the Cavendish variety. In recent years, vast banana plantations have
been seriously attacked by a particular strain of fungus. Researchers are therefore
looking at other closely related wild varieties of bananas (and there are many)
which might be resistant to the fungus, so that this genetic trait can be transferred
to the Cavendish variety through cross-breeding or genetic engineering to create
tasty but resistant bananas (Reynolds, 2018). Additionally, there may exist strains
able to confer an ability to cope with less hospitable conditions such as areas of
high salinity or extremes of temperature.
Why are some places more biodiverse than

others?
The biodiversity of an area can, of course, increase by animals flying, walking
or swimming in, and the seeds of some plants are blown from elsewhere by
the wind, or brought in by animals. Not all of these species will necessarily
become part of the ecosystem. Another, more subtle, increase in biodiversity
results from evolution (see Chapter 9). The reason tropical rainforests are so
much more biodiverse than UK woodlands is that in most cases the rainforests
have been there for many thousands or even millions of years, so they have
had the chance to develop stability by accumulating more and more species
and sub-species, both by invasion from other ecosystems and by evolution of
species that were already there.
In the UK, however, there were ice ages that destroyed all existing forests,
leaving just some tundra in what is now southern England. The last ice age
ended around 12 000 years ago and forest re-established itself around 10 000
years ago. At first there was conifer forest, but in much of England and Wales
and lowland Scotland this was replaced by broadleaved species such as
oak. From between 6000 and 5000 years ago, our Neolithic ancestors, some of
whom built Stonehenge and similar developments in Orkney, began to carry
out agricultural practices, which involved chopping down forests. By the reign
of Queen Elizabeth I there wasn’t enough wood available for London from
local coppiced woodland, so the citizens were already importing coal from
Newcastle to use as fuel (until the queen banned it because she didn’t like the
atmospheric pollution; the first recorded example of legislation against air
pollution). Most of the UK forests which developed after the last ice age were
destroyed by the twentieth century and had to be re-planted after the First
World War (when the Forestry Commission was founded in 1919). Given all
these factors, it is not surprising that the UK’s woodland and forests cannot
even begin to compete with tropical rainforests for biodiversity!
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However, in the UK there are other examples of areas of relatively high

biodiversity, such as chalk and limestone grassland. These have often been
used by humans for sheep grazing for, in some cases, several thousand
years, and the grazing has prevented the land from regenerating naturally
into woodland. These thin soils have only short grass but can sustain an
interesting variety of small flowering plants, giving relatively high biodiversity
at least partly due to human activity over several thousand years. But even
such biodiversity is recent and limited when compared to that of a tropical
rainforest.
What are the causes of loss of biodiversity?

Since life began, there have been at least five major mass extinctions. These
are thought to have been caused by various natural phenomena such as
global warming, global cooling, gamma-ray bursts, volcanism, asteroids and
anoxic events (when parts of the ocean become depleted of oxygen). However,
the current high level of extinction which has escalated over the last hundred
years is generally agreed to be caused by human activity, and is estimated to
be at least 100 to 1000 times higher than the natural background rate. Experts
calculate that up to 0.1% of all species are becoming extinct each year (WWF;
see the Resources section at the end of the chapter).
We are familiar with the demise of certain prominent species, such as the
dodo, the passenger pigeon and the Tasmanian tiger, and the extreme
current threat to mountain gorillas and black rhinos. However, most of today’s
seriously endangered species are unfamiliar to us, often being small and
easily overlooked. According to the American biologist E. O. Wilson, who
developed the concept of biodiversity and is sometimes called ‘the father
of biodiversity’, the five main causes of species extinction and impact on
biodiversity can be summarised using the acronym HIPPO. These are: Habitat
destruction, Invasive species, Pollution, Population (over-population) of humans
and Overharvesting by hunting and fishing. Climate change is, of course,
directly connected to some of these human activities.
The issue of invasive species is an interesting biodiversity conundrum as
it raises questions about which species are more important. The issue is
perhaps fairly clear-cut when one considers, for example, the accidental
introduction of rats to remote islands from visiting ships. Rats spread diseases
and eat the eggs and young of birds and mammals. In the Galápagos
Islands, rats have decimated populations of the famous endemic giant
tortoises, so there is general agreement that the rats should be exterminated.
However, what about more endearing species such as hedgehogs (Erinaceus
europaeus)? We hear that we have lost over a third of Britain’s hedgehogs
since 2000. They are gardeners’ friends, eating slugs and other garden
pests. However, hedgehogs which were introduced onto some islands off the
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10 Biodiversity
northwest of Scotland to eat slugs escaped from gardens and discovered a

new source of food – the eggs and chicks of ground-nesting birds. It is thought
that hedgehogs are responsible for up to half of the breeding failures of these
birds (Scottish Natural Heritage; see the Resources section at the end of the
chapter), and a consequent hedgehog culling programme has been extremely
controversial.
When Amazon rainforest is felled to provide grassland for feeding cattle there
is a massive loss of biodiversity, and also loss of the vast nutrient pools stored
in the biomass rather than in the soil. A lot of modern agriculture also tends to
lead to the loss of biodiversity in the long term, leaving a reliance on smaller and
smaller numbers of species, subspecies and varieties. An enormous modern
field of wheat has very low biodiversity. This field is just for the grain from the
wheat. The farmer sprays herbicide to get rid of other species of plant (which
might be regarded as ‘weeds’) and insecticide to kill insects (wheat is pollinated
by wind rather than insects). There will always be the odd field mouse and a few
‘weeds’ but this procedure is tending towards getting as near as possible to only
one species (a monoculture) – the lowest biodiversity you can get – to maximise
productivity.
Images of a large expanse of ripe wheat with a combine harvester at work
are easily found on the internet and can be useful to illustrate discussion
of modern, ‘high-tech’ arable farming. Students could compare these with
images of high biodiversity, including ancient hay meadows such as those in
Swaledale in the Yorkshire Dales.
How are we responding to loss of biodiversity?

Many countries around the world are responding to the serious threat to the
planet’s biodiversity. The UN Biodiversity Conference meets every two years
to agree on international decisions relating to biodiversity protection. At a
national level, many countries have set up national parks which afford some
protection for the species living there. In the UK there have also been many
regional responses. As mentioned above, farmers tend to grow only one kind
of crop at a time so the biodiversity on their land is very low. Some farmers
in the UK now receive subsidies from the government to allow the margins of
their fields to grow wild, raising the biodiversity by providing a habitat for wild
birds and carnivorous insects, which have been shown to reduce pest insects
on the crops. Such margins also increase the number of insects which provide
pollination. Maintaining and reviving some old methods of farming is also
benefiting biodiversity.
There are some large partnerships between central government departments,
local councils, businesses and nature conservation charities which are
working on large-scale habitat restoration projects. An example is the Great
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Fen project in Cambridgeshire which aims to create a 3700-hectare wildlife-

rich wetland area. (That’s the size of over 5000 football pitches!) It is, however,
worth noting that not all conservation programmes are primarily to maximise
biodiversity. Some focus on protecting particular rare species, such as the
Chinese government’s giant panda conservation project. Giant pandas
depend almost exclusively on bamboo shoots and leaves, so a biodiverse
habitat is not necessary for the survival of this species.
Careers
There are many jobs to be found working for government conservation bodies
(for example, Natural England, Scottish Natural Heritage, Cyfoeth Naturiol Cymru
(Wales), Environment and Heritage Service (Northern Ireland)). Careers working as
environmental consultants (such as for the Environment Agency) and as wardens for
national parks or nature reserves (including the RSPB or Wildlife Trust reserves) may
also be of interest to students.
A recent proliferation of ‘rewilding’ projects has been aimed at restoring

biodiversity. This involves large-scale habitat or wilderness restoration,
particularly to reconnect fragmented habitats (for example, constructing
hedgerows as wildlife corridors between woods), and the reintroduction of
predators and ‘keystone’ species.
Science in context
Students may be familiar with the recent reintroduction to the UK of Eurasian beavers
(Castor fiber), which became extinct in Britain 400 years ago due to over-hunting.
Beavers are keystone species because their habit of felling trees creates vital habitats
for many other wetland species. Small populations have now been successfully
reintroduced in Argyll and in Devon (Rewilding Britain; see the Resources section at
the end of the chapter). The re-establishment of beavers has received widespread
public support, unlike the suggested reintroduction of wolves! It is understandable
why most people in Scotland would not like to see the reintroduction of wolves.
However in the past, wolves kept down the numbers of deer, preventing them from
destroying woodland habitats and other forms of biodiversity. Not reintroducing
wolves means other (artificial) means of controlling numbers of wild herbivores, such
as culling, may need to be introduced to maintain ecosystem stability.
Some biologists are of the opinion that all species should be protected in
the wild in their natural habitats, but others argue that when the numbers of
a species get so low that it is on the verge of extinction, it may be better to
preserve the small numbers that remain in captivity.
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10 Biodiversity
Zoos around the world play a very important role in protecting biodiversity
by co-operating together; individual animals are exchanged to ensure
that breeding programmes for endangered species avoid inbreeding and
maximise genetic variation (Zoological Society of London; see the Resources
section at the end of the chapter). Several well-known species, such as the
California condor and Przewalski’s horse, have only avoided extinction due to
such breeding programmes.
Similarly, botanical gardens have a global network and are home to about
a third of all known plant species. Many such gardens have herbaria where
dried plant specimens can be studied and compared for identification and
classification purposes. Also of great significance are seedbanks where seeds
are stored in safety (at –20 °C) in case the species become endangered in the
wild. The Millennium Seed Bank at the Royal Botanic Gardens in London (Kew
Gardens) has the largest and most diverse collection of seeds in the world,
currently housing over 2.3 billion seeds from over 40 000 different species
(Royal Botanic Gardens; see the Resources section at the end of the chapter).
Natural history museums also make a significant contribution to supporting the
protection of biodiversity by collecting, identifying and describing plants and
animals and communicating that information to the public. They document
species and maintain reference collections for use in future research and they
are developing new digital and molecular tools for a better understanding of
biodiversity (Natural History Museum; see the Resources section at the end of
the chapter).
Careers
Biodiversity knowledge is very important for those wanting to pursue jobs at a zoo,
botanical garden or museum.
10.2 Classification of living organisms

The familiar system of classifying living things into groups based on their
structure and characteristics was first developed by Carl Linnaeus, an
eighteenth century Swedish scientist. This classification of living organisms
according to their natural relationships is referred to scientifically as
‘taxonomy’, but this term is rarely used at secondary school level. Younger
students will probably only need to describe and explain how organisms
are classified into broad groups using common observable characteristics.
They should be given practice using simple ready-made identification keys;
an effective way of appreciating the value of classification is for students
to construct their own keys using visible characteristics and constructively
criticise each other’s designs. Once they look closely, students will discover
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10.2 Classification of living organisms
many differences; the task is not as easy as they might imagine (see useful
websites at the end of the chapter on keys and classification: SAPS, 2019a;
STEM Learning, 2019).
An important point to consider is that there is variation within species (either
genetically or environmentally induced) and that keys have to be based on
consistent features. The importance of variation within species should be
recognised because it protects populations against environment changes. A
classic example of this is the peppered moth (Biston betularia), which exists as a
speckled whitish-grey (‘peppered’) variety, well camouflaged on lichens growing
on tree trunks, and a black (melanic) variety which is better camouflaged on
dark tree trunks covered in soot from atmospheric pollution. Using a mark–
release–recapture sampling method, English geneticist Bernard Kettlewell
famously compared peppered moth populations in urban woods heavily
subjected to atmospheric pollution and pollution-free woods in the countryside.
He found that the less conspicuous varieties (light ones in the countryside and
melanic ones in the city) were not so readily spotted by predatory birds and
therefore had a better chance of surviving and reproducing.
There is an interesting footnote to the peppered moth story. In the Shetland
Islands in the most northern part of the UK (students might recognise the name
of the principal town Lerwick from the very top of the TV weather map), there are
a lot of the melanic moths, and the percentage melanism increases as you go
from Sumburgh at the south end to Unst, the northernmost island. There is very
little, if any, air pollution in Shetland so being melanic there is unlikely to offer
helpful camouflage. It therefore seems likely that there is another advantage in
being melanic in the islands that is even more important than being camouflaged
against predation by birds. As a dark-coloured surface absorbs more heat from
the environment than a light one, this is thought to be an advantage for survival
in a cold place like the Shetland Islands where the peppered moth is at the
northern edge of its range. Perhaps global warming will mean that being melanic
in Unst may become less of an advantage to a peppered moth. If so, this might
mean the incidence of melanism may be reduced in favour of more effective
camouflage. There is no evidence of this – at least not yet!
Older students will learn that scientists initially devised a way of classifying
organisms based on observable characteristics, and that there is a hierarchical
system of groups, starting with the five kingdoms (animals, plants, fungi, protists
and prokaryotes), each being subdivided into increasingly smaller and more
specialised groups through: phylum, class, order, family, genus and species.
Each organism is named using the binomial system (literally, the ‘two-name’
naming system), comprising the name of the genus (with an initial capital letter)
and the name of the species, such as Homo sapiens. Scientific names of species
are written in Latin, which helps people around the world know which particular
organism is being discussed. For example, the European magpie is Pica pica
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10 Biodiversity
and the Australian magpie is Gymnorhina tibicen. They are both called magpies
by local people, and they do (superficially) resemble each other (they are both
black and white), but they don’t even belong to the same family of birds, so they
are not closely related.
With further advances in technology enabling us to look at organisms in much
more detail (using internal biochemical features and DNA sequences), we
can now use a more evidence-based approach to classification, with some
unexpected discoveries. For example, scientists have recently discovered
through whole genome analysis that pigeons and flamingos are surprisingly
closely related (Jarvis et al., 2014).
One notable post-Linnaean biological classification system based on chemical
analysis is the three-domain system devised by the American microbiologist Carl
Woese and his colleagues. This divides organisms into three ‘domains’: Archaea
(single-celled prokaryotes which often live in extreme environments), Bacteria
(true bacteria) and Eukaryota (having cells with a nucleus, including protists,
fungi, plants and animals).
Evolutionary trees draw on current classification data for living organisms
and fossil data for extinct organisms to show how organisms are related (see
Chapter 9). DNA sequencing of different species is now enabling scientists to
create more precise evolutionary trees, which can locate points in evolutionary
history where speciation might have occurred.
10.3 Active exploration of biodiversity with

students
Online exploration of ecosystem biodiversity
There are a variety of ways in which 11–14-year-old students could explore this
key topic. As a means of introducing students to the concept of biodiversity
around the world, they could work in small groups to carry out an online search
to find estimates of the number of species in:
➜ a rainforest
➜ a temperate broadleaved forest
➜ a conifer forest
➜ tundra
➜ hot desert
➜ a coral reef.
Estimates will vary since there are, for example, deserts and rainforests
in many parts of the world and they are not all the same. Students could
investigate several examples, pool their data and get an idea of the range
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10.3 Active exploration of biodiversity with students
of biodiversity both within and between the different types of ecosystem. The
ensuing small group and/or whole class discussion should raise questions
about whether some species are more important than others, both to the
ecosystem itself and to people. Of course, there is no definitive answer to
such questions and students need to understand that it will ultimately depend
on different people’s points of view. The teacher could introduce questions
relating to the relative value of different species, such as what would happen if
a particular species were not there.
Pitfall trapping
This introduces the idea of systematic data collection appropriate to a
particular component of an ecosystem; in this case soil invertebrates.
Investigating biodiversity using pitfall traps

KEY ACTIVITY
Pitfall traps are very easy to set up and can enable students to collect quantitative data
and discover that there are a lot more species of soil invertebrates than they thought!
opening is tile to keep the rain

level with and predators out
the ground
an empty container
(such as a tin can or
plastic yoghurt pot)
Figure 10.1 Diagram of a pitfall trap
This also provides an opportunity for students to work as a team. At one level, pitfall
traps can be used simply to find out what is there. A grid of (say) 25 traps might be set
up by a class in a woodland and then another 25 in a different habitat, such as an open
field. The class might have predicted that there would be more woodlice in the wood
than in the field because there are more dead leaves for them to eat and the study
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10 Biodiversity
should enable this prediction to be tested. For a more quantitative survey, try the mark–
release–recapture method to estimate population sizes in different habitats and/or at
different times of the year.
A note on the safe and ethical use of organisms
Check that students do not have allergies to invertebrates. Always return the
invertebrates to the habitat adjacent to the pitfall traps. Empty the traps as often as
possible and remember that some invertebrates eat others; for them the pitfall trap is a
very welcome banqueting opportunity! When you have finished, remember to remove
the empty containers and dispose of them appropriately.
Monitoring water quality: an application of

knowledge of biodiversity
Monitoring the biodiversity of water from rivers, streams and ponds can
be used to assess water quality. In this case, the diversity of invertebrates
provides an indication of the amount of oxygen in the water. The more species
present, including particular ‘indicator’ species, the more oxygenated the
water is and the healthier it is considered to be. The presence and abundance
of an indicator species indicates the environmental conditions and can
therefore be used as a proxy to determine the health of an ecosystem.
Careers
There are many jobs working for water companies in the field ensuring that streams
and lakes are not polluted and monitoring output from sewage treatment plants.
Using a sampling net, water is gently scooped up from the pond, river or stream
and emptied into a shallow tray and the species of organisms are identified.
Very high species density, including species with a high oxygen demand such
as the larvae of the mayfly (a species of Ephemeroptera) and caddis fly (a
species of Trichoptera), indicate that the water is well oxygenated and said to
be of ‘high water quality’. This is what you might find in clear mountain streams:
the water is almost certainly fit to drink (although we don’t recommend it just
in case you’ve misidentified the caddis fly larvae!). However, if the water has
low biodiversity with few species, including the sludge worm (Tubifex tubifex),
there is almost certainly something wrong. Perhaps there is sewage leaking into
the water upstream or a dead sheep rotting in it. If the water has quite a few
species, but no mayfly or caddis fly, the water quality is not good, but is better
than if there are just sludge worms present (see Table 10.1).
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Table 10.1 Indicator species used as a measure of water quality
Water quality Indicator species
very high larvae of mayflies, stone flies, caddis flies and freshwater shrimp
greater water boatman, water snails (especially Jenkins’ spire shell, ramshorn pea
fairly good
shell)
moderate/rather poor alderfly, lesser water boatman, water cricket and leeches
poor sludge worm, chironomid midge larvae, cranefly larvae
Professional water quality inspectors use this method as the first step in the
water monitoring process. The water quality might fluctuate each day so the
water might appear clean on the day of testing, but the presence of sludge
worms and few other species will indicate frequently low oxygen supply. This
is because sludge worms are one of the few freshwater species which can
tolerate low oxygen most of the time. The presence of sludge worms in stream
water, and very few other forms of life, suggests that even if it seems clean
when you collected a sample, much of the time there is low oxygen supply.
The most likely explanation is that it is subjected to pollution frequently even if
it seems clean when you examine it. If a water quality inspector found sludge
worms and relatively few other species in a stream, he or she would be
suspicious and would collect samples to make further investigation back at
the laboratory.
Using quadrats to relate biodiversity to

environmental conditions
A quadrat is usually a metal or wooden frame used for counting individual
organisms or species by placing it on the ground. It is generally placed on
low-lying vegetation on the ground or could be used for looking at limpets,
barnacles or seaweed on a rocky seashore. Technically, it is a sample area
defined by a quadrat frame but, in practice, most people refer to a quadrat
frame as the quadrat. (A quadrat is usually a square frame 50 cm × 50 cm,
which can sometimes be subdivided into 25 10 cm × 10 cm squares for greater
accuracy of measurements.) Note that it is not necessary for the teacher or
the student to know the names of all species. Sometimes it is just as useful to
group the organisms into categories. However, there are now fairly accurate
apps which can assist with identification, such as Seek (iNaturalist; see the
Resources section at the end of the chapter).
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10 Biodiversity
Using quadrats to investigate biodiversity in an area

KEY ACTIVITY
In general, you cannot possibly look at every square centimetre of a study area, so a
quadrat is a method of obtaining a representative sample to gain an estimate of the
whole area, or of two areas if you are comparing their biodiversity. You could do this
with perhaps ten randomly placed quadrats in one habitat and another ten in the
other habitat.
There are a couple of things to remember about ‘randomly placing’ quadrats. Firstly, this
is actually very difficult to achieve; students are often tempted to place the quadrat over
an interesting looking plant, which is far from random. To avoid this, one approach is to
mark off the site with two long tape measures set at right angles to create ‘axes’. Prior
to the fieldwork, generate and print out a list of random numbers (easily sourced from
the internet). Students working in pairs can then use these random numbers as distances
along the axes to create random co-ordinates at which to place their quadrats. Secondly,
some students are prone to throwing the quadrats as a means of being random! This is,
of course, a dangerous practice and one to be avoided.
Quadrats can also be used to show gradual change in biodiversity as you pass from
one habitat to another by creating a belt transect. This is a row of quadrats placed
at regular distances (say, one metre apart) along a straight line. If this is the first
experience of quadrats the class has encountered then you, as the teacher, need to
keep the exercise simple with a clear purpose. Examples could include: ‘How does the
biodiversity of plant species change as you go from an open meadow into the dark
shade of a wood?’ or ‘How does plant biodiversity change from the long grass across a
grass path trampled by people or animals?’.
Comparing biodiversity in two defined habitats

KEY ACTIVITIES
You can compare the biodiversity of two different areas by recording the number of
species present in a quadrat placed in each area.
This activity is more authentic and meaningful to students if you investigate the
ecological and social history of the two areas beforehand. The data below, collected by
a class of 13-year-olds, came from two areas of grassland in a park. At first the class
thought it was boring and ‘all grass’ but after ten minutes became interested as they
realised that the two areas were surprisingly different.
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Table 10.2 Plant species recorded in two areas of grassland
Species diversity
Species Grassland area 1 Grassland area 2
creeping bent grass ✓ ✓
red fescue ✓ ✓
sheep’s fescue ✓
daisy ✓ ✓
dandelion ✓ ✓
slender speedwell ✓
eyebright ✓
germander speedwell ✓
autumn hawkbit ✓
shepherd’s purse ✓
species diversity 4 10
Someone soon observed, ‘some of these dandelions are hairy and some aren’t’. Well
spotted! The hairy ones are not dandelions, they are autumn hawkbit. Someone
else said, ‘hey, there are two sorts of the blue things’. Yes, there are two species of
speedwell (slender speedwell and germander speedwell). In the end the students were
surprised how the two sites differed in species diversity. Check out the common names
of species you find. They often have some fascinating (sometimes rather humorous)
names, which often reveal a story behind them, such as old medicinal uses or peculiar
features (for example, the seed pods of shepherd’s purse look like miniature purses and
the seeds inside look like tiny coins). These aspects make the activity more interesting
for students.
The students concluded that grassland area 2 had greater species diversity, or greater
biodiversity.
The class then discussed why there was a difference in biodiversity between the two
closely adjacent areas. The clued-up teacher was able to reveal that this site had a long
history as grassland; before it became a public park, it had been part of the grounds of
a big house. In the past, grassland area 2 had been an orchard and the grassland was
several hundred years old. Grassland area 1, however, had been turned into a croquet
lawn in the nineteenth century and then into a cricket pitch. In other words, it had
become virtually a grass monoculture and it was difficult for the seeds of new species to
grow in the dense matted roots of the grass.
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Using quadrats: what to record

Students aged 14–16 years old can build on exploratory biodiversity ideas
by looking for trends in data. The commonest measurement to make is the
abundance of each species and this is usually measured in one of three
ways. (See also the useful websites from SAPS (2019b and c) in the Resources
section at the end of the chapter.)
1 Density: this means the number of individuals of each species per unit
area. You might use this for counting barnacles on a rocky sea shore
as you progress along a transect from the low- to the high-water mark
in order to find which part of the shore a particular species of barnacle
normally occurs in. You can also measure the density of plants, such as
daisies or dandelions, but it doesn’t work very well where it is difficult to
count individual plants, such as clump-forming buttercups or for species
of grasses or mosses.
2 Frequency: this is a better way to measure abundance. It means the
probability of each species occurring in a randomly placed quadrat. Get
students to record the presence or absence of each species in (say) ten
quadrats. To calculate the percentage frequency for each species, add up
the number of times each species is present out of the ten quadrats, then
multiply that by 10 to get the % frequency.
3 Percentage cover: here you don’t count individual plants but you record the
percentage of quadrat covered by each species. There are two ways of
doing this: cover estimate or use of a point quadrat (frame).
l Cover estimate: here you make a subjective assessment (by eye) of the
proportion of the quadrat covered by each species. It helps to imagine
that all the plants of a particular species are moved into one corner of the
quadrat (Figure 10.2). It is easier if the quadrats are divided into smaller
units, but another approach might be for students to put a grid overlay on
their mobile phone camera view, then make the quadrat fill the frame and
use that to help them estimate the cover.
l Point quadrat: instead of a square frame lying on the ground, a point
quadrat frame stands upright and has a row of ten evenly-spaced
holes through which a knitting needle can be inserted and allowed
to fall (Figure 10.3). Each species hit by the point of the needle is
recorded in a tally. The needle may hit more than one species – say
a blade of meadow grass and then a dandelion – in which case both
are recorded and the final total may therefore exceed 100%, especially
in long grass. If the needle does not hit a plant then ‘bare ground’
is recorded. If you are using a point quadrat alongside a transect
(marked by a measuring tape), the point quadrat frame is placed at
right angles to the tape and recorded at regular intervals.
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Maths
There are plenty of obvious links that can be made to calculations within sampling
activities. It is a good opportunity to confirm that students understand how to work
out percentages.
25% of quadrat area
imagine that all the examples cover of species A is estimated

of species A are in one corner to be around 15%
species A of the quadrat
Figure 10.2 Estimating % species cover by eye

50 cm
5 cm screw
hole for knitting wooden

metal spike to secure
knitting needle frame
frame to the ground
needle
20 cm
30 m tape
2cm one needle acting as a
2.5 cm scoring transect
more than
metal spike to
one hit
secure frame
to the ground
Figure 10.3 Estimating % cover using a point quadrat
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10 Biodiversity
Species diversity (biodiversity)

A more accurate way of calculating the diversity of plant species in an area is
to make two measurements: species richness and species evenness. Species
richness is the number of species in a quadrat, but this is actually a rather
crude measurement since it does not take into account the relative importance
of each species very well. This idea of the relative abundance of each species
in the area is called species evenness.
Say you had a quadrat (Quadrat A) that was 99% creeping bent grass but
with a single very small daisy plant, a single very small eyebright and a single
very small speedwell giving a total of 4 for species richness. There’s a lot of
one species but only a trace of the other three. Quadrat B, on the other hand,
was 25% creeping bent grass, 25% red fescue, 25% sheep’s fescue and 25%
moss. This quadrat would also score a total of 4 for species richness, but as it
has similar amounts of all four species, it has greater species evenness and
therefore a higher species diversity than Quadrat A. So, species diversity
can be measured more accurately by combining the species richness and the
species evenness, and this is often calculated using the Simpson’s Diversity
Index. This index was introduced by Edward Simpson, a British statistician
and code-breaker during the Second World War. For a worked example of the
Simpson’s Diversity Index see the Offwell Woodland and Wildlife Trust website
(see the Resources section at the end of the chapter).
10.4 Deciding where to study biodiversity

When organising fieldwork it is important that you choose a good and interesting
example which offers a good story. Whenever you take students outside to
conduct fieldwork you will, of course, need to consult, and if necessary adjust,
an appropriate risk assessment. If it is really not possible to leave the school
grounds, you might want to explore the site for areas which offer the greatest
biodiversity (such as mixed hedges or patches of unmown grass), and if these do
not already exist, see if they can be created! Even if you are at an urban school
with no ‘green’ areas on the premises, there are always some opportunities; you
just have to be creative. Remember: biodiversity is everywhere. For example, you
could make very small quadrats (10 cm × 10 cm) from wire, or by cutting out a
piece of transparent plastic, and place them on tree trunks or walls to study the
distributions of lichens and mosses in different places. Every site will be different,
so the teacher needs to choose it carefully and ensure that it offers:
➜ species that students will find interesting to identify
➜ an interesting pattern which emerges without having to do too many quadrats
➜ an interesting, and ideally an unexpected, conclusion for the final
discussion, such as the discovery mentioned above that the grassland used
to be a Victorian croquet lawn. See if you can find old maps showing what
the site used to look like.
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10.5 Resources
10.5 Resources
General
Field Studies Council. The FSC has a large selection of fold-out identification
charts, including a Field Guide to Freshwater Life:
www.field-studies-council.org/product-category/publications
Geopacks. Fieldwork equipment aimed at geography teachers, but very useful
for outdoor science too:
www.geopacks.com/collections/fieldwork-equipment
Websites
BEEP (BioEthics Education Project) Working with discussion. Available at: www.
beep.ac.uk/content/484.0.html
Great Fen: www.greatfen.org.uk/
GreenJobs. A resource publicising biodiversity jobs:
www.greenjobs.co.uk/biodiversity-jobs.cms.asp
iNaturalist Seek app: www.inaturalist.org/pages/seek_app
National Trust. ‘What is biodiversity?’: www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/what-
is-biodiversity
Natural History Museum: www.nhm.ac.uk/our-science/our-work/biodiversity.html
Offwell Woodland and Wildlife Trust: www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/simpsons.htm
Rewilding Britain. Beaver: www.rewildingbritain.org.uk/rewilding/
reintroductions/beaver
Rewilding Europe. ‘What is rewilding?’: https://rewildingeurope.com/what-is-
rewilding/
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Millennium Seed Bank:
www.kew.org/science/collections-and-resources
SAPS (Science & Plants for Schools) is an organisation providing many useful
resources and guides for measuring organisms in the field: www.saps.org.uk/
a Making and using keys: www.saps.org.uk/attachments/article/560/
SAPS%20Grouping%20&%20classification%20-%20PartE.pdf
b Measuring abundance and random sampling: search ‘Ecology Practical
1’ from the SAPS homepage
c Further information about working with quadrats: search ‘questions about
quadrats’ from the SAPS homepage
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10 Biodiversity
Scottish Natural Heritage: www.nature.scot

STEM Learning: search ‘classification’ from the STEM Learning homepage:
www.stem.org.uk/resources/elibrary
United Nations Decade on Biodiversity:
www.cbd.int/doc/strategic-plan/UN-Decade-Biodiversity.pdf
WWF: https://wwf.panda.org/our_work/our_focus/biodiversity/biodiversity/
Zoological Society of London:
www.zsl.org/education/how-breeding-programmes-work
References
Bioversity International (2017) Mainstreaming Agrobiodiversity in Sustainable
Food Systems: Scientific Foundations for an Agrobiodiversity Index. Rome:
Bioversity International.
Chivian, E. and Bernstein, A. (eds) (2008) Sustaining Life: How Human Health
Depends on Biodiversity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jónasdóttir, S. H. and Koski, M. (2010) Biological processes in the North Sea:
comparison of Calanus helgolandicus and Calanus finmarchicus vertical
distribution and production. Journal of Plankton Research, 33, 85–103.
Maar, M., Møller, E. F., Gürkan, Z., Jonasdottir, S. and Neilson, T. G. (2013)
Sensitivity of Calanus spp. copepods to environmental changes in the North
Sea using life-stage structured models. Progress in Oceanography, 3, 24–37.
Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Dalsgaard, J., Froese, R. and Torres, F. (1998) Fishing
down marine food webs. Science, 279, 860–863.
Raffaelli, D. (2017) What is Biodiversity? NERC Planet Earth. Spring/Summer. p.1.
Reynolds, M. (2018) The banana is dying. The race is on to reinvent it before it’s
too late: www.wired.co.uk/article/cavendish-banana-extinction-gene-editing
Sender, R., Fuchs, S. and Milo, R. (2016) Revised estimates for the number of
human and bacteria cells in the body. PLOS Biology, 14 (8), August.
Further reading
Bielo, D. (2019) How Biodiversity Keeps Earth Alive. Scientific American: www.
scientificamerican.com/article/how-biodiversity-keeps-earth-alive
Sethi, S. (2015) Bread, Wine, Chocolate: The Slow Loss of Foods We Love. San
Francisco: HarperOne.
Wilson, E .O. (1999) The Diversity of Life. New York: W. W. Norton Company.
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11 The environment
Melissa Glackin and Steve Tilling
Topic overview
The environment is the natural home for biology teaching. It features
prominently – directly or indirectly – in all areas of the biology curriculum, and
often provides the context and connections through which students transfer
biology education to their everyday lives. Furthermore, the environment offers
excellent opportunities to collect ‘authentic’ biological data, potentially using a
variety of collecting and recording devices and providing many valid reasons
for developing mathematical skills. The fact that the environment is all-
encompassing provides many advantages for biology teachers.
However, the sheer scale and complexity of the environment does present
challenges when developing a structured approach to teaching. Therefore,
in this chapter we borrow a helpful framework from the field of Environmental
Education to consider related statutory curriculum and specification
requirements. The framework approaches the environment from three
overlapping perspectives: biology education about the environment, biology
education for (the preservation, conservation and sustainable use of) the
environment, and biology education in the environment, as well as teaching
sequences formed by combinations of each. It is always important to link
your teaching to planned outcomes, and Table 11.1 summarises some of the
potential differences between the three approaches. We suggest that all have
a place in the biology classroom.
Table 11.1 A comparison of education about, for and in the environment. Although the table illustrates differing emphases
between three approaches, all will overlap and complement each other.
Education about Education for Education in

direct/experimental
approach purpose subject and skill acquisition advocacy and activism
experience
gaining embodied
gaining knowledge and skills; gaining activist knowledge
knowledge through contact
view of knowledge informing metacognition and commitment; enquiry
with the (often novel)
and deeper understanding into issues; contextual
surroundings
developing students’ stimulating and provoking; providing and facilitating the
role of teacher
knowledge guiding fieldwork experience
developing knowledge and becoming physically active
developing skills of activism
role of student understanding (caution: this learners, with all senses
and advocacy
can become ‘passive’) engaged
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11 The environment
Five teaching sequences using the about/for/in framework form the bulk of this
chapter:
➜ understanding biodiversity
➜ climate change
➜ food security
➜ air and water quality
➜ health.
However, before embarking on these it is useful to consider some of the
broader strengths of environment teaching and the knowledge and experience
that your students may bring to the classroom.
Environment and biology education

Opportunities to link to Wynne Harlen’s big ideas of science (Harlen, 2010,
2015), met in Chapter 1, are easily identifiable. In particular, environment
teaching in biology offers excellent opportunities to showcase how:
➜ scientific explanations, theories and models are those that best fit what is
known at a particular time
➜ the knowledge produced by science is used in some technologies to create
products to serve human ends
➜ applications of science often have ethical, social, economic and political
implications.
This final ‘big idea’ is particularly pertinent in that there are an abundance of
ethical dimensions associated with ‘environment’ teaching, including – but not
limited to – selecting sources of environmental information and data (about);
managing (pre-)conceived ideas and convictions and ensuring appropriate
exposure to a range of illustrative examples (for). Relatedly, you also need to
consider how to ensure best access to fieldwork and data (in the environment)
that includes appropriate opportunities for all your students.
Environmental education offers biology teaching an exciting and inspiring
host of activists (such as Vandana Shiva), some of whom could be identified
as contemporary peers (such as Greta Thunberg), scientists (such as Rachel
Carson), writers (including Robert MacFarlane) and TV personalities (such
as David Attenborough) to enrich and enliven lessons. Furthermore, students
will hear frequently about environmental organisations in the media, such as
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), Greenpeace and
the Wildlife Trusts, which can be hooked in, explained and, importantly, used
to highlight the range of biology-related careers and roles offered in such
organisations.
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11 The environment
Traditionally, secondary biology fieldwork is most often linked to biodiversity

and ecology. The most common techniques and equipment are covered in
Chapter 10. However, the teaching sequences described later in the chapter
illustrate possible alternative routes to the integration of biology teaching and
the environment. Table 11.2 offers other aspects of biology teaching that you
might like to consider linking to the environment.
Table 11.2 Examples of biology topics with potential links to environment teaching
Topic Link to opportunity for environment teaching

learning to observe ‘scientifically’ – applying and developing these skills outside the
cells classroom
learning to use magnifying lenses, microscopes, binoculars and classification keys
looking at leaves as exchange surfaces; students can go out and collect different types,
exchange
shapes and sizes of leaves
learning about the control of flowering and fruiting (plant hormones), related to food
communication and control sustainability and food security (resources might include the website for Compassion in
World Farming, given at the end of the chapter)

Students entering secondary science will have studied life cycles and
reproduction in animals and plants, and made scientific observations outside
their classrooms through enquiry-led lessons or half-day sessions (sometimes
in school gardens or Forest Schools). There might have been an emphasis
on animal compared to plant biology, but controversial aspects of human
relationships with, and impacts on, the environment are unlikely to have been
covered in depth in science teaching (although they may have featured in
cross-curricular themes or whole-school assemblies in some primary schools).
Teaching for the environment is an area of teaching which can provide rich
opportunities in secondary biology, as illustrated in the teaching sequences
below. Many of your students will be ready for this and some may already have
been involved in ‘taking action’ on behalf of the environment in school, perhaps
through recycling initiatives, fundraising and letter writing, particularly if they
have come from primary schools which have adopted ‘green’ initiatives. In the
UK, these could include Green Flag awards or Forest Schools (see the websites
in the section on ‘Websites for whole-school environmental projects and awards’
at the end of the chapter). Some students may also be involved through home
or groups outside school. This prior experience can be highly positive and
motivating, but occasionally you will encounter students who will be ‘weighed’
down and fearful for the planet’s future.
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11 The environment
Teaching in the environment

Why do fieldwork?
Practicals are an essential part of biology education. Fieldwork – practicals
carried out in the ‘outdoor classroom’ – add an extra dimension to work in
the laboratory and classroom. Lambert and Reiss (2015) summarise these as
enabling students to:
➜ gain a deeper awareness and understanding of the challenges facing
biologists when investigating in ‘real world’ settings which can often provide
‘messy’ and complex contexts
➜ understand the uniqueness of places and habitats, even those close to home
➜ appreciate the importance of statistics, variability, probability and the need to
be cautious in drawing conclusions and making predictions
➜ experience the unfamiliar even in familiar locations, thus opening minds and
stimulating curiosity
➜ appreciate the value of working co-operatively.
Teaching in the field will also deepen your knowledge of your students and
their potential.
When setting up fieldwork you may face some challenges, but the good news
is that most can be tackled successfully. Table 11.3 sets out common barriers
and lists tried-and-tested solutions.
Table 11.3 Fieldwork challenges and possible solutions
Challenge Practical solution

General: ask your school educational trip co-ordinator for advice on local issues and
national policies. Useful guidance from the Department of Education in England is available
on their website (detailed at the end of the chapter).
On-site fieldwork: Physical Education colleagues will have risk assessments which will
Health and safety issues
contain lots of useful site-specific information.
Off-site fieldwork: out-of-school organisations in the UK may carry accreditation, such as the
Learning Outside the Classroom Quality Badge (see details at the end of the chapter); these
organisations will have exemplar risk assessments adaptable for your own students’ needs.
Fieldwork can be completed in the school grounds or local sites close to school.
Repeat visits are easy to organise.
Lack of time: impact on
teaching timetable and Remain outside for the entirety of the lesson reducing the time lost travelling to and from
other classes the classroom.
Subjects, including art, English, history and geography, can combine to create an off-site day
which includes the teaching of these subjects.
Lack of teaching staff Fieldwork can be completed in the school grounds or local sites close to school.
and cover staff Incorporate technicians and other support staff.
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11 The environment
Challenge Practical solution

Field equipment can often be made in schools at little expense.
Cost of resources and
equipment Sites will be available within walking distance of all secondary schools if transport is
unaffordable.
Establish outside routines similar to those used in the classroom (such as a regular position
where you stand, setting up timings, clearly indicated physical boundaries).
Student behaviour
Take a ‘grab and go’ sack with extra equipment including pencils, paper, clipboards, timers,
rulers, sitters/something to sit on, poster paper.
Where to teach through fieldwork

Every secondary school will have potential fieldwork sites within walking
distance. Fieldwork in the most demanding locations – for example in heavily
built-up inner city locations (see Glackin et al., 2006, 2015) – can provide
great potential for developing a new curiosity and pride in local students
while providing opportunities to make links between biology and their
everyday lives. Many Wildlife Trusts, local records centres and the Ordnance
Survey host online maps, often searchable through locations and postcodes,
which will enable you to find potential fieldwork sites including parks and
open spaces, streams and ponds. Some will provide additional support and
resources (see Resources section at the end of the chapter for links).
How to teach through fieldwork

The most critical component in creating effective fieldwork is to consider and
plan why you are doing it. Table 11.4 provides a checklist of things to think
about if you are considering fieldwork within walking distance. It might look
daunting at first, but don’t worry ... it gets easier with practice and there will
be experienced colleagues in school, or knowledgeable staff and potential
helpers at the chosen site, who will be able to support you.
Table 11.4 Fieldwork: things to do and consider (adapted from various sources, including a British Ecological Society (BES)
‘Enhancing Fieldwork’ workshop, 2018)
Have clear aims, objectives and learning outcomes (recognising that there are
opportunities beyond meeting narrow curriculum requirements).
Consult colleagues and check school protocols for off-site visits.
Make site visit(s) and find the right field site (allowing for adequate accessibility,
Before the fieldwork
wellbeing, supervision and observation).
Carry out a health and safety audit, including a risk assessment.
Gain permissions (including from school managers and visit co-ordinators, site owners/
managers, parents/guardians).
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11 The environment
Plan timings, travel and logistics.

Build a library of supporting resources (many will be free online).
Prepare students, accompanying staff and other helpers (assigning roles and
responsibilities; allocating students to groups; providing clothing lists).
Inform other colleagues in school, particularly if timetables are being disrupted.
Prepare fieldwork methods, field equipment and supporting resources (including a ‘grab
and go’ sack which contains identification guides, equipment, maps, recording sheets,
first aid kit, etc.).
Consider value for money and gather financial support (if needed).
Make contingency plans, allowing for flexibility and time to adapt to unforeseen
situations.
Consider student wellbeing (including warmth, hunger, sun, rain).
Be flexible: change plans as directed by the students’ capabilities.
Allow time for students to plan, reflect and develop hypotheses.
Encourage team-working and avoid students working alone.
During the fieldwork
Provide informal feedback during activities.
Provide time to make sense of ‘accidental’ discoveries and observations (this can be the
most inspiring and motivational aspect of the field experience – link it to the fact that
many science discoveries can be serendipitous).
Give students ownership of their research.
Set reflective tasks.
Build on your work in the field in follow-up teaching: connect to other topics throughout
Following the fieldwork the curriculum (for example, use photos from the session).
Ask your students for feedback.
Reflect yourself and amend plans for next time.
Computer-based and virtual reality fieldwork

Virtual reality (VR) resources enable students to be immersed in a range of
habitats while still in the classroom. Research shows that these are most
effective as a complement to physical fieldwork, either in preparation for a
field visit or as a follow-up (Argles, Minocha and Burden, 2015).
Currently, the majority of these virtual resources rely on students using desktop
computers, tablets or individual headsets to ‘explore’ 360 ° 2D panoramas
(photographed on 360 ° cameras), sometimes led by a teacher who is able to
control the inputs, provide on-screen prompts and monitor where individual
students are in the virtual landscape (such as Google Expeditions; details
provided at the end of the chapter).
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11 The environment
Technology use
More recent programmes are based in a 3D environment which enables students to
walk or fly through real landscapes, making observations and sharing experiences
with other students (represented by avatars) (see Open University’s Virtual Skiddaw,
detailed at the end of the chapter).
Developers are now offering teachers the ability to create their own field trips,
including selecting virtual equipment and sampling sites (such as Fieldscapes,
see Resources section). Google Street View and Google Earth (website details
provided at the end of the chapter) are being used increasingly by biologists
and environmental scientists to measure geospatial changes in habitats
and wildlife conservation, but can also be used to prepare for field visits (in
highlighting features of interest or risks, for example) or to compare with, or
illustrate, other locations of interest. Both applications are now free and offer
opportunities to develop your own lessons and plans.
Teaching about the environment

Why teach explicitly about the environment?
The biology curriculum requires teaching linked to places, habitats,
ecosystems and associated environmental ‘issues’ (deforestation,
conservation, pollution, etc) and related scientific skills. It is tempting to
treat these as siloes – tackling each topic separately, using discrete facts,
figures and skills for each of them. However, the most effective teaching
through and about the environment is multi-disciplinary and inter-connected
and recognises that the environment is affected directly and indirectly by
the actions of people working both individually and collectively, with social,
cultural, economic and technological influences throughout. ‘Ecosystem
services’ is a relatively new unifying framework which highlights the benefits
(the ‘services’) of healthy environments, including social, cultural, spiritual and
aesthetic aspects which are frequently overlooked in science teaching. This
framework is useful for reviewing the environmental connections that can be
made in teaching and is described in more detail in Chapter 10, Biodiversity.
However, it is also controversial with some people who say that attaching
‘values’ to environmental and ecosystem services means that they can
become commodities which can be traded away, possibly to destruction. This
can be developed as a class-wide debate.
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11 The environment
Cross-disciplinary
Throughout this chapter we encourage a multi-disciplinary approach to
environment teaching. A recurring criticism of secondary education – including in
science teaching – throughout the past 100 years has been failure to break down
curriculum barriers. The environment provides exciting opportunities to achieve this.
There are many online examples of cross-curricular themes in the various guises
of environmental education, education for sustainable development and global
citizenship education (see Resources). Talking to colleagues in other departments
about environment teaching will bring mutual benefits.
Scientific literacy
Teaching about the environment can also highlight the importance of students
developing a scientific ‘attitude’, stressing the need for objectivity, accuracy,
precision, repeatability and reproducibility when considering complex
environmental issues which may appear to have no obvious solutions or consensus.
Students can gain an understanding through this teaching that science is

rarely static, and that its methods and theories develop as new evidence and
ideas emerge and earlier explanations are modified. Effective environment
teaching (and associated statistics) can also highlight why environmental
scientists may deal in ‘probability’ rather than ‘certainty’, and why they often
recommend actions based on the ‘precautionary principle’ when facing
environmental risks.
Teaching about environmental topics and issues can build key competencies
which will help students to become more effective biological scientists in the
following areas (after Wiek et al., 2011):
➜ Systems thinking: understanding the importance of cycles and feedback
loops (including impacts and influences from social, cultural and economic
domains), and the consequences of actions by people, including ourselves.
➜ Anticipatory thinking: having a more informed picture of what the future will
look like, with or without interventions by scientists.
➜ Normative competence: identifying and evaluating environmental
situations and states, their associated boundaries of risk and developing
precautionary responses.
➜ Strategic competence: becoming sufficiently informed (as biologists) to
design and suggest ideas for resolving environmental issues.
➜ Interpersonal competence: gaining interpersonal skills in communicating,
negotiating and collaborating, and recognising that science progresses as
an open community.
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11 The environment
Careers
There are some obvious careers linked to the environment, including those
associated most closely with ecology and biodiversity (see Chapter 10, Biodiversity).
In addition, the broad range of skills and competencies illustrated in this chapter are
very transferable to careers which are public-facing, collaborative and/or policy-
oriented. These include, for example, becoming: translational ecologists, working
with a range of stakeholders and decision makers in sociological, ecological and
political contexts to tackle an environmental problem; working for environment
charities and bodies, including campaigning groups; or pursuing careers in planning,
engineering and architecture where the environment now features prominently in
training and career development.
Scientific literacy
Teaching linked to the environment will often generate student debate –
sometimes heated and passionate. This energy can be used positively in
structured activities. We have suggested several in the text. For example: using
auditing tools to consider the scientific value of online information; developing
argumentation skills; encouraging groupwork; and encouraging local activities
linked to everyday lives. Together, these activities will help greatly in developing
these key competencies in your students. It will also prepare them for higher
education and careers.
Bringing teaching up to date

The growth of initiatives such as Creative Commons and Open Government
Licences (where authors or research funders give other people the right
to share, use and build upon their work) has opened up online access to
high-quality scientific research. Online databases may be linked to topics
throughout the biology curriculum.
Maths
Filtering, and refining, raw data from these online databases to suit your purposes
can be time-consuming, but upper secondary students can be involved in the
process, possibly in preparation for their own fieldwork activities or as practice
for mathematical and statistical skills. Doing this, using environmental data –
particularly in its rawest form – will help to develop analytical and evaluative skills.
Students can refine and present their results (individually and/or collaboratively),
draw conclusions and make their own predictions. They can identify the strengths
and weaknesses of their own interpretations, evaluate the possibilities of error and
suggest future questions and areas for research by biological scientists.
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11 The environment
Citizen science projects often adopt simple methodologies which can be

replicated in schools. The disadvantage is that many projects are short-lived
and their online data may be lost over time. The Open Air Laboratories (OPAL)
project, however, is an established, UK-based, citizen science initiative which
has involved over one million people, including students from 4000+ schools,
contributing to seven national environmental surveys. OPAL’s resources, which
include survey advice for group leaders and teachers, methodology and
identification sheets, can still be downloaded and results are available online
for local and national comparisons (see Resources section for information).
Dealing with bias, inaccuracy and prejudice

Environmental information, published through print, TV or online media, needs
to be treated with caution. Most of us struggle to tell the difference between
‘real’ and ‘fake’ news, and between objective and sponsored information. So,
how do you impose the quality control which guarantees that the information
you and your students are sharing is objective, rigorous and representative
of best-informed scientific opinion? It is difficult, but colleagues, particularly
in social sciences and humanities departments (such as teachers involved
in digital literacy, citizenship, personal, social or health education), may
recommend resources and auditing tools which can be used by you and your
students to detect bias, and also to ensure their own safety when using online
resources.
Science in context
Providing contrasting data and viewpoints will help to develop your students’
critical, anticipatory and strategic thinking, and support their decision-making.
Teaching for the environment

Debates and concerns about environmental issues – for example linked
to climate change, conservation, species extinction and pollution – have
grown through a rapidly proliferating media in recent years. As a result,
students may already have an interest in, or be involved in, activities linked
to these issues. Older students may have knowledge of the United Nation’s
17 Sustainable Development Goals (see Resources section). These provide
a strong foundation for exploring how evidence from biological science can
add a deeper understanding and rigour, including where misconceptions
may have arisen previously. This critical role for biology is recognised in
non-statutory curricula such as Environmental Education, Education for
Sustainable Development and Global Citizenship. In short, biology teaching
can enable students to become more committed and informed beneficiaries
and custodians for the natural environment.
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11.1 Climate change
However, teaching for the environment can be highly complex (covering many
aspects of biology and other subjects), is often contested, and may appear
to lack any solutions. Argumentation, that is learning to construct a scientific
argument built on evidence, is a useful framework for students to learn to
support them in taking their own stances on environmental issues and related
activism. Details of what argumentation is, alongside how it can be used, are
provided at the end of the chapter. We recommend that this framework is used to
develop teaching resources that enable students to ‘argue’ about environmental
issues where information from a range of perspectives – scientific, economic,
political, ethical – are integrated into the teaching sequence.
Science in context
Students can feel that environmental issues have no solution. So, introducing
examples where communities and organisations have come together to respond to
local challenges can be inspiring; for example, a community clearance of a stretch
of a canal path – making it a more pleasant place – and turning part of a park into a
meadowland. Such examples can also highlight the roles that both technology and
changes in lifestyles will play in future-proofing our planet.
Some schools (particularly at primary and junior level) may already

participate in whole-school environmental projects and awards that your
biology teaching could be involved in (or lead on!) (including Eco-Schools and
Green Flag Awards in the UK (see Resources)). Practical Action offers some
inspiring examples of community responses and some excellent teaching
resources (details at end of chapter).
Teaching sequences: unifying the environment

In the introduction we suggested five topic areas where all three approaches
to environmental education might be interweaved. Below, we take each topic
in turn to illustrate possible teaching sequences where biology teaching can
be about, in and for the environment.
11.1 Climate change

How are animals and plants adapted to
climate, and how could they be affected by
future climate change?
Global warming is rarely out of the news but teaching about it presents
challenges for a biology teacher. All of the issues we raised in the introductory
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11 The environment
sections – keeping up to date, unravelling complexity, dealing with perceptions

and misconceptions, allowing for bias and subjectivity, facing ethical
dilemmas – can be encountered. But there are some basic facts that are
indisputable and should form the core of the teaching around which various
activities can be developed. A reputable scientific source for information about
climate change is The Royal Society, and some evidence they point to – for
example, poleward shifts of temperature-sensitive species of fish, mammals
and insects – is directly relevant to biology teaching (see Resources section at
the end of the chapter).
When teaching students aged 11–14, you could highlight the relationship
between global climate zones and their natural communities. In simple terms,
the major climatic zones are:
➜ polar and mountains (very cold and dry all year)
➜ cool temperate (cold winters and mild summers)
➜ warm temperate (mild winters, dry hot summers)
➜ arid or desert (dry, hot all year)
➜ tropical (hot and wet all year).
Biologists (including explorers such as Alexander von Humboldt over 200 years
ago) have long recognised that these zones are associated with recognisable
communities of animals and plants (now named biomes) which are adapted to
their local climates (Odum, 1971).
With students aged 11–14, it is important for them to experience the effects
of climate change and global warming because they probably have little
understanding of what changes of even a few degrees Celsius mean for the
environment.
Using a model of the Earth to investigate temperature

KEY ACTIVITY
differences
In thinking broadly about the potential effects that climate change will have on the
flora and fauna across the planet, make a flat model of the Earth by covering a piece
of cardboard with white (polar regions), blue (sea) and dark green (land) modelling
clay. Leave the map out in the Sun for 10 minutes (on a sunny day). Invite students to
feel the difference in temperature between the white and dark green areas; the darker
areas should feel much warmer than the white poles. This is due to the colour of the
area of land affecting the ability to absorb energy. Whiter regions (like the poles and
mountains) reflect light, while darker regions (like tropical rainforest) absorb energy
and become warmer.
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11.1 Climate change
Invite students to investigate how the weather in one climate zone has had an
KEY ACTIVITY
effect on the way life has evolved. For example, in colder areas: cold-blooded
animals (poikilotherms) such as snakes, snails and insects may have darker patches
on their bodies to help absorb heat; trees may have thicker and darker bark and
shed leaves in the winter to protect from frosts and ice; and warm blooded animals
(homeotherms) such as polar bears may have thicker fur, be mostly active during
the day and hibernate in winter. In hotter areas: plants and animals may be adapted
to retain water (such as cacti and camels), only be active at night or be very pale
to reflect sunlight. It is important here to stress that these adaptations have come
about through natural selection over a long period of time, where some variation
in those animals or plants has made them more successful in surviving, mating and
producing the next generation (see Chapter 9).
Further activities
Take students outside to observe and sketch several plants. Ask them to
research a plant’s life cycle and how it is adapted for the UK seasons. Focused
on the plant, ask them to consider the possible impacts of future climate
change. What stresses might this plant be under if the temperature rises by a
few degrees Celsius? For data and lesson plans related to weather and climate
change see the Metlink website (details provided at the end of the chapter).
Enhancement ideas
1 In considering ‘adaptations’, debate how roofs and buildings in urban areas could be adapted
to lower excessive heat inside buildings in future summers. One suggestion is that roofs
should be painted white or with special paint to reflect some of the Sun’s rays. Another idea
is to plant ‘green’ roofs and walls with heat- and drought-tolerant plants to absorb sunshine
and also to reduce heat loss in the winter. Ask your students to compare the relative merits
of both approaches, and to research the plants which are being used and how they are
adapted for this purpose. The website of the Royal Horticultural Society (detailed at the end
of the chapter) provides some good information on green roofs.
2 Burning fossil fuels to generate energy for our homes and schools is one of the major causes
of climate change. Older students might use the data in Table 11.5 and complete four simple
steps in a fieldwork activity to make this link with our own lifestyles:
l Select some local trees and measure their stem size at chest height.
l Convert the stem sizes into an estimate of the wood biomass.
l Calculate the amount of energy that could be produced for heating and hot water through
wood-burning boilers in local homes and schools.
l Compare this with the actual energy used in schools to work out how many students that
tree could support if used as wood fuel for a year.
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11 The environment
This activity can be carried out at any site, including using urban trees lining pavements
and in local parklands. It provides a biology-oriented entry into discussion about options for
renewable energy generation (including wind, solar, hydro and nuclear, as well as biofuels), its
potential long-term landscape impacts and our own levels of energy use (see Tilling, 2007,
for further data and explanation). Biomass and energy transfer will link with earlier chapters
(such as Chapter 3, Energy and materials).
Maths
Cost of energy calculations can be introduced (and linked to physics) in discussions with
students about this topic.
Table 11.5 Converting trees into energy (after Tilling, 2007)

How many secondary school pupils
Girth/cm Volume/m3 Mass/kg Energy content/GJ could be supplied with annual heating
and hot water by this tree?
22 0.01 3.3 0.0 0.0
31 0.07 44.9 0.5 0.1
41 0.15 101.0 1.1 0.3
50 0.26 171.6 1.8 0.5
60 0.39 257.4 2.7 0.7
69 0.54 356.4 3.8 1.0
79 0.72 475.2 5.1 1.3
91 0.98 646.8 6.9 1.8
100 1.21 798.6 8.5 2.2
110 1.46 963.6 10.3 2.6
119 1.73 1141.8 12.2 3.1
129 2.02 1333.2 14.2 3.6
138 2.33 1537.8 16.4 4.2
151 2.79 1841.4 19.6 5.0
160 3.15 2079.0 22.1 5.7
170 3.54 2336.4 24.9 6.4
179 3.95 2607.0 27.8 7.1
188 4.39 2897.4 30.9 7.9
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11.1 Climate change
How many secondary school pupils

Girth/cm Volume/m3 Mass/kg Energy content/GJ could be supplied with annual heating
and hot water by this tree?
201 5.00 3300.0 35.1 9.0
210 5.48 3616.8 38.5 9.9
220 5.99 3953.4 42.1 10.8
229 6.52 4303.2 45.8 11.7
239 7.07 4666.2 49.7 12.7
248 7.64 5042.4 53.7 13.7
261 8.44 5570.4 59.3 15.2
270 9.07 5986.2 63.8 16.3
279 9.72 6415.2 68.3 17.5
289 10.40 6864.0 73.1 18.7
298 11.10 7326.0 78.0 20.0
311 12.00 7920.0 84.3 21.6
320 12.80 8448.0 90.0 23.0
330 13.50 8910.0 94.9 24.3
339 14.30 9438.0 100.5 25.7
349 15.10 9966.0 106.1 27.1
361 16.30 10758.0 114.6 29.3
371 17.10 11286.0 120.2 30.7
3 Planners are promoting the development of more green spaces in future towns and cities
as a protection against further climate change. Students could use local biology fieldwork
to investigate some of the reasons why, which include: temperature, wind, rainfall and
flooding.
l Temperature: trees and plants can help to reduce temperatures in built-up areas. Using
data loggers, your students can compare average temperatures in built and natural areas.
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11 The environment
Technology use
Throughout this chapter we have emphasised that environment teaching need not
be dependent on expensive devices and equipment. However, teaching using new
technology may help to engage and motivate more students. Many science departments
will have access to data loggers that could be used by students to measure such things
as temperature and wind strength with appropriate sensors. Smartphones and tablets
can now be equipped with similar sensors and 360° cameras will enable 2D ‘virtual’
immersions in your fieldwork locations. The advantage of using these aids is that data can
be downloaded to spreadsheets; data handling and geospatial applications (such as GIS)
can provide a very swift, visual summary of fieldwork activity. This is a rapidly evolving
area, but if your science department lacks these resources, geography colleagues may have
access to information and equipment to support fieldwork.
l Wind: trees and hedgerows can reduce wind speeds and associated turbulence by as
much as 85%. This will become more important if the frequency of extreme storm events
increases as predicted. Wind strength on either side of a natural barrier can be measured
easily (or demonstrated) using distance and direction travelled by soapy air bubbles
(details of how to make good bubbles can be found on the Home Science Tools website
given at the end of the chapter).
l Rainfall and flooding: more extreme rainstorms are expected in the future and planted
areas can reduce the chance of surface flooding. Your students could measure and
compare likely heavy rain drainage from different areas by placing an upright metal tube
or tin can (opened at both ends) on contrasting substrates in natural and more impacted
areas (such as grassland, weedy areas, flower borders, tree undercover, gravel and tarmac
paths). Pour in a measured amount of water and record the time it takes to drain away. The
results can be used to assess the effectiveness of different land uses in your study area for
reducing potential flooding. These could be superimposed on a hand-drawn map.
Technology use
In this activity (and many of the fieldwork exercises described here), students could use a
geographical information system (GIS) application to map results (see details at the ESRI
UK website at the end of the chapter).
Cross-disciplinary
GIS skills are in high demand in a variety of careers. If your science department is not using
GIS, ask your geography colleagues. The government website on river and sea levels in
England (see details in the Resources section) can be used by teachers to look at data across
England. Many other countries have a similar service.
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11.2 Understanding biodiversity
Science in context
These in the environment investigations can include a for focus by encouraging your
students to consider what future changes and development priorities, including a role
for natural areas, they would like to see in the area around school to lessen the impacts
of future climate change. The loss of school playing fields is a very topical link in many
areas (which could also be linked to the Environment and Health sequence below). See
the Resources section at the end of the book for a link to the government website which
discusses the disposal of school land.
One of the outcomes of these activities should be an awareness among your students that
positive changes in the natural environment can be made, and they are encouraged to become
part of those changes through lifestyle and career choices.

How are organisms interdependent within an
ecosystem?
Investigating trophic levels
KEY ACTIVITY
To revisit or introduce 11–14-year-old students to trophic (feeding) levels and the

fact that they can be observed everywhere, bring students outside the classroom
and place them into groups of four. Give each group a large white tray with a
card identifying one category from: primary producer, primary consumer, secondary
consumer, tertiary consumer. Give groups five minutes to collect specimens, or
evidence of specimens, that fit in their category. On return, the trays should be placed
in order of trophic level. Ask students to explain why they chose particular specimens.
Highlight to students how the trays are interrelated and how a greater number of
species are located lower down the levels (for example at primary producer level).
Invite students to consider how and why their specimens might vary depending on
the time of day/year and type of habitat. Here, students have linked their knowledge
about the environment while learning in the environment.
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11 The environment
Enhancement ideas
Invite students to consider which management practices are being used in their
current location and how these might have influenced the range of specimens
they collected. Then ask what actions would be needed to improve species
richness and how they could help in achieving this. For example, school grounds
might currently have limited green space, and students might return to the
classroom to compose an email to the headteacher/governors asking them to
consider how this might be rectified. In taking a for approach, students should
be invited to draw on their skills of argumentation.
Food webs
Food webs
KEY ACTIVITY
To introduce students to food webs, distribute a set of A4 laminated cards with a picture
of a different species from one habitat on each card. Each student should receive a
different organism and they should research it before the lesson (how does it obtain its
nutrients, what eats it, where does it live, etc.). The organisms should range between
the trophic levels and be representative of different kingdoms. For example, a woodland
habitat might include oak, sycamore, ash, grass, owl, blue tit, field mouse, vole, spider,
aphid, mushroom, moss or lichen. You could choose a local habitat such as a local
graveyard, a recreational ground or a waterway/reservoir.
The cards should have string attached that allow students to place them around their necks.
Either in or outside the classroom, invite students to stand in a large circle around the student
representing the Sun. To represent energy, give a ball of string to the ‘Sun’ and invite this
person to hold onto one end of the string but pass on (transfer) the energy to an organism
at the appropriate trophic level (that is, a primary producer). The organism representing a
primary producer should then hold onto the string and pass the ball of string to an organism
at the next trophic level (which they would be eaten by). This ‘chain’ continues to the apex/
top predators. Repeat this process with 5–6 balls of string; on each occasion, the Sun’s energy
should land on a different primary producer. At the end, several organisms will find that they
are feeding across multiple food chains; in other words, some students will be interacting with
more than one ball of string. Figure 11.1 illustrates a food web activity like this.
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Figure 11.1 A food web activity
The activity with older students could introduce issues/threats that the chosen habitat
might encounter. For example, for a woodland habitat, ash dieback disease might affect
all the ash trees. The student representing ash would sit down and those linked via the
string would consider the consequences this would have on the species they represent.
A discussion on ash dieback (a fungal disease in ash trees that causes leaf loss, crown
dieback and bark lesions), including why it has increased in the UK and how it has
benefited from temperature rises, could then follow. To increase the immediacy of the
activity complete it in the habitat being studied.
Managing the environment positively

To introduce students to the positive management influences that humans
can have on the environment – for example, by encouraging natural
ecological recovery – share with students the video ‘how wolves change
rivers’ (see Resources section). The video introduces ecological terms
and illustrates linkages between non-living (abiotic) and living (biotic)
inputs, showing how working for the environment (rather than against it)
can result in positive outcomes experienced in our own lifetimes. While
the video is impressive and convincing, it provides an opportunity for your
students to discuss its scientific content and validity using the auditing tools
recommended in the ‘Dealing with bias’ section on page 260 of this chapter.
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11 The environment
Enhancement ideas
Earlier in the chapter we introduced the Ecosystem Services framework (page
257). We mentioned that it was controversial, with some people worried that
giving values to ecosystems and their services will reduce them to tradeable
commodities which can be overlooked or destroyed. They also argue that some
‘services’ of the environment are impossible to value: cultural, spiritual and
aesthetic aspects, for example. The Resources section at the end of the chapter
gives some interesting weblinks.
You could invite older students (14–16-year-olds) to debate the merits of the
Ecosystem Service framework, setting the context through the two videos listed
at the end of the chapter which consider Ecosystem Services at global and local
scales (see links to the website of the Food and Agricultural Organization of the
UN and the website of GRID Arendal).
11.3 Food security

How are plant reproduction and farming
important in human food security?
Global food security is under increasing threat. There are many videos
on YouTube which illustrate this idea and the challenges that we face (see
Resources section at the end of the chapter). The organisation Global Food
Security suggests that around 24–35% of food from school lunches ends up
in the bin. In light of this food wastage, ask students to consider: the number
of trees felled for food production, the one billion hungry people in the world,
and the amount of irrigation water used to grow the food. Invite younger
students to complete a ‘food observation diary’ for three days, during which
they list: food waste (in other words, food not consumed); the location of the
wastage (school, home, other place); the food type (for example, orange,
meat, bread); the amount wasted (whole fruit, fruit peel, one bottle, etc.).
They can also record the reason(s) why the food was wasted (such as, past
use-by date) and suggest how this waste could be prevented (for example,
bring in packed lunch).
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11.3 Food security
Enhancement ideas
The Royal Society of Biology has produced some excellent resources to support
the teaching of food waste, food production and climate change, highlighting the
links between biology and geography curricula (see Resources section at the end
of the chapter).
Fieldwork for all ages of students could include visits to farms. Biological topics that
might be incorporated include: selective breeding, pest and weed control, habitat
conservation and creation, carbon and nutrient cycling, soil fertility and erosion,
growing renewable crops, the role of micro-organisms in fermenting carbohydrates
in hay and silage production, composting, and bio-gas generation. The organisations
below can help you get in touch with farms in your area, including in or near to inner-
city areas. All of the details for these organisations are given at the end of the chapter.
l Soil Association
l Natural England’s Educational Access
l Farms for Schools
l Linking Environment and Farming (LEAF)
l Countryside Classroom.
Fieldwork in school grounds could include investigating different pollination
strategies. Insect counts on flowers can highlight plant adaptations (including
colour and structure) and the differences between insect- and wind-pollinated
plants. The critical importance of pollinators, and the impact of habitat loss,
intensive agriculture and climate change, are all strongly linked to secondary
biology curricula. Pollination counts have been the focus of several national
citizen science projects, some supported by online resources (for example, Polli-
nation (details given in Resources section)). Online results databases provide
opportunities for local and national comparisons with your results. (The OPAL
Data Explorer page in the Resources section provides some data for analysis.)
A school garden (which can be as small as a table top) can become an outdoor
laboratory, allowing your students to investigate the role of nutrient cycling,
fertilisers, pollination, decomposition, plant adaptations, colonisation (by weeds,
micro-organisms and invertebrates) and succession. The Royal Horticultural
Society provides those tending school gardens with advice and helpful resources,
including some specifically for 11–19 science students (see Resources section).
Growing Schools – a previous government project – also supported schools to
develop gardens and plots. The teaching resources, many of which are primary-
oriented but can be adapted for secondary teaching, are still available on the
Countryside Classroom website (details at the end of the chapter).
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11 The environment
11.4 Air and water quality

How have humans positively and negatively
influenced the quality of the environment?
Global concerns about the air we breathe and the quality of the water we drink
and bathe in have been around for many hundreds of years. However, over
that time the main causes of pollution in most countries have changed.
Science in context
In the UK, industrial and coal-burning sources were the main causes of poor air
quality in the 1950s, but road transport has become the main cause today. While
industrial, human sewage and agricultural inputs into water have been important
historically, and remain so today, students may be aware from the media that other
newly designed chemicals, plastics and nanoparticles are growing threats.
Our knowledge about the levels, trends and consequences of air and
water quality on our wellbeing, and the future health of local and global
environments, has increased hugely in recent years. There are many
excellent resources available to support teaching of these topics (such as the
Environment Agency’s State of the Environment reports, see Resources below).
Planetary Boundaries
KEY ACTIVITY
To enable older students to consider the interrelationship between the numerous

biological/environmental processes and the role humans play, and to get a sense of
the health of the planet, the following activity introduces the concept of Planetary
Boundaries. Planetary Boundaries, as defined by a cross-discipline team working in the
Stockholm Resilience Centre, are ‘safe operating spaces for humanity’ based on scientific
evidence as set out by nine Earth-system processes.
Distribute information cards related to the nine processes: climate change, biodiversity
loss, ocean acidification, land use, freshwater, ozone depletion, chemical pollution,
atmospheric aerosols and biogeochemical (phosphorus and nitrogen) cycles. Either
inside or outside the classroom, introduce the list and ask how each might be measured
(for example in Planetary Boundaries, biodiversity loss is measured by species extinction
rates per annum). Taking a rope, leaving one end where the students are standing, stretch
the other end a total of five steps away from them. State that within the space reached
by the extended rope the Earth-system processes are safely operating, but beyond
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11.4 Air and water quality
that rope a boundary is reached and it is no longer safe. Using the information on the
sheets, students will illustrate how their environmental process has been degraded from
between 1800 (pre-industrial, baseline time) to today.
Table 11.6 indicates four important time periods. Students should be invited to move
forward the number of steps specified and explain what might have been occurring
during the period or what the result of the position is on the planet. While the Planetary
Boundary model is not definitive, it offers a model to conceptualise and consider the
processes individually and together within the Earth’s limits.
Table 11.6 Degradation of nine processes measured in ‘steps’
1950s 1970s 1990s Present
climate change 2.5 steps 1.5 steps 2.5 steps 2 steps forward
start walking
biodiversity loss no baseline data and keep walking
10 steps
ocean acidification no baseline data 3.5 steps
land use 3.5 steps shuffle forward shuffle forward
freshwater 1 step shuffle forward 0.5 steps 0.5 steps
ozone depletion 3 steps back 0.5 steps remain stationary

nitrogen flow nitrogen flow nitrogen flow nitrogen flow
(2 steps) (8.5 steps) (6 steps) (1 step)
biogeochemical
phosphorus flow phosphorus flow phosphorus flow phosphorus flow
(1 small step) (1 step) (1 step) (1 step)
No baseline data. Current lack of information about the interactions within the
chemical pollution
environment means that a threshold can’t yet be calculated. More research is required.
No baseline data. Current lack of information about the interactions within the
atmospheric aerosols
environment means that a threshold can’t yet be calculated. More research is required.
Local air and water pollution can be measured through simple fieldwork
activities measuring the presence or absence of ‘bio-indicators’: plants and
animals with varying sensitivities to pollution.
Air
Historically, one of the most common forms of air pollution in the UK was
caused by burning coal which increased the acidity of rain and prevented
lichens, trees and freshwater animals from growing naturally. The impact of
acid ‘rain’ has decreased in recent decades in the UK (unlike those countries
where coal-burning power stations and factories are still common). However,
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11 The environment
lichens are slow growing and transects on rocks (including gravestones) and
trees (on bark) from inner cities outwards into rural areas show an increase in
lichen numbers and diversity, including an increase in ‘bushy’ lichens which
are still missing from built-up areas. The FSC publishes a series of fold-out
charts to support lichen identification (see the Resources section at the end of
the chapter).
Rural areas can also suffer from air pollution. For example, gaseous nitrogen
pollution caused by farm fertilisers and vehicle fuels affects lichens and they
have been used as bioindicators in citizen science surveys such as OPAL’s air
quality project, which has downloadable resources and survey data.
Trees help to trap smoke and dust particles by ‘air washing’: filtering
particles on leaves or causing them to drop to the ground in the still, moist
air surrounding the canopies. One hectare of beech wood is able to capture
about four tons of dust per year from the atmosphere. A very simple method
for measuring particulate pollution is to stick sellotape to leaf surfaces, then
reapply it to white paper and estimate particles per cm2 using a micro-quadrat
or graticule (see description of quadrats, Chapter 10, page 243). Carrying out
a transect (see Chapter 10) away from a main road or other possible pollution
sources can illustrate local variations in air pollution.
Water
Certain types of freshwater invertebrates are used for rapid assessment of
water quality in streams and rivers worldwide, including by water authorities in
the UK. The methodology and resources are described earlier in this book (see
Chapter 10, pages 242–243).
11.5 Health
How does our use of the environment affect
human health and wellbeing?
There is a strong link between healthy people and a healthy environment.
Public health authorities and medical practitioners worldwide are now
adopting ‘green prescriptions’ for the general public (see the PDF document
by NHS Forest in the Resources section). Doctors are encouraging visits to and
physical activity in outdoor environments such as parks and woodlands, away
from noise and air pollution, particularly to help lose excessive weight, relieve
stress and anxiety, and help remedy other conditions such as asthma. These
trends provide opportunities for you to link areas of the environment with
human health and wellbeing (biomedicine).
Most of the environment teaching and fieldwork activities described in this
chapter can be linked to human health. For example, questions could include:
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11.6 Resources
➜ Biodiversity: is the current extent and quality of ‘green’ space suitable for
meeting the needs of green prescriptions?
➜ Climate change: how could personal features of the individual, such as age
and health, affect their sensitivity to future climate impacts?
➜ Food security: what are the advantages and disadvantages of changing
farming practices, including the current and projected growth in vegetarian
diets, on human health and wellbeing?
➜ Air and water quality: how do airborne particulates affect plants and
animals (including humans) and how can people and communities remedy
any harmful impacts?
An introduction for older students to the precautionary principle provides an
opportunity to compare similarities in approaches to human health (medicine)
and environmental health (environmental science). The precautionary
principle applies the same standard as the ancient Hippocratic Oath which is
still used by medical doctors: namely in the absence of scientific evidence, but
where there is a possibility of risk, the overriding priority is ‘to do no harm’.
Health-related fieldwork activities could include: mapping and surveying the
distribution of local green space and making comparisons between different
areas (on hand-drawn maps or using GIS, for example, see page 266);
measuring respiration and monitoring heart rates while exercising outside;
comparing recreational use of natural areas across different generations;
measuring dust and soot particles on natural and experimental surfaces (see
above); surveying changing diets in peer groups and families.
11.6 Resources
Websites
Websites related to identification
Field Studies Council fold-out charts: www.field-studies-council.org/
publications.aspx
i-Spot online community to help you with identification: www.ispotnature.org/
OPAL citizen science charts: www.opalexplorenature.org/identification
Websites to help in auditing online and printed resources (for

example, for bias, and personal security)
Department for Education online safety information: https://assets.publishing.
service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/
file/811796/Teaching_online_safety_in_school.pdf
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11 The environment
Websites related to environmental citizen science (OPAL)

OPAL’s air quality project has downloadable data and resources:
www.imperial.ac.uk/opal/data-download/
Websites for organisations and training providers

linked to environment education, inside and outside
the classroom
Council for Learning Outside the Classroom (umbrella body for teaching
outside the classroom): www.lotc.org.uk/
The Department of Education in England provides useful guidance on
educational visits and school trips: www.gov.uk/government/publications/
health-and-safety-on-educational-visits
The Field Studies Council is a UK charity providing field courses and teacher
training (some sponsored, or with bursaries), specialising in secondary biology
and geography: www.field-studies-council.org/contact.aspx
Learning Outside the Classroom Quality Badge: out-of-school organisations in
the UK may carry accreditation, such as the badge detailed at this site: www.
lotc.org.uk/lotc-accreditations/lotc-quality-badge
National Association for Environmental Education (NAEE): http://naee.org.uk/
Oxfam (Education for Global Citizenship): www.oxfam.org.uk/education/
resources/education-for-global-citizenship-a-guide-for-schools
STEM library, hosting over 25 000 searchable and downloadable resources,
including many linked to biology and environment teaching in the UK and
overseas: www.stem.org.uk/resources
Websites for whole-school environmental projects

and awards
Eco-Schools (hosted by Tidy Britain Group): practical school-based examples
of environmental projects based around ten themes (including biodiversity,
healthy living, waste and litter):
www.eco-schools.org.uk/secondaryfe-pathway/ten-topics/
Forest Schools: www.forestschoolassociation.org/what-is-forest-school
John Muir Trust: a charity which sponsors an award scheme linked to
environmental projects, including in schools: www.johnmuirtrust.org/john-muir-
award/get-involved
Practical Action: some inspiring examples of community responses and some
excellent teaching resources. Use the search term ‘inspiring schools’ from this
web page: https://practicalaction.org/our-work
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11.6 Resources
Websites providing environmental quality reports

Global Environment Outlook: Healthy Planet, Healthy People (2016). A 700+
page global report published by the United Nations packed with authoritative
charts and information: https://content.yudu.com/web/2y3n2/0A2y3n3/GEO6/
html/index.html?origin=reader
State of Nature (2019): a UK report, based on volunteer data, published by
leading conservation organisations. Search ‘state of nature reporting’ from the
RSPB homepage: www.rspb.org.uk
The state of the environment: air quality (2018). A summary scientific report
published by the Environment Agency (England): https://assets.publishing.
file/729820/State_of_the_environment_air_quality_report.pdf
The state of the environment: water quality (2018). A summary scientific report
published by the Environment Agency (England): https://assets.publishing.
file/709493/State_of_the_environment_water_quality_report.pdf
Websites to locate local fieldwork sites

Ordnance Survey application which helps to locate ‘green’ areas, including
nearby parks and open spaces: https://getoutside.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/
greenspaces/
Websites to support online, VR and 3D field trips

Fieldscapes – an application to create your own VR field trips:
https://live.fieldscapesvr.com/
Google Earth and Google Expeditions: search relevant term from the
homepage: www.google.co.uk
Google Street View: www.google.com/streetview/
Virtual Skiddaw – an Open University VR earth science field trip to the Lake
District. Search ‘Virtual Skiddaw’ from the OU home page: https://learn5.open.
ac.uk/
Websites to support teaching of learning sequences

YouTube has a useful clip about the science of climate change. From the
YouTube homepage (www.youtube.com) input the search term ‘what’s the big
deal with a few degrees?’.
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11 The environment
Websites to support fieldwork

Countryside Classroom: www.countrysideclassroom.org.uk/
Farms for Schools: www.farmsforschools.org.uk/
Linking Environment and Farming (LEAF): https://education.leafuk.org/
Natural England’s Educational Access: http://cwr.naturalengland.org.uk/
educational-access.aspx
Soil Association: www.soilassociation.org/
Thinking Beyond the Classroom project – aimed to develop science teachers’
skills in outdoor teaching. From the homepage of the Primary Science
Teaching Trust (www.pstt-cpd.org.uk) input the search term ‘thinking beyond
the classroom’.
Website related to teaching about food security

and food sustainability
Compassion in World Farming: www.ciwf.org.uk/education/downloads/science
Websites of relevant national organisations

The Royal Horticultural Society – this website provides information about the
benefits of ‘green roofs’: www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=289 and supplies
resources for those working in school gardens: https://schoolgardening.rhs.
org.uk/about-us
The Royal Society – an important source for information about climate
change. From the homepage (https://royalsociety.org) input the search
term ‘climate change evidence and causes’. The following link takes you
to a PDF about climate change. It is a joint document between The Royal
Society and the US National Academy of Sciences: https://royalsociety.
org/-/media/Royal_Society_Content/policy/projects/climate-evidence-
causes/climate-change-evidence-causes.pdf
The Royal Society of Biology website has resources to support the teaching
of food waste, food production and climate change, highlighting the links
between biology and geography curricula. Input the search term ‘food and
food security’ into this web page: www.rsb.org.uk/get-involved/biology-for-all
The website of NHS Forest encourages public health authorities and medical
practitioners to adopt ‘green prescriptions’ for the general public: https://
nhsforest.org/sites/default/files/Prescribing%20Green%20Space-3.pdf
Websites of global organisations

UN’s Sustainable Development Goals: https://sustainabledevelopment.
un.org/?menu=1300
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11.6 Resources
The Food and Agricultural Organization (part of the UN). From the homepage
(www.fao.org) use the search term ‘biodiversity, genetic resources and
ecosystem services’.
Website related to the skill of ‘argumentation’

Details of what argumentation is, alongside how it can be used, are here: www.
pstt-cpd.org.uk/ext/cpd/argumentation/unit3.php
Website providing data about weather and climate change

Metlink, a website from the Royal Meteorological Society, providing data and
lesson plans related to weather and climate change: www.metlink.org/
Other website resources

The Home Science Tools website can be found at: www.homesciencetools.
com/article/how-to-make-super-bubbles-science-project
Information about geographical information system (GIS) applications can be
found at: https://schools.esriuk.com/
This governmental website provides information about river and
sea levels in England and any areas at risk of flooding:
https://flood-warning-information.service.gov.uk/warnings
This Department of Education link discusses decisions relating to the
disposal of school land: www.gov.uk/government/publications/school-land-
decisions-about-disposals
YouTube clip of ‘how wolves change rivers’: https://youtu.be/ysa5OBhXz-Q
This website by GRID Arendal covers more about ecosystem services: www.
grida.no/resources/8434
YouTube clip from the organisation Global Food Security about the challenges
we face: https://youtu.be/0emw7IkFdK8
The Polli-nation website details pollination counts: http://polli-nation.co.uk/
Online results databases of pollination counts provide opportunities for local
and national comparisons with your results: www.imperial.ac.uk/media/
imperial-college/research-centres-and-groups/opal/PolliNation_Survey.xlsx
Growing Schools was an organisation that supported schools to develop
gardens and plots. The teaching resources are still available on the Countryside
Classroom website: www.countrysideclassroom.org.uk/
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11 The environment
References
Argles, T., Minocha, S. and Burden, D. (2015) Virtual field teaching has evolved:
Benefits of a 3D gaming environment. Geology Today, 31 (6), 222–226.
Dobson, F. (2015) Urban Lichens 1. FSC Occasional Publication 98.
Shrewsbury: Field Studies Council.
Glackin, M. A., Leigh, S., Jonusas, G. and Mercer, J. (2015) The oak
processionary moth: from London parks into biology classrooms. School
Glackin, M., Jones, M. and Norman, S. (2006) What happened to the holly leaf
miner? Studying real food chains. School Science Review, 87 (320), 91–98.
Lambert, D. and Reiss, M.J. (2015) The place of fieldwork in science
qualifications. School Science Review, 97 (359), 89–96.
Odum, E. P. (1971) The Fundamentals of Ecology. Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders.
Tilling, S. (2007) Outdoor science. Linking trees with energy. School Science
Review, 89 (327), 11–15.
Wiek, A., Withycombe, L. and Redman, C.L. (2011) Key competencies in
sustainability: A reference framework for academic program development.
Sustainability Science, 6, 203–218.
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12 Microbiology and
biotechnology
John Schollar and Jenny Byrne
Topic overview
Micro-organisms are extremely important in our everyday lives. They are
essential for mineral recycling, through the processes of decomposition and
decay, and without them, our countryside would be piled high with dead
organisms. While many micro-organisms are pathogenic, and are responsible
for a number of notable diseases affecting humans, that is only a small part
of their story. Scientists have managed to harness the power of microbes,
using them successfully in the fields of food and beverages, antibiotics and
molecular biology.
Finding out what microbes are, what they do, what they look like and where
they are found is fundamental work accessible to students of all ages and
capabilities.
Careers
Microbiology both enables understanding of cells and is also an applied science,
helping agriculture, health and medicine, maintenance of the environment, as well
as the biotechnology industry.
Practical work is the best way to engage pupils in the topic but the main
concern that teachers have in teaching microbiology is about health and
safety, and this is often used as a reason for not doing practicals. However,
as long as the correct procedures are followed, there is no reason why
students should not be given many practical activities to do in order to learn
about microbes. This chapter sets out a range of age-appropriate activities
under specific headings, but these are by no means comprehensive. Useful
resources and activities can be found by following the resource links given at
the end of the chapter.
Microbiology is also full of fascinating stories that can ‘hook’ students into
the topic by engaging, informing and educating them. Media reports and
web searches are excellent sources to illustrate aspects of microbial science
and the social implications of microbiology that can lead to discussion and
debates in the classroom. See the Resources section at the end of the chapter
for links to more information about these topics:
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12 Microbiology and biotechnology
➜ Theodor Escherichia discovered a bacterium, named after him (Escherichia

coli (E. coli)) that has proved very important for molecular biology research.
The emergence of pathogenic strains (such as E. coli 0157) gave the
bacterium some notoriety, but the K-12 strains used in schools are non-
pathogenic.
➜ The isolation and identification of a new variant strain of the Hanta virus
is interesting not just for the science but for its name: Sin nombre (without
name). The virus would normally have been called ‘Four Corners’ after the
place where it was found, but that name would have upset the local Native
American population.
➜ Ebola virus can have a devastating effect on populations. It is easily
transmitted by coming into contact with body fluids from an infected person
and has a very high mortality rate of 83–90%. Outbreaks receive a lot of
interest from the world’s media.
➜ A triple vaccination for measles, mumps and rubella is given routinely to
babies and pre-school children to protect them in the UK. In 1998 the safety
of the MMR vaccination was questioned, significantly reducing its uptake
by parents. Although this evidence was subsequently discredited, child
vaccinations are still low and this has implications for child health.
Science in context
Important figures in the history of microbiology, for students to find out more
about, include Angelina Fanny Hesse, Barbara McClintock, Marjory Stephenson, Van
Leeuwenhoek, Louis Pasteur, John Snow, Alexander Fleming, Paul Erlich and Robert Koch.
12.1 What are microbes?

Microbes (also known as ‘micro-organisms’) are a very diverse group of tiny
organisms. Normally too small to be seen without magnification, they are
found in nearly all environments, including water, air and soil. The human
body is also home to huge numbers of microbes on the body surface and
millions in the gut.
The major groups of micro-organisms

➜ Algae: photosynthetic organisms found in most aquatic environments (rivers,
ponds, lakes and the sea) as well as terrestrial habitats such as the surface
of trees.
➜ Archaea: a domain of unicellular prokaryotic organisms which have no
nucleus. They used to be classified as bacteria but are now recognised
as a separate major domain of life (see Chapter 10). Found in hostile
environments such as hot springs, ocean vents and alkaline or acidic water.
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➜ Bacteria: the majority of bacteria are beneficial and of immense value to

humans but a small number are pathogens and are important because of
the diseases they cause. Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular and have no
cell nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles.
➜ Cyanobacteria: once known as blue-green algae, but now known to be
prokaryotes and classified as bacteria.
➜ Fungi: include single-celled organisms, such as yeasts, as well as
multicellular filamentous branching organisms, the moulds. They are found
in abundance in soils and the air. Many are important in the production of
foods, beverages and antibiotics; some are responsible for diseases and
spoilage of food.
➜ Protozoa: found in a variety of habitats, such as soil, ponds, lakes, rivers and
the sea. They are important in sewage treatment and are involved in many
food webs. Very few diseases are caused by protozoa but there are two
important exceptions: toxoplasmosis and malaria.
➜ Viruses: have no cells of their own and develop only in the cells of host
organisms such as animals, plants and bacteria. This means that they
are not living organisms in the strict sense (see Chapter 2).
Reasons for teaching about microbes

Microbiology should be given a prominent place in the biology curriculum
and can add to students’ scientific literacy. Ideas to start thinking about why
microbes are important in so many areas of biology include the fact that
microbes:
➜ are socially, economically and medically important: antibiotics, food
preservation, cleaning the environment, recycling of resources
➜ are central to research in genetic engineering and modern molecular
biology, including major developments in the biotechnology industries
➜ play a key role in personal, public and domestic hygiene
➜ are important in food production from chocolate to cheese
➜ cause diseases and harm: food poisoning, illness, sepsis
➜ often need to be controlled for a healthy, efficient, ill-free life
➜ are essential in cyclical changes (such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen
cycle)
➜ help animals, such as herbivores, to digest their food; microbes also
colonise our guts and are necessary for a healthy life
➜ can be responsible for the excess greenhouse gases released into the
environment by herbivores.
Reasons that micro-organisms interest and motivate students include that they:
➜ can grow rapidly and produce visible growth on natural and laboratory-
made substrates (from ‘invisible’ cells to colonies on an agar plate)
➜ can be beneficial or harmful to humans – but most are beneficial
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➜ can have a profound effect on inanimate and large multicellular structures,

including humans, other animals, plants and buildings, even though they
are of microscopic size
➜ had ancestors that were the first inhabitants of Earth
➜ have colonised nearly every environment from the depths of the oceans to
hot springs
➜ include a wide variety of different groups of organisms and exhibit a
diversity of properties and activities
➜ have fascinating facts and stories associated with their identification and
influence on the environment.
Finally, studying microbes can be used to demonstrate a wide range of
principles that connect numerous topics from across biology specifications,
including:
➜ population dynamics and the S-shaped growth curve
➜ photosynthesis and respiration
➜ genetics and molecular biology
➜ biodeterioration, spoilage
➜ disease
➜ enzyme activity
➜ sulfur, nitrogen and carbon cycles
➜ the characteristics of living organisms: microbes can move, respire, grow,
reproduce, react to stimuli and feed.
Science in context
In addition to all the many reasons given above for studying microbes, they are also
extremely useful for demonstrating to students a wide range of biological processes
that place microbial science in real-world contexts:
l production of industrial chemicals, including citric acid, acetic acid, amino acids
l production of fuels and solvents, such as hydrogen and methane
l industrial catalysts (enzymes), including amylases, cellulases, lipases, proteases
and pectinases
l healthcare products, such as vaccines and antibodies
l food and beverages, including cheese, yoghurt, bread, beer, wine and mycoprotein
l waste treatment, for example sewage treatment, refuse breakdown, pollution
control
l oil and metal recovery, including microbial-enhanced oil recovery and metal
bioleaching.

All students will have had experience of microbes in their daily life, from
childhood diseases to eating cheese or yoghurt, but everyday experiences
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can lead to common misconceptions and difficulties in understanding (Byrne

et al., 2009; Byrne, 2011). These include some of the following:
➜ Students may believe that microbes are not living. Investigating microbial
functions helps students understand that, like other living things, microbes
demonstrate a wide range of biological functions. There is also scope for
discussion about how viruses are not thought of as living organisms since
they harness the organelles of their host organism.
➜ Use of the term ‘bugs’ can lead to associations with invertebrates such
as certain arthropods; work on classification should help with this
misconception.
➜ Terms such as ‘bacteria’ and ‘virus’ are used without distinction and can
lead to confusion when antibiotics are not prescribed for viral illnesses, such
as colds and flu. The winter flu jab and antivirals, such as those for swine flu
and bird flu, can form discussion points as to how they differ from antibiotics.
➜ Students may believe that all microbes are pathogenic or harmful.
Exploring the applications of microbes for human ends is helpful.
➜ Microbes are only found in dirty or unhygienic places. Practical activities to
illustrate the variety of locations of microbes can help to counter these ideas.
(See CLEAPSS advisory notes on suitable locations to sample.)
The relative size of microbes can also be difficult for students to comprehend:
bacteria are about one-tenth the size of a human cell. This means they are
the approximate size of a cat or small dog, compared to adult human size.
Microbes exist in very large numbers. Students will surely be fascinated to
know that recent studies have suggested that we contain more bacterial cells
than human cells.
Microbes reproduce by binary fission, where one cell splits into two cells. It
is different from mitosis because the nuclear material is not enclosed in a
nucleus; students should be clear on the difference. However, the nuclear
material replicates and then divides as the cell forms two new cells. Simple
demonstrations on binary fission can help students appreciate the rate at
which some microbes can multiply; if a bacterium divides every 10 minutes,
then we have 64 cells at the end of the first hour and 4096 after the second
hour. A colony of bacteria grown on an agar plate may have as many as a
billion cells.
It is not possible to identify bacteria just by the shape of the colony that grows
on the agar plate. Microscopic examination and Gram’s staining narrows
identification but biochemical tests are needed.
Aseptic techniques are needed to ensure that contamination is kept to a
minimum when growing colonies of microbes. Developing good aseptic
techniques is important for the health and safety of the student and others,
as well as the success of their practical work. Although not encouraging
contamination, poor/failed technique can be a valuable source of discussion
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and a learning experience. It is important that you familiarise yourself with the
CLEAPSS advice on the different microbial techniques.
This chapter will suggest a number of activities to address many common
misconceptions and aid better understanding. Practical work is particularly
important but discussions, research, cross-disciplinary and cross-curricular
links (for example with mathematics), and out-of-school visits that put the
science in context are also valuable ways to aid learning. It is also a good idea
to find out what students already know about microbes before planning any
work. Drawings and concept maps are useful ways to discover students’ ideas
(Byrne and Grace, 2010).
A teaching sequence
There are various teaching sequences detailed in this chapter which fall
under the following broad categories: what microbes look like; microbial
locations; what microbes need to grow well; microbes and pandemics;
microbes and genetic engineering; microbes and biotechnology; and
handling microbes successfully and safely.
12.2 What do microbes look like?

Microbes are generally very small and cannot be seen unaided, but
the growth of micro-organisms and the effects of their growth can be
seen easily on natural materials and in Universal bottles or Petri dishes.
Organisms can be obtained from a reputable supplier (pure culture) or
natural materials/the immediate environment (mixed culture). It should be
noted that culturing in liquid broths is always a little more risky because
of possible breakages and spills, and the formation of aerosols and
possible contamination.
Observing microbes
KEY ACTIVITY
A good way of getting students to understand about the size, shape and structure of
microbes is to observe them and draw what they can see. When using a microscope it
may be necessary to help students to locate areas of the slide to observe organisms
clearly (see Chapter 2). Start with algae and/or yeast, because these are the biggest
microbes.
Isolated cells or groups of algae can be drawn; groups of two or four provide evidence
of asexual reproduction where organisms successively divide into two (see Chapter 2).
Students should be asked to explain what is happening, including for groups of three
(one of a pair has divided while the other has not, or both have divided and one has
separated).
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With yeast, students see mostly individual cells and, occasionally, budding. Some
yeast cultures exhibit clumping (when the cells complete fermentation and shut
down their enzyme activity and drop to the bottom of the vessel), making single
cells difficult to see.
Moulds will often show spores and hyphae that make up the mycelium. When
examining moulds, care must be taken to prevent the release of contaminating
spores into the air.
Technology use
A more powerful microscope (with an oil-immersion lens and perhaps with a
computer-linked camera) is needed for students to see the shapes of bacteria.
Bacterial smears can be made in advance. It should be noted that it takes a little
more time to set the microscope up successfully to find bacterial cells.
A teaching sequence
Microbial gardens and cultures provide an initial perspective on variety.
Using a hand lens on cultures in a Petri dish can reveal interesting
information about colonies of some of the major groups of microbes,
including shape, colour, translucency and surface structure.
Viewing microbial colonies: suggested

activities
Microbial gardens can be used as an introduction to this subject for
12–14-year-olds. Students can observe the growth of organisms involved in
natural spoilage by putting substrates (moist bread, fruit, vegetables) into
a container such as a jam jar with a loosely fitting lid that cannot fall off but
allows gases to escape. Meat and meat products should not be used.
In later years (14–16), students can be introduced to cultures, for example,
microbial culturing on agar plates. Petri dishes allow the observation of a
variety of different organisms from a particular environment, including air,
water and soil. High-risk areas like toilets and changing rooms should not
be used. Samples from fingers (‘finger dabs’), hair from clean areas like the
scalp, or vegetable food samples can also be used, but not animal products.
Students at this age can be shown pure cultures, which can be sub-cultured
onto a suitable medium in Petri dishes to show a collection of different
microbes. They can also be grown on slopes in Universal bottles or test tubes.
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It should be noted that test tubes will need to be capped with either a metal/
plastic cap or a cotton wool plug. Test tubes are more fragile than Universals
and more care is needed in their handling.
Another investigation for this age group involves looking at the macroscopic
differences between fungi and bacteria and identifying microbes. This
investigation enables students to recognise the differences between fungal
and bacterial colonies. Using a hand lens or a plate microscope, it is possible
to see colonies clearly through the lid of the Petri dish and much information
can be obtained this way. For example, students may easily see the mycelium
and spore containers (sporangia) in fungal colonies, although more detailed
investigations are needed to say definitely which colonies are bacterial
and which are fungal. Students could make further deductions using the
information in Table 12.1.
Table 12.1 Identifying fungal and bacterial colonies
Fungal colonies Bacterial colonies
colony size extensive; fills whole plate smaller; discrete units
colony profile tall flat
colony appearance surface often dull surface often shiny
colony texture like ‘cotton wool’ like a drop of liquid
colony colour often grey/white grey/white but also yellow, pink, red
acid medium (pH 3.5–5.5) best for medium close to neutral (pH 7.0)
growth medium
selecting fungi is best for selecting bacteria
Science in context
If citrus fruit is forgotten and left in a fridge for a long time, you can often see fungi
growing on the fruit but very few bacteria. Explain to students that since many
citrus fruits have a low pH, this favours the growth of fungi rather than bacteria.
A low-power microscope (×5 or ×10 objective lens) is the best way to

introduce 12–14-year-old students to this topic. The largest micro-organisms,
algae, protozoa and moulds, can be viewed easily with most microscopes
found in schools and colleges.
➜ Algae found in ponds, such as Scenedesmus quadricauda, may be studied.
(In many schools it may be used for photosynthesis investigations.) An
alternative is Pleurococcus, found on trees.
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➜ Fungi from food in sealed Petri dishes, such as thin slices of blue cheese or
decaying fruit, are visible under the microscope. Alternatively, pure cultures of
fungi can be obtained and, for convenience, slides of the mould could be made
up before the lesson.
➜ Yeast cells are visible under the high-power objective (total magnification
10 × 40 = 400).
➜ A drop of water from a well-kept hay infusion can provide a very varied
and interesting diversity of micro-organisms (algae and protozoans) with
opportunities to see living microbes, many of them moving. Care must be
taken with the handling of the hay infusion and subsequent disposal of
slides into a disinfectant solution. Hands must be washed after such an
investigation.
As students become more competent, you could consider using an oil-
immersion lens, which is suitable for 14–16-year-olds. To view bacterial cells,
the objective oil-immersion lens and eyepiece give a total magnification
of ×1000. Skills to stain cells on a microscope slide are needed. The
lens is lowered into a drop of immersion oil which has been placed on a
stained specimen. A coverslip is not used. Slides to show morphological
characteristics can be made from bacteria from live cultures of yoghurt or
dried yoghurt cultures. It is also possible to purchase single (pure) cultures
from a reputable supplier that are either stained with a single stain or Gram’s
staining method.
Bacterial shapes
Bacteria can be grouped into three basic shapes:
1 bacilli bacteria (rod-shaped): bacillus; streptobacillus; coccobacillus
2 cocci bacteria (spherical or oval): cocci, diplococci, streptococci; tetrad;
sarcina; staphylococci
3 curved bacteria: vibrios (comma); spirilla (spiral); spirochaetes (corkscrew).
Maths
Practical demonstrations can help students understand the relative sizes of different
microbes and the numbers in a colony. These activities can be linked with work in
mathematics.
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Size and numbers of microbes: suggested

activities
Exploring size
KEY ACTIVITIES
A nice introduction for students is to use familiar objects to model relative sizes, for
example a cricket ball (human cheek cell, 65 μm), a broad bean seed (a yeast cell,
3–4 μm) and onion seeds (the flu virus, 80–100 nm).
You can also cut tape to the size of different microbes using the scale of 10 metres of
tape equal to the cross section of a human hair (0.1 mm) and place the various ‘microbes’
in order on the ‘hair’.
Exploring numbers
Small objects, such as coloured counters, can be used to demonstrate binary fission and
pose questions such as:
l If the counter were a bacterium, how many would there be at the end of the lesson if
they could double every 3 minutes?
l If a patient were infected with 100 bacterial cells on Friday evening which can divide
every 1.5 hours, then how many would there be by Tuesday morning at 11.00?
l What might limit the growth of the bacteria?
12.3 Microbial locations

A teaching sequence
Students tend to be fascinated to find out about the myriad of places where
microbes can be found. Start with a class discussion about some places
where students know of microbes and then add some more interesting
examples when student ideas have been exhausted. Practical activities
involving students looking at microbes from locations such as the air, water,
soil and even human body surfaces can be very motivating.
Where are microbes found?

Microbes are found everywhere! They can inhabit all the ecological environments
found on Earth. Microbes can tolerate environmental conditions that other forms
of life cannot: high temperatures, low temperatures, high pressure, long periods
of drought and a wide range of pH conditions. For example:
➜ microbial thermophiles: organisms that survive in hot conditions like geysers
where the temperature can be close to boiling
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12.4 What do microbes need to grow well?
➜ Arctic microbes: organisms that are able to survive in cold temperatures that
would kill or disable other organisms
➜ deep ocean microbes: organisms that are ‘fuelling’ a deep sea ecosystem
➜ microbes in unusual environments: bacteria in jet fuel; bacteria in car oil
filler caps.
Where can we find microbes?

KEY ACTIVITIES
The following list gives brief details about some activities that can be carried out by
students in the lab to find and view microbes.
l Air: expose agar in Petri dishes (plates) to the laboratory and outside for varying
lengths of time (30 seconds to 1 hour). Students can then estimate how many
microbes settle from the air onto a Petri dish in 1 hour by counting colonies that grow.
l Water: inoculate agar plates with water from different sources (tap, river, pond, bottled).
Estimate of numbers can be made per cm3 or litre by counting colonies that grow.
l Soil: make up soil sample solutions (they often grow better on diluted agar plates).
Students can then estimate how many microbes live in 1 g of soil.
l Humans: students could compare the number of microbes in finger dabs from washed
and unwashed hands. By estimating how many were on the pad of one finger, they
could calculate the number of microbes on the hand.
l Plants: students could compare number of microbes found on the upper and lower
surfaces of a leaf. Are there more on the upper surface? If so, students could think
about why this might be.
l Water: the book Algae: A practical resource for secondary schools by James Redfern has a
collection of five pupil investigations (further details given at the end of the chapter).
In all the above investigations, students must be sure to seal the plates with three or four
small pieces of tape when setting up. After incubation, it will also be necessary for agar
plates to be sealed around their circumference just before students examine them.
Unexposed plates as ‘controls’ will be needed and these can be used to explain aseptic
techniques, ideally accompanied by a teacher demonstration of how to pour an agar
plate aseptically.
Microbiology techniques for pouring plates, inoculating plates, taping plus

labelling plates and incubating plates can be found at the websites of the
Microbiology Society and MiSAC (the Microbiology in Schools Advisory
Committee) (full details are provided at the end of the chapter).

Most microbes will grow well at an ambient classroom temperature and
students can investigate the type of medium and other factors, such as pH and
temperature, that can affect their growth.
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A teaching sequence
This part of the topic is best covered with a series of practical activities on
the conditions needed for microbes to grow and thrive. Younger students
may enjoy re-enacting Pasteur’s original experiments. Simple experiments
using yeast can then be carried out to determine under which conditions
of temperature, pH and substrate type yeast grows best. Older and more
experienced students could investigate the pasteurisation of milk.
Investigations on conditions needed for microbes to grow will then lead naturally
on to discussion about how the food and drink industries prepare and preserve
our food to prevent spoilage by microbes.
Investigating conditions needed for growth

of microbes
Investigating Pasteur
KEY ACTIVITY
It can be a really useful activity for 12–14-year-old students to re-enact a copy of

Pasteur’s experiment. Figure 12.3 shows the results that should be obtained by the
experimental set-up.
Test tube 1: Test tube 2: sterile broth; Test tube 3: sterile broth; Test tube 4: sterile broth;
broth; open tube capped tube open tube empty air lock
Figure 12.3 The expected results from the recreation of Pasteur’s experiment
l The cloudiness of the nutrient broth is an indicator of the extent of bacterial growth.
l Tubes 1 and 3 should turn cloudy due to bacterial contamination from direct
sedimentation of spores from the atmosphere.
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l Tube 2 should remain clear because microbes are destroyed by boiling and
‘spontaneous generation’ of living organisms does not occur.
l Tube 4 replicates Pasteur’s ‘swan-necked’ flasks (a test tube is used fitted with an air
lock used in home brewing).
l When the broths are observed by students, take great care to prevent breakages and
spills, which would cause aerosol contamination in the laboratory air.
l At the end of the investigation all samples will need to be destroyed by autoclaving.
Science in context
You should ensure students have at least a passing knowledge of Louis Pasteur, the
man who led the fight against germs (thus disproving a theory held since Aristotle!).
Later investigations suitable for 14–16-year-olds can move onto topics

such as food preservation. For example, investigating the effect of different
preservatives and temperatures on foodstuffs (peas). The degree of spoilage is
estimated by viewing the turbidity of the suspension. Colorimetry could also be
used to obtain turbidity readings. When carrying out this investigation, frozen
peas should be used since they present minimal risk and are easy to count
out; ensuring the same number of peas allows fair comparisons between
different conditions. More detail on this can be found on page 30 of the 2016
PDF resource Practical microbiology for secondary schools (Preserving food),
published by the Microbiology Society (full details of which are given at the
end of the chapter).
As an investigation, pasteurisation is usually only suitable for 16–18-year-olds,
but you could consider using it as extension for particularly able students.
Milk contains many nutrients, and that makes it an ideal medium for microbial
growth. Milk is pasteurised to avoid contamination by unpleasant pathogens.
Different milk samples (pasteurised and UHT) can be used to investigate the
number of organisms present in the milk sample. Resazurin dye changes
colour with microbial growth to indicate microbial activity. More detail on this
can be found on page 36 of Practical microbiology for secondary schools
(Microbes and milk).
Further activities
➜ Prove it!: a simple investigation for 12–14-year-olds exploring the effect of
temperature, substrate (flour type) and additives like vitamin C and enzymes
on microbial (yeast) growth. The yeast produces carbon dioxide and causes
the dough to rise when it grows.
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➜ Will it grow; is it dead?: students can investigate the effect of chilling and/
or freezing food on microbes. Are they killed or do they start to grow again
when removed from a fridge or freezer?
➜ Fungal growth: growth (of fungi) can be measured by colony diameter over
a few days but the fungus Neurospora crassa grows so quickly, the diameter
of the colony can be measured over a single school day (if it is inoculated
the night before).
➜ Loss of carbon dioxide: this slightly more advanced investigation for
14–16-year-olds looks at measuring fermentation of yeast and investigating
rates of activity. A flask is placed on a balance and the loss of carbon
dioxide can be measured over 4 or 5 days. Graphs can be produced from
the data.
A more open-ended investigation of any of these activities is possible by
asking students to consider and explore the different variables inherent in
each activity.
Microbial growth and food preservation

A range of factors influence microbial growth and these are used to our
advantage in food production and preservation. Discussing such matters helps
put the science in context and makes cross-disciplinary links with other topics.
Table 12.2 summarises some common methods used to preserve our food.
Table 12.2 Microbial growth and food preservation
Method How microbial growth is affected Example
ultra-heat treated (UHT) (135 °C for 2 seconds) all microbes and spores killed UHT long-life milk
sterilised by boiling (100–115 °C for 15 minutes) all microbes killed sterilised milk
pasteurised (70 °C for about 15 seconds) many microbes killed pasteurised milk
canning (boiling and canning to exclude oxygen) all microbes and spores killed tinned beans
freeze drying no water for microbial growth instant mashed potato
preserving by adding salt microbes plasmolysed fish
preserving by adding sugar water moves out of cells jam
pickling pH too acidic for microbes to grow pickled onions
fridge (4 °C) microbial growth slowed down yoghurt
freezer (–18 °C or lower) microbial growth stopped frozen vegetables
sterilisation by irradiation (cobalt-60 source) microbes killed by gamma radiation salmon; shellfish
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12.5 Microbes and hygiene
12.5 Microbes and hygiene

A teaching sequence
Students are typically highly motivated by work that relates to bodily
functions and fluids. The effectiveness of hand washing and various claims
that manufacturers make about their products can be easily tested by
designing their own investigations or following a protocol.
A simple handwashing practical for younger students can be carried out with
finger dabs on agar plates to see if microbes are present on a washed hand
compared to an unwashed hand.
Older students can also explore handwashing products. You could use
finger dabs on agar plates to see what grows after different hand treatments
(unwashed, soap, hand sanitiser, etc.). Alternatively, use plates that have been
inoculated with cultures of safe microbes. Place filter paper discs impregnated
with domestic toiletries on the culture and record the size of each halo.
Useful references for these activities can be found on the internet. CLEAPSS
sheet PP051 investigates environmental swabbing and finger dabs. The
Practical Biology website (a joint project by the Nuffield Foundation, the Royal
Society of Biology and CLEAPSS) has an investigation titled ‘How good is
your toilet paper?’ and there is information on the NHS website about the
best way to wash hands.
Hygiene and food preparation

Despite greater public awareness about the need for food hygiene, outbreaks
of food poisoning still occur. Students should be made aware of the basic rules
for safe food handling and storage.
To introduce students to this topic you could get them to research the advice
given by the government and other agencies with regard to food hygiene and
safe preparation.
Students aged 14–16 years can be tasked to investigate different packaged
foods to work out how long they can be stored and what ‘sell by’ and ‘use by’
dates mean. These investigations can be linked to work on food preservation
(covered in an earlier section). They could also be asked to find out why eggs
are a success story, why government advice changed in 2017 and the value of
the red ‘British Lion Mark’.
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Useful references for these activities can be found at the end of the chapter,
and include the website of The Food Standards Agency, Chilled Education
(resources from the chilled food industry) and BUPA.
Clean water and microbes

Students’ views and thoughts about ‘clean water’ can be explored by
considering some of the following questions:
➜ What is meant by ‘clean’ water?
➜ Does water from a spring, a well or a tap contain microbes?
➜ Do all parts of the world have clean drinking water?
➜ What are the implications of not having clean drinking water?
➜ How was the spread of cholera halted in London in the nineteenth century?
➜ What advice for consumers on the importance of ‘clean’ water would you
give?
Science in context
Cholera outbreaks killed thousands of Londoners in the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries. After the 1848–49 cholera outbreak in London, John
Snow decided to systematically track down the cause of the disease in London.
He suspected it was a waterborne contamination, not airborne as previously
thought, and so he methodically mapped incidences of cholera, combining this
information with data about which water companies households bought their
water from. He proved that those who bought water from companies that drew
water from the most contaminated parts of the Thames were most likely to
suffer from the disease.
John Snow doggedly continued with his work until a particularly brutal outbreak
in the area of Broad Street in 1859 led him to draw his now famous spot map of
cholera incidences and enabled him to identify a single water pump as the source of
the contamination. Once closed off, the incidence rate of cholera fell away.
The presence of bacteria in water can be shown by inoculating agar plates

with water samples from different sources, such as from the environment or
bottled water sold in shops, and investigating for the presence of microbes.
Students can find out about the principles of the first stages of water treatment
and purification by filtering muddy water samples; this activity can be done
as a problem-solving activity. Chemical purification of filtered samples can be
demonstrated.
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12.6 Microbes and digestion
Science in context
Students could research the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 6:
Ensure access to water and sanitation for all.
12.6 Microbes and digestion

Cross-disciplinary
This topic lends itself to connections with other topics in biology and with geography,
including the cycling of matter, digestive processes and global warming.
A teaching sequence
Students aged 12–14 years old can look at the role microbes play in digestion
for herbivorous mammals, such as cows and sheep. The digestion of plant
material by symbiotic microbes results in the production of methane, a
greenhouse gas that is released into the environment. Students can research
and report back to the class for discussion arguments around meat production
and greenhouse gases.
Students can also look at the role microbes play in the breakdown of waste
material produced by animals and plants (in the nitrogen cycle). They can
observe how microbes break down, or ‘digest’, plant material by looking at
compost heaps or piles of lawn clippings. More open-ended investigations
that allow students to explore the factors that aid decomposition are possible.
Moving into later years, this can be expanded to look at how microbes are
important in the digestive processes of humans. Students can research the
microbiome of humans and its importance in human health.
14–16-year-olds could also investigate the action of microbial cellulases on
filter paper and/or the action of microbial enzymes on substrates (for example,
the breakdown of starch by microbes).
More activities like this can be found on the document Practical Microbiology
for Secondary Schools, published by the Microbiology Society and available to
download as a PDF from their website (details found at the end of the chapter).
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12.7 Microbes and disease

A teaching sequence
Previous sections have introduced students to the range of different microbes,
including some that cause diseases in humans, and this leads naturally to a
deeper understanding of pathogens and the development of vaccines and, for
older students, the functioning of the immune system.
Microbes and pandemics

Headlines and news stories about ‘bugs’ that affect humans intrigue students,
providing an excellent starting point for work on microbes and health, putting
the science in context. Stories also provide a context for understanding
fundamental microbiological principles and the ways in which microbes affect
the lives of all living things.
In late 2019 and early 2020 a new pathogenic virus spread around the world. It
was identified as a coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2), a virus similar to one identified
in 2013 commonly known as SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome-related
coronavirus). Remarkably, vaccines against the virus were brought to market
by the end of 2020, leading to hopes that the worst of the pandemic might be
over within another twelve months.
Why did this particular coronavirus spread so easily and why was it so
infectious? Droplets, as airborne particles from coughing and sneezing or
personal contact, transmitted the virus from person to person. The virus could
also remain active for several days on surfaces and objects such as door
handles, so it was readily passed from human to human. The crown-shaped
virus has spike proteins that allow it to bind to membranes of human cells very
efficiently – ten times more efficiently than other similar coronaviruses – causing
a respiratory disease that affects oxygen diffusion in the alveoli.
Worldwide, coronavirus changed the way that governments and the public
behaved, resulting in governments imposing unprecedented restrictions.
People were told to stay in their homes wherever possible (in ‘lockdown’),
working from home and avoiding contact with people from other households,
in an effort to hinder the spread of the virus, for which there were no known
drugs or vaccines.
Experts from different disciplines across the world – scientists, engineers
and medical professionals – worked together in a common cause to control
the virus and care for people infected with it. Scientists worked on producing
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12.7 Microbes and disease
reliable tests to detect the virus, producing a safe vaccine and looking
for antivirals and drugs that might control the spread and infection of the
virus. Engineers produced large quantities of medical equipment, such as
respirators and ventilators to assist the breathing of infected patients, as well
personal protective equipment (PPE) to protect medical professionals and
those in contact with the vulnerable.
Science in context
The internet played a major role in the 2020 coronavirus pandemic, allowing
scientists to exchange data and publish scientific papers while allowing the public to
communicate with friends and relatives while they were in lockdown. Unfortunately,
it also propagated bogus and inaccurate information about the virus and how to cure
it that was dangerous and harmful if followed. Students might be interested to look at
some of the many websites, with excellent scientific information from epidemiologists,
immunologists and virologists, that were created about the virus and the pandemic.
The Microbiology Society produces a collection of resources (fact files) on

different microbes and disease, which are a valuable source of information.
MiSAC have a collection of MiSACmatters Anniversary Articles on a wide
range of micro-organisms and their activities, including many covering
aspects of health. Details of both of these resources are provided at the end
of the chapter.
Antibiotics and antibodies

Students should understand that the use of antibiotics has greatly reduced
deaths from bacterial infections but that overuse and inappropriate use of
antibiotics have resulted in bacterial strains that are able to tolerate antibiotics
(antibiotic-resistant). This is a topic that deserves serious consideration by
students and can help to increase scientific literacy.
The Longitude Prize has a very interesting and valuable page on their website
entitled ‘10 most dangerous antibiotic-resistant bacteria (details at the end of
the chapter).
A teaching sequence
Students could start by doing some library research to find out the causes of
different types of infection, such as viral, bacterial and fungal, and how these
are treated.
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They can then move on to investigate microbial sensitivity to antibiotics.

Discs impregnated with an antibiotic can be used to test the sensitivity
of different microbes to the antibiotic. The discs can be placed on lawn
cultures and the presence of halos, indicating where colonies are prevented
from growing, can be noted and measured.
Another useful investigation into the effectiveness of antibiotics can be carried
out using ‘Mast’ antibiotic susceptibility discs. Tests can be set up to show
how a specific bacterium should be treated with a specific antibiotic. Students
should understand that not all antibiotics kill all bacteria. Open-ended
investigations are also possible by asking appropriate questions such as,
‘Which microbes are killed by streptomycin?’.
More information on practical investigations relating to antibiotic action can
be found at the end of the chapter.
12.8 Microbes and genetic engineering

What are microbial model organisms?
A model organism is a species that has been widely studied, usually because
it is easy to maintain and grow in a laboratory and has particular experimental
advantages. Model organisms are used to obtain information about other
species, such as humans, where it is difficult to study them directly. Some
commonly used model organisms are detailed below.
➜ Streptomyces coelicolor: notable for its production of pharmaceutically
useful compounds, such as anti-tumour agents, immunosuppressants and
over two-thirds of all natural antibiotics.
➜ Bacillus subtilis: when stressed, B. subtilis transforms itself into a spore
and enters a dormant state. This bacterium is found in soil and the
gastrointestinal tract of ruminants and humans.
➜ Azotobacter vinelandii: a nitrogen-fixing soil organism that has been
studied for over 100 years. It was the experimental organism of choice for
many investigators during the emergence of biochemistry and is a model
for biochemical and genetic studies of biological nitrogen fixation (the
conversion of N2 into NH3 by a nitrogenase enzyme).
➜ Escherichia coli: the majority of strains are harmless but some, such as
E. coli 0157, can cause serious food poisoning and severe infections.
Commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded organisms, E.
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12.8 Microbes and genetic engineering
coli forms part of the normal range of microbes found in humans. Much of
our understanding of the fundamental concepts of molecular biology has
resulted from studies on E. coli. The first K-12 strain of E. coli was isolated in
1922 but after many generations of laboratory cultivation it has undergone
significant changes, making it a poor coloniser of the mammalian gut. The
resulting K-12 strains are particularly safe for use in school practical work.
➜ Saccharomyces cerevisiae: one of the simplest eukaryotic model organisms.
It is important in common biochemical pathway studies in organisms
including humans. It also has important applications in the food and
biotechnology industries.
Working with GMOs: health and safety in schools and

colleges in the UK
Anyone carrying out work with GMOs must do so only on premises that have been
registered with the relevant authority. There is, however, practical work that can be
done in schools if it is ‘self-cloning’. (Procedures with recommended strains of E.
coli and DNA sequences are exempt from the Contained Use regulations.) To ensure
good microbiology practice and exemption from the regulation, the bacteria that
students produce must be autoclaved at the end of the investigation.
It is important for teachers to keep up to date with safety. It would be useful to
look at the ASE’s Topics in Safety (Topic 16 Working with DNA) when teaching this
content (see end of chapter for details).
A teaching sequence
Students can investigate the way in which bacteria acquire antibiotic
resistance through conjugation (a natural process in bacteria). More details
can be found on the website of the National Centre for Biotechnology Education
(University of Reading), given at the end of the chapter.
Older or more advanced students can look at investigating ‘self-cloning’.
Transformation kits are available for use in schools; they produce
transformed micro-organisms that are green due to a GFP (green fluorescent
protein), red due to a RFP (red fluorescent protein) or blue due to X-Gal
breakdown by an enzyme (b-galactosidase).
A list of suppliers selling transformation kits is given in the Resources section
at the end of the chapter.
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12.9 Microbes and biotechnology

This topic provides opportunities for studying science in context as well as
cross-disciplinary work, such as genetics.
Science in context
Ancient civilisations employed biotechnology to increase soil fertility and produce
food and drink. These traditional biotechnologies still play a vital role in our modern
lives and students could investigate them through simple practical work or out-of-
school visits. They include:
l the production of beer and wine
l fermentation of food like sauerkraut, soy sauce and vinegar
l modification of raw products (milk to cheeses, lassi, yoghurt, kefir)
l production of clean drinking water and sewage treatment of waste water.
A teaching sequence
A sequence could start by exploring the importance of microbes in industrial
processes. This is best introduced by starting with familiar products. It could
then move on to a discussion about microbial by-products. Microbes are
important in a range of industrial processes because of the by-product the
microbe produces. Some of these products and processes can be investigated
by older students (aged between 14 and 18). They include:
➜ the production of enzymes by microbes – amylase production
➜ investigations of bacterial enzymes used in industry (pectinase, proteases,
lipases, amylases, lactase, invertase, etc.)
➜ the production of organic chemicals by microbes – citric acid, glycerol
➜ the production of antibiotics and antibodies from microbes
➜ bioremediation – breakdown of cellulose by a bacterium (Cellulomonas spp.)
➜ production of foods by microbes – tofu, tempeh, miso, fermented fish and
meat.
Technology use
ICT, such as sensors linked to a computer or data loggers, can be used by students to
show the rate of microbial activity. Investigations could include:
l making bread and/or yoghurt from UHT milk
l production of ginger beer
l fermentation of fruit juices to produce alcohol.
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12.9 Microbes and biotechnology
Useful resources, such as a collection of suggestions for practical

investigations in biotechnology, information on biotechnology or desk-top
activities, are detailed at the end of the chapter.
Science in context
The success stories for biotechnology are many and varied, but the following list
gives a flavour of the diversity of biotechnology. Students could investigate the
topic and then produce a report or presentation on the production of:
l mycoprotein – Quorn a novel food
l alcohol-rich fuels – gasohol
l drugs and medicines – antibiotics and medicinal proteins
l enzymes for the detergent industry
l vaccines and antibodies.
Modern molecular biology has been employed to create genetically modified

microbes that produce the following important products. Researching the
topic to find out more about the science behind the organisms and the product
produced is suitable for 14–16-year-olds or older students:
➜ the production of human insulin (Humulin) in E. coli
➜ the production of human growth hormone in E. coli
➜ the connection in cheese manufacture between the enzyme Fromase and
the microbe Rhizomucor miehei
➜ pest-resistant crops, Bt protein and the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis
➜ the production of golden rice and beta-carotene (Narcissus and the
bacterium Erwinia uredovora)
➜ herbicide-resistant crops and the use of ‘Roundup’.
The development of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) has been
the subject of some considerable debate in many countries over the last
30 years. The principles of genetic modification are easy to understand
if students have an understanding of cell structure and DNA. The topic is
better suited to students of 14 years and upwards, but physical models and
practicals that extract DNA from plant material would help younger students
gain a better understanding.
The advantages of including work on topics such as genetically modified
organisms are that it provides an opportunity for students to experience
different points of view and people’s personal beliefs as well as examine the
science behind the different views. Topics to study could include: selective
breeding, genetic modification and cloning of animals (Dolly the sheep) and
plants, and gene therapy.
Some useful resources on the topic of microbes, biotechnology and genetic
modification are given in the Resources section at the end of the chapter.
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12.10 H
andling microbes successfully
and safely
Increasing the success of microbial
investigations
Early planning is essential for obtaining good results and to ensure cultures
are growing well for use in the classroom. Two months before you plan to
teach the topic, order micro-organisms from a reputable supplier and check
that all equipment and resources are available, including loops, bottles, etc.
Three weeks before, liaise with technicians; plates and media can be made up
in advance of the lesson. Either keep in a fridge upside down or in a cupboard,
in their original Petri dish bags. They must be kept in the dark and taped down
to reduce drying out of the medium and the possibility of condensation forming
in the plates. (Lid condensation falling onto the medium can make the plate
surface too wet to use.) If contaminants are growing on the medium do not use
the agar plate.
If the culture has come from a supplier or as a stock culture in the school, it
will need to be subcultured by the technician or teacher to ensure the culture is
active for the classroom. The subculture will need to be subcultured (transfer
of culture from one agar plate to new agar plate/s) to have enough for a class
practical. Good aseptic techniques need to be understood and adhered to at all
times by technicians, teachers and students.
Increasing the safety of microbial

investigations
CLEAPSS have a comprehensive and informative collection of documents, for
CLEAPSS members, on safe handling of microbes. These are available from
the website, detailed in the Resource section which follows.
Equipment
A list of equipment for safe microbiology practical work can be found in Basic
Practical Microbiology: A Manual published by the Microbiology Society
(2016). Details of this publication are given at the end of the chapter.
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12.10 Handling microbes successfully and safely
Risk assessment
Microbiology often raises different risks from many other biology topics but none
that are insurmountable with good laboratory practice. Students can be involved
in developing their own safety rules; being able to assess risk and work safely is
an important part of learning.
Useful guidance on this can be found in Basic Practical Microbiology: A
Manual (Microbiology Society, 2016), which provides information on a
suggested risk assessment strategy. Further guidance is provided in the ASE’s
publication Topics in Safety (see Topic 15: Microbiology). Full details are given
at the end of the chapter.
Aseptic technique
The purpose of aseptic technique is to prevent contamination of the environment
and worker by the culture being handled and also contamination of the culture by
micro-organisms from the environment.
A summary of aseptic techniques

➜ Work near a Bunsen burner so that airborne organisms which might
contaminate the work are carried away by the up-draught.
➜ Flame the neck of glass bottles and tubes to ensure an up-draught to help
prevent possible contaminants entering (do not heat too strongly, as rapid
cooling may draw air and contaminants into the vessel).
➜ Open culture and sterile equipment for the shortest possible time to help
prevent the chance of contamination.
➜ Correctly flame loops to sterilise them before and after use; this helps to
prevent contamination.
➜ All equipment and media to be used for microbiology should be autoclaved
or sterilised chemically before and after use. Heat and moisture (steam in an
autoclave) at 121 °C is used routinely in schools and colleges for sterilisation.
A summary of good laboratory practice

for microbiology
➜ Wear protective clothing.
➜ Clean hands before and always wash hands after working with micro-
organisms.
➜ Wipe surfaces down with a suitable disinfectant such as Virkon or
Biocleanse.
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➜ Cover cuts and scratches with a waterproof plaster.

➜ Never eat or store food or drink in the laboratory.
➜ No hand-to-mouth activities: sucking pens or pencils, licking labels or mouth
pipetting.
➜ Treat all cultures as possible pathogens.
➜ Do not remove cultures from the laboratory.
➜ Do not obtain cultures from potential sources of pathogens.
➜ Do not incubate cultures at 37 ºC; 30 ºC is the normal upper limit. (Note:
there are exceptions for yoghurt and specific molecular biology organisms.)
➜ Do not grow cultures under anaerobic conditions which can favour some
human pathogens. (Note: an exception is the fermentation of yeast, which
may need to be anaerobic.)
➜ Obtain cultures from reputable suppliers not from a pathology laboratory.
12.11 Resources
A book of this sort cannot contain everything. Many readers will want to
use it in conjunction with a good student textbook. In addition, the following
organisations and resources are recommended as valuable sources of
information and advice.
Websites
Websites with information and advice on safe handling
of microbes
CLEAPSS: one of the foremost resources for advice about practical school
science activities, including a wealth of information about safety: http://
science.cleapss.org.uk. (Helpline: https://science.cleapss.org.uk/helpline/;
telephone: 01895 251496)
ASE (Association for Science Education): www.ase.org.uk/resources/health-
and-safety-resources (general enquiries: info@ase.org.uk; telephone: 01707
283000)
MiSAC, the Microbiology in Schools Advisory Committee, formed in 1969 to
promote the teaching of microbiology in schools and colleges: www.misac.org.
uk (contact: microbe@misac.org.uk)
SSERC (Scottish Schools Education Research Centre): www.sserc.org.uk
(enquiries@sserc.scot; telephone: 01383 626070)
Websites with information and advice from learned societies

The British Mycological Society: www.britmycolsoc.org.uk/education
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12.11 Resources
Microbiology Society: https://microbiologysociety.org. Find materials for

schools by searching ‘educational resources’ in the Members’ Outreach and
Resources tab.
Society for Applied Microbiology: https://sfam.org.uk; (telephone: 0207 685
2596)
Websites with information and advice from other organisations

NCBE, the National Centre for Biotechnology Education at Reading University:
www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk (telephone: 0118 987 3743)
National STEM Learning Centre: www.stem.org.uk (telephone: 01904 328300)
Science & Plants for Schools (SAPS): www.saps.org.uk (email: saps@cam.
ac.uk; telephone: 01223 748455)
Nuffield Foundation: www.nuffieldfoundation.org
The Royal Society of Biology: www.rsb.org.uk
The Wellcome Trust: www.wellcome.ac.uk/
Websites of relevant journals

Catalyst: https://catalyst-magazine.org
Journal of Biological Education: www.tandfonline.com/toc/rjbe20/current
School Science Review: www.ase.org.uk/journals/school-science-review
Science Teacher Education: www.ase.org.uk/journals/science-teacher-
education
Websites with advice on careers in microbiology

Advice on careers in this field of biology can be found by carrying out
searches on the following websites:
Microbiology Society: https://microbiologysociety.org
The National Careers Service, a government run job website: https://
nationalcareers.service.gov.uk/job-profiles/microbiologist
UCAS: www.ucas.com
Websites with information on practical microbiology techniques

The Microbiology Society has published a resource entitled Basic Practical
Microbiology: A Manual which can be downloaded free from their
website. Search the title of the publication from the homepage: https://
microbiologysociety.org
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YouTube hosts a number of interesting and informative videos from the

Microbiology Society. Find them by searching from the homepage: www.
youtube.com
The Practical Biology website has an interesting activity on hygiene entitled
‘how good is your toilet paper’: https://pbiol.rsb.org.uk/health-and-disease/
hygiene
MiSAC, the Microbiology in Schools Advisory Committee offers advice on
practical techniques on its website: www.misac.org.uk
The National Centre for Biotechnology Education (University of Reading) details
a practical investigation of bacterial conjugation, using E. coli: www.ncbe.
reading.ac.uk/PRACTICALS/PDF/Antibiotic1.3_UK_eng.pdf
Kits for investigations involving bacterial transformation can be found via the
following suppliers:
➜ The NCBE: www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/MATERIALS/Microbiology/
transformation.html
➜ Philip Harris, search ‘transformation of E. coli’ from the homepage: www.
philipharris.co.uk
➜ SciChem, search ‘Bio-Rad pGLO bacterial transformation kit’ from the
homepage: https://education.scichem.com
➜ Breckland Scientific: www.brecklandscientific.co.uk/BIO-900-200-p/bio-900-
200.htm
Websites related to food hygiene

The Food Standards Agency have produced teaching resources for catering
students going into the food industry. There is also information and some ideas
that teachers may find valuable in the design of their lessons: www.food.gov.
uk/business-guidance/safer-food-better-business-teaching-resources-for-
colleges
The website Chilled Education, supported by the chilled food industry, has
many resources for students of differing ages and many interesting and
thought-provoking ideas: www.chillededucation.org/food-teacher/food-
teacher-lesson-plans
The BUPA website has plenty of information on food hygiene: www.bupa.co.uk/
health-information/nutrition-diet/food-safety
Websites related to microbes and digestion

Microbes and Climate Change, a well-illustrated fact file from the Microbiology
Society, has a section on ruminants and methane production. It can be accessed
by searching ‘microbes and climate change’ from the homepage of the society:
https://microbiologysociety.org
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12.11 Resources
A two-page article on the human microbiome – Gut microbes: we are

not alone – can be found at: http://misac.org.uk/article-downloads/20.
Rolhion-2019.pdf
Websites related to microbes and disease

The Microbiology Society produces a collection of resources (fact files) on
different microbes and disease which are a valuable source of information:
Topics include:
➜ Malaria – a global challenge
➜ Cold Wars
➜ Pandemic H1N1 ‘swine flu’
➜ HIV and AIDS
➜ Influenza: A seasonal disease
➜ Tuberculosis – can the spread be halted?
➜ Cholera: Death by diarrhea.
MiSAC have a collection of MiSACmatters Anniversary Articles on a wide
range of micro-organisms and their activities, including many covering
aspects of health: http://misac.org.uk/health.html
Websites related to the action of antibiotics

A resource from the Microbiology Society, Basic Practical Microbiology: A
Manual, contains a wealth of information about practical activities involving
microbes. See page 21 ‘Testing sensitivity to antimicrobial substances’.
Search ‘basic practical microbiology: a manual’ from the society’s homepage:
Another useful resource from the Microbiology Society, Antibiotic Resistance: A
Challenge for the 21st Century, is an excellent booklet that explains the discovery
of antibiotics, what they are, how they work and how resistance develops. It also
offers suggestions for alternatives and ways to slow the spread of resistance.
It can be accessed by searching ‘antibiotic resistance a challenge for the 21st
century’ from the homepage: https://microbiologysociety.org
The Practical Biology website has information about a practical activity
relating to anti-microbial action. It can be accessed by searching ‘investigating
anti-microbial action’ from the homepage: https://pbiol.rsb.org.uk
This PDF document from the National Centre for Biotechnology Education
(NCBE) at Reading University details the action of streptomycin on different
microbial cultures: www.ncbe.reading.ac.uk/materials/Microbiology/PDF/
streptomycin.pdf
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Websites relating to microbes, biotechnology and

genetic modification
A PDF of the document Practical Microbiology for Secondary Schools can be
downloaded from the website of the Microbiology Society. From the homepage
(https://microbiologysociety.org/) input the search term ‘practical microbiology
for secondary schools’. This document contains 21 investigations suitable for
secondary school science lessons.
The ABPI (Association of the British Pharmaceutical Industry) website
has a wealth of resources for schools including a number on the topic of
biotechnology and genetic manipulation (search ‘genetic engineering’ from the
homepage): www.abpischools.org.uk
The Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) has
a number of downloadable resources on the topic: https://bbsrc.ukri.org/
engagement/schools/
The Royal Society has produced a report on genetically modified plants that
is useful with students. Search ‘GM plants questions and answers’ from the
homepage: https://royalsociety.org/
Finally, a resource for the connoisseur may be of interest in ‘GM Science Update’
(2016): https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/
uploads/attachment_data/file/292174/cst-14-634a-gm-science-update.pdf
Other interesting internet resources

This article gives more information about the isolation and identification of a
new variant strain of the Hanta virus, the Sin nombre virus: wwwnc.cdc.gov/
eid/article/5/5/99-0512_article
Facts about Ebola virus from the WHO: www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/
detail/ebola-virus-disease
The NHS website gives information for the public about the MMR vaccine
for measles, mumps and rubella: www.nhs.uk/conditions/vaccinations/mmr-
vaccine
Notable female microbiologists you’ve probably never heard of: https://blog.
oup.com/2019/03/notable-female-microbiologists/
Using a laser pointer lens and a smartphone as a microscope: www.misac.
org.uk/article-downloads/31.Schollar.pdf
e-bug, a comprehensive collection of fun activities and teaching resources:
www.e-bug.eu
MiSAC, the Microbiology in Schools Advisory Committee, offers a number of
PDF documents giving some historical perspectives to the topic:
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12.11 Resources
➜ Pasteur and Lister through the microscope: www.misac.org.uk/article-

downloads/28.Grainger-Pasteur.pdf
➜ Bacterial endospores – their roles in resolving the spontaneous generation
controversy and understanding cell development: www.misac.org.uk/article-
downloads/29.Grainger-Endospores.pdf
The Longitude Prize has a page on their website entitled ‘10 most dangerous
antibiotic-resistant bacteria’: https://longitudeprize.org/blog-post/10-most-
dangerous-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria
References
Byrne, J., Grace, M. and Hanley, P. (2009) Children’s anthropomorphic and
anthropocentric ideas about micro-organisms: Do they affect learning? Journal
of Biological Education, 44 (1), 37–43.
Byrne, J. and Grace, M. (2010) Using a concept mapping tool with a
photograph association technique (CoMPAT) to elicit children’s ideas about
microbial activity. International Journal of Science Education, 32 (4), 479–500.
Byrne, J. (2011) Models of micro-organisms: Children’s knowledge and
understanding of micro-organisms from 7 to 14 years-old. International Journal
of Science Education, 33 (14), 1927–1961.
Jones, G., Gardner, G., Lee, T., Poland, K. and Robert, S. (2013) The impact of
microbiology instruction on students’ perceptions of risks related to microbial
illness. International Journal of Science Education, Part B, 3 (3), 199–213.
Leach, J., Driver, R., Scott, P. and Wood-Robinson, C. (1996) Children’s ideas
about ecology 2: ideas found in children aged 5–16 about the cycling of matter.
International Journal of Science Education, 18 (1), 19–34.
Redfern, J., Burdass, D. and Verran, J. (2015) Developing microbiological
learning materials for schools: best practice. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 362
(6), 1–7.
Simonneaux, L. (2000) A study of pupils’ conceptions and reasoning in
connection with ‘microbes’, as a contribution to research in biotechnology
education. International Journal of Science Education, 22 (6), 619–644.
Further reading
ASE Health and Safety Group (2018) Topics in Safety (3rd edition). Hatfield:
The Association for Science Education. Available at: www.ase.org.uk/
resources/topics-in-safety (Topic 15 Microbiology, Topic 16 Working with DNA,
Topic 20 Working with enzymes)
311
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ASE (2006) Safeguards in the School laboratory (11th edition). Hatfield: The
Association for Science Education.
Hogg, S. (2013) Essential Microbiology (2nd edition). New Jersey:
Wiley-Blackwell.
Parker, N. et al. (eds) (2017) Microbiology. Washington, DC: ASM Press.
(Available online at: https://openstax.org/details/books/microbiology)
Postgate, J. (2008) Microbes and Man (4th edition). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Redfern, J. et al. (2012) Algae: A Practical Resource for Secondary Schools.
London: Microbiology Society (previously the Society of General Microbiology).
Stearns, J. C., Surette, M. G. and Kaiser, J. C. (2019) Microbiology for Dummies.
New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
312
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Index
adaptation 217–25 biological reasoning 8 (COLO) 18–24
adolescence 169 biologists 6 chemical communication 141
adrenal gland 141 biology chemistry, of living organisms 34–6
adrenaline 141 big ideas 4–6, 44, 73, 252 chlorophyll 56–7, 59
aerobic respiration 46, 52–3 in context 8, 14–15 choking 83
agriculture 68, 70, 109, 228 defining 2 cholera 296
air quality 272–4 ethics 9 chromatography 59
algae 282, 288, 291 history of 3 chromosomes 37–41, 184–5
allopatric speciation 231 key concepts 2–3 circulatory system 114–24
ammonia 36 biomass 67–8, 264 see also transport systems
anaerobic respiration 46–7, 49, 53–5 biotechnology 302–3 classification
anatomy, misconceptions 94, 169–71 blood 114, 121–3 of living organisms 238–40
animations 15 giving blood 115 skills 13
anthropomorphism 216, 220–2 see also circulatory system climate change 261–7
antibiotics 299–300 body temperature see cloning 158–9, 177
antibodies 299–300 thermoregulation collaborative technologies 15
anticipatory thinking 258 botanical gardens 238 colorimetry 293
archaea 282 breathing 78–88 combustion 48, 51
arteries 118–20 calorimetry 48 compost 70
artificial insemination (AI) 174 cancerous growth 159 concept cartoons 11
artificial selection 231 capillaries 120–1 constructing understanding 9–11
aseptic technique 305 carbohydrates 35, 46, 49, 60 contexts 8, 14–15
assessment, summative 4 carbon cycle 67 contraception 173–4
asthma 87–9 carbon dioxide 3, 22–3, 36, 46–8, controlling variables 7
ATP (adenosine 53–5, 57–8, 63, 65–6, 78–9, 93, 123 control systems 127
triphosphate) 49–50, 81 carcinogens 159 chemical control 141
Attenborough, D. 252 cardiac cycle 118 disturbances 151–2
bacteria 283, 289–90, 296 careers 42, 47, 51, 68, 109, 114, 123, and environment 253
balance 139–40 147, 158, 176, 200, 233, 237, 242, feedback loops 130
beavers 237 259, 281 homeostasis 147–51
bias 7, 260, 269 Carson, R. 252 hormones 141–7
big ideas 4–6, 44, 252 cells nervous system 132–3
binary fission 37 and adaptation 224 practical work 139–40, 150
biodiversity 5, 228–48, 267–9, 272–3 division 36–41, 159 prior knowledge 127
conservation 232–8 drawing 31–2 senses 134–40
defining 230 and environment 253 stimulus-response chain 130–1,
fieldwork 248 eukaryotic 17, 37, 54 141, 148
habitats 229, 244–5, 267–8 as fundamental unit 2 teaching sequence 127–8
importance of 231–3 gametes 38–41 thermoregulation 129–30, 148–50
loss 235–8 organelles 17, 54 co-ordination 127
overview 228 overview 17–18 coronavirus 298–9
practical work 241–7, 267–9 practical work 33 cortisol 141
prior knowledge 229 prokaryotic 17, 37, 54 COVID-19
quadrats 243–7 somatic 38 impact of exercise 90
restoring 236–7 structure 32–3 impact of smoking 88–9
role of zoos 238 studying 30–4 spread of 298–9
speciation 230–1 teaching sequence 18 Crick, F. 3, 186
teaching sequence 229 three-dimensional models 32–3 cyanobacteria 283
trophic levels 267 cell theory 17–18, 54 cystic fibrosis 198–9
water 242–3 characteristics of living organisms cytoplasm 17, 35, 54
313
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Index
Darwin, C. 3, 208, 212–13, 231 fieldwork 254–7, 265–6, 270–1 fermentation 54

data logging 15, 62 food security 270–1 fertility, control 172–4
da Vinci, L. 58 and health 274–5 fieldwork 7, 13, 20, 248, 252,
Dawkins, R. 216, 223 in the media 260 254–7, 265–6, 271
decomposers 69 overview 251 fitness 90
decomposition 69–70 practical work 262–4, 272–3 flooding 266
detritivores 69 prior knowledge 253 folded membranes 101
diagrams, human cheek cells 32 water quality 272–4 see also surface area
dialysis 94–5 see also biodiversity food
dietetics 51 enzymes 34, 224 absorption 47–8
diffusion 73–7, 82, 98–100, 102–3 Escherichia, T. 282 chains 67–70, 229, 232
digestion 48, 225, 297 ethanol 47, 54 digestion 48
digital technologies 15 ethical issues 9, 117, 176–7, 242 ecosystems 67–70
dinosaurs 210–11 eukaryotic cells 17, 37, 54 labels 51
diploid number 38 evolution 3 misconceptions 67
diseases 152, 282, 296, 298–9 adaptation 217–25 preparation 295–6
dissection 94, 116–17, 136 artificial selection 231 preservation 293–4
DNA 3 controversy 214–15 security 270–1
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 17, fossils 209–10 as source of energy 51–2
37, 56, 183, 185–8, 192–3, 198–9, geological time 210–11 waste 270–1
201–3, 224 misconceptions 216–17 webs 268–9
Dobzhansky, T. 207 natural selection 207–17, 230–1 forces 127
drugs 151–2 overview 207–8 Forest Schools 253
ears 138–40 practical work 214 fossils 209–10
ecological pyramids 68–70 prior knowledge 207–8, 217 Franklin, R. 3, 186
ecosystems 5, 67–70, 225, 228, selective breeding 212–14 fungi 48, 283, 289
231–2, 270 teaching sequence 208–9, 217–19 Galápagos tortoise 212–13
see also biodiversity timeline 211 gametes 38–41, 195–6
egestion 93 exchange gas exchange 78–88, 224
emphysema 102 diffusion 73–7, 82, 98–100, 102–3 gas sensors 62
endangered species 235 and environment 253 gender 197–8
Endler, J. 223 gas exchange 78–88, 224 genes 182–200
endocrine glands 141–2 kidneys 93–5 genetically modified organisms
energy misconceptions 79–80 (GMOs) 301
calorimetry 48 overview 73–4 genetic engineering 300
dissipation 2 physical principles 75–6 genome 191–6, 198–9, 203, 214
ecosystems 67–70 practical work 76–8, 85–6, 89–90 genotype 194
flow 51, 67–70 pressure changes 80 geographical information system
food as source of 51–2 prior knowledge 74–5, 79 (GIS) 266
law of conservation of 2 surface area 77, 100–1 geological time 210–11
overview 44–5 teaching sequence 75, 79 germinating seeds 52–3, 64,
in physics 45–6 volume ratio 77, 100–1 161–2, 163
storage 49 see also excretion global warming 232, 261–2
stores and transfers model 45 excretion 21, 34–6, 92–5 glucagon 141
teaching sequence 56, 67 physical principles 92–3 glucose 46–7, 65, 123, 141
transfers 51–3, 264–5 prior knowledge 92 glycosis 47
transformations model 45–6 teaching sequence 92 Gosling, R. 186
energy drinks 45 see also exchange gravity 37
environment exercise 89–91, 123 group work 12
air quality 272–4 extinction 235 habitats 229, 244–5, 267–8
climate change 261–7 eyes 135–7 haemophilia 198
education perspectives 251, fake news 260 handwashing 295
257–61 fats 49 Harlen, W. 4–6, 44, 73, 229, 252
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Index
Harlen progression 5–6 intensity 62–4 microbial locations 290–1

Harvey, W. 120 see also photosynthesis micro-organisms 281–4, 286, 304
hay infusion 289 limewater 85 misconceptions 284–6
hearing 138–9 living organisms model organisms 300–1
heart 116–18 characteristics of living organisms overview 281–2
heart rate 89, 123 (COLO) 18–24 Pasteur’s experiment 292–3
hedgehogs 235–6 chemistry 34–6 practical work 286–8, 290–4,
height 201–2 observing 19–20 304–6
heliotropism 58 lungs 80–1, 84 prior knowledge 284–5
heredity 2 see also breathing teaching sequence 286–7, 292,
histograms 190 lux meter 63 295, 297–8, 299–303
historical reasoning 8 lymphatic system 123–4 micrometry 34
history, of biology 3 MacFarlane, R. 252 micro-organisms 281–4, 286, 304
homeostasis 3, 23, 34, 94, magnesium 56 microscopes 24–30, 287–8
147–51 marine organisms 20 rules for using 26–7
Hooke, R. 25, 99 masturbation 170 studying cells 30–4
hormones matching 12 temporary slides 28
animals 141–4 material recycling 69 misconceptions 10
plants 144–7 mathematics 7, 120, 161, 190–1 anatomy 94, 169–71
human cheek cells 31–2 calorimetry 48 evolution 216–17
hybrid species 230 energy calculations 264–5 food chains and webs 67
hydrogencarbonate histograms 190 gas exchange 79–80
indicator 21–2, 53, 66 large numbers 211 microbiology 284–6
hydroponics 56–7 micrometry 34 photosynthesis 55–6
hygiene 29, 69, 295–6 organising data 190, 259 reproduction 155
hypotheses 8 matter respiration 46
ice ages 234 circulation 2 transport systems 102, 115
Ingenhousz, J. 56 law of conservation of mass 2 see also prior knowledge
inheritance 182–3 medicines 151–2, 233 mitochondria 17, 54–5
insectivorous plants 70 meiosis 37–41, 156 mitosis 36–9, 156, 158–9
insulin 141 Mendel, G. 3, 183, 193–5 mobile phones 15
intensive farming 68 menstruation 172–3 model organisms 300–1
International Space Station 37 metabolic pathways 34–6, 46 models
interpersonal competence 258 methane 47 breathing 80–1
invasive species 235–6 methylene blue solution 29 cell structure 32–3
inverse square law 62–3 microbes see micro-organisms chromosomes 38
investigation 13–14 microbiology climate change 262
see also practical work algae 282, 288, 291 complex molecules 35
in vitro fertilisation (IVF) 174 antibiotics 299–300 eyes 136–7
iodine solution 29, 35 antibodies 299–300 natural selection 214
Kettlewell, B. 239 aseptic technique 305 osmosis 105
kidneys 93–5 bacteria 283, 289–90, 296 Planetary Boundaries 272–3
knowledge organisers 13 biotechnology 302–3 reproductive systems 171
Krebs cycle 47 clean water 296 seeds 164
labelling 12–13 digestion 297 motivation 24
lactic acid 46–7, 53–4 and disease 282, 296, 298–9 multiple choice questions 10
Lamarckism 216 food preservation 293–4 muscles 55
law of conservation of energy 2 genetically modified organisms ATP (adenosine triphosphate) 49–
law of conservation of mass 2 (GMOs) 301 50
leaf litter 69 genetic engineering 300 natural selection 207–17, 230–1
life cycles 20 and hygiene 295–6 Needham, R. 45–6
light microbial colonies 287–8 nervous system 132–3
absorption 59 microbial growth 291–4 see also control systems
315
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Index
neurons 132–3 glucose 65 evolution 207–8, 217

nitrogen 56 growth 56–8, 145 exchange 74, 79
normal distribution 201 hormones 144–7 excretion 92
normative competence 258 hydroponics 56–7 microbiology 284–5
nucleic acids 35 leaves 58, 63 photosynthesis 55–6
nutrient cycles 70 life cycle 20–1 reproduction 161, 167–8
nutrition 21, 51 nutrition 56, 65 respiration 50
see also food reproduction 160–4, 178 transport systems 98, 102, 114
observation skills 13–14, 20, 111 response to stimulus 21 variation 182
oestrogen 142 root hairs 111–12 probability 8
onions 30–1 stomata 58, 109–10 problem-solving skills 13
Open Air Laboratories (OPAL) 260 transport systems 97, 102–13 processing text 13
organelles 17, 54 see also photosynthesis progesterone 142
organ transplants 95 pollutants 86–7 prokaryotic cells 17, 37, 54
osmosis 102–3 pollution 272–4 proteins 35
overfishing 232 polygenic inheritance 200–1 protozoa 283
oxidation 46–9, 51 pond water 29, 69, 99, 242 puberty 169
see also respiration pondweed 31, 53, 61, 63, 66 Punnett squares 194–7
oxygen 36, 46, 50, 52, 78–9, 93, 123 populations 230 pyramids of numbers 69–70
photosynthesis 61–3 potometer 110–11 quadrats 243–7
pancreas 141 practical work 6–7, 10–11, 13–14, rainfall 266
pandemics 298–9 209–10 rainforests 228, 236
Pasteur, L. 292–3 biodiversity 241–7, 267–9 random movement 76
pasteurisation 292–3 breathing rate 89–90 rapid-cycling brassicas 21, 146
phenotype 194–5 control systems 139–40, 150 reading 12–13
pheromones 144 dissection 94, 116–17, 136 reasoning 8
phloem 112–13 environment 262–4, 272–3 receptors 134–5
photosynthesis 21–3, 36, 44, ethics 117, 242 reductionism 45
47–8, 51, 79 evolution 209–10, 214 reflexes 132–3
and adaptation 225 exchange 76–8 refutation tasks 10
chlorophyll 56–7, 59 fieldwork 7, 13, 20, 248, 252, religion, and evolution 214–15
equation 57–8 254–7, 265–6, 271 reproduction 2, 21
gas sensors 62 gas exchange 85–6 animals 164–6, 178
leaves 58, 63 health and safety 78, 86, 121, 254 asexual 157–61, 165, 177–8, 230
light absorption 59 investigating photosynthesis 60–3, cloning 158–9, 177
light intensity 62–4 66 fertility 172–4
limiting factors 64 investigating respiration 22–3, humans 166–77
measuring rate of 61 52–3 hybrid species 230
misconceptions 55–6 investigating specialised cells 33 male and female systems 169–72
plant growth 56–8 microbiology 286–8, 290–4, 304–6 menstruation 172–3
practical work 60–3, 66 observing living organisms 19–20 misconceptions 155
prior knowledge 55–6 plant reproduction 160 overview 155–6
and respiration 65–6 risk assessment 305 plants 160–4, 178
phototropisms 144–5 transport systems 101, 103–9 practical work 160
pH sensor 54 variation 190 pregnancy 175–7
pitfall traps 69, 241–2 predictions 10–11, 12 prior knowledge 161, 167–8
pituitary gland 142 pregnancy 175–7 sexual 161
Planetary Boundary model 272–3 prejudice 260 teaching sequence 162, 168–9,
plants Priestley, J. 56–7 175–6
cell study 30–1 prior knowledge 10, 18 respiration 11, 21–3, 36, 45, 78,
excretion 93 biodiversity 229 81, 93
gas exchange 82–3 control systems 127 aerobic 46, 52–3
germinating seeds 52–3, 64 environment 253 anaerobic 46–7, 49, 53–5
316
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Index
and cell theory 54 stimulus-response chain 130–1, tropisms 144

misconceptions 46 141, 148 unicellular organisms 6, 33, 99–100
as oxidation reaction 46–9, 51 stomata 58, 109–10 van Helmont, J.B. 3, 56–7
and photosynthesis 65–6 strategic competence 258 variables 7
practical work 22–3, 52–3 subjectivity 7 variation
prior knowledge 50 sucrose 48 diseases 198–200
teaching sequence 50 summative assessment 4 genes 182–4, 182–200
respirometers 52 surface area 77, 100–1 height 201–2
rewilding 237 swallowing 132, 133 inheritance 182–3
rigor mortis 50 sympatric speciation 231 overview 181–2
risk assessment 305 systems thinking 258 polygenic inheritance 200–1
RNA (ribonucleic acid) 17 taste 140 in populations 203
Ross, K. 46 taxonomy see classification practical work 190
salinity gradient 106 teleology 216, 220–2 prior knowledge 182
Saussure, N. 3 testosterone 142 sex determination 196–8
Sayre, A. 3 thermal insulation 49 teaching sequence 182–3
scaffolding 9 thermoregulation 129–30, 148–50 within species 186–96, 239
Schleiden, M. 17 Thunberg, G. 252 vascular tissue 107–8
Schwann, T. 17 thyroid gland 141 vegetarianism 67
scientific language 11–12, 25, 35, thyroxine 141 veins 118–20
45, 150–1, 199, 220–2, 239–40 tissue culture 158 ventilation 83
selective breeding 212–14 touch 140 Virchow, R. 2, 17
senses 134–40 translocation 112 virtual reality (VR) 256–7
sensitivity 21 transpiration 108–12 viruses 282–3
sequencing 12 transport systems vitamins 147
sex determination 196–8 and adaptation 224 Vogel, S. 223
sex education 156, 166–7, 172–3 animals 97 volume ratio 77, 100–1
see also reproduction circulatory system 114–24 Wallace, A.R. 3, 208, 212–13
sex organs 142 features of 101 water
sexually transmitted infections humans 97, 114–24 biodiversity 242–3
(STIs) 174–5 misconceptions 102, 115 clean 296
Shiva, V. 252 multicellular organisms 100–1 quality 242–3, 272–4
Simpson, E. 248 overview 97 supply 109
Simpson’s Diversity Index 248 plants 97, 102–13 Watson, J. 3, 186
smell 140 practical work 101, 103–9 Wilkins, M. 186
smoking 86–9, 90 prior knowledge 98, 102, 114 Wilkinson, M. 223
Snow, J. 296 purpose 97 Wilson, E.O. 235
social constructivism 9 teaching sequence 98, 102, 114 wind 266
somatic cells 38 translocation 112 wormery 70
speciation 230–1 transpiration 108–12 writing 13
Stegosaurus 210–11 unicellular organisms 99–100 yeast 54, 289
stem cells 37 vascular tissue 107–8 zoos 238
stick insects 20 trophic levels 267 zygotes 38
stimuli, responses to 21 tropical rainforests 228, 236
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Michael J. Reiss (Editor), Mark Winterbottom (Editor) - Teaching Secondary Biology-Hodder Education (2021)

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Michael J. Reiss (Editor), Mark Winterbottom (Editor) - Teaching Secondary Biology-Hodder Education (2021)

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Teaching Secondary

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3 Energy and materials 44

6 Communication and control 127

11 The environment 251

12 Microbiology and biotechnology 281

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runs continuing professional development courses on behalf of domestic

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Science and Director of Teaching and Learning at Queen’s College, London.

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and the environment. He is Chair of the Academic Committee of European

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Biology and when not working on something to do with science education or

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Steve Tilling is an ecologist with a particular interest in promoting, supporting

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1.1 What is biology?

Key concepts in biology

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➜ Evolution. Over time, organisms change. A key insight of Charles Darwin

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Big ideas in biology

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widespread use of pesticides to preserve one type of crop has widespread

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1.2 Doing biology

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1.3 Learning biology

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Problems with language

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Even then, some of the grammatical conventions we use in biology can be a

Helping students with language

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➜ labelling and highlighting (for example, highlighting words which relate to a

Practical work and inquiry

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Using digital technologies

1.4 Final thoughts

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2.1 Cell biology

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Prior knowledge and experience

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2.2 Characteristics of living organisms

Observing living organisms

It helps to give students an opportunity to observe a range of living organisms in settings

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respire and produce carbon dioxide. Hydrogencarbonate indicator is a very