- The molecular structure of ATP is:

- ATP has 3 phosphate molecules while ADP has only 3 phosphate molecules.

- ATP releases 1 phosphate bond to donate energy.

- ATP is considered the "energy currency" of the cell because of the following:
I. It mediates most energy coupling in cells.
II. It donates its phosphoryl groups to release energy.
III. It captures chemical energy obtained from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it
to fuel other cellular processes.
IV. The presence of adenine and ribosyl groups that provide additional features for attachment
to enzymes to regulate enzymatic activities.

- Energy coupling occurs when the energy produced by one reaction or system is used to drive
another reaction or system. The energy released from the hydrolysis of ATP into ADP is used to
perform cellular work, usually by coupling the exergonic reaction of ATP hydrolysis with
endergonic reactions.

- The characteristics of ATP that make it useful for energy coupling in cells are due to the
phosphate groups that link through phosphodiester bonds that are high in energy.

- The substances within plants and algae that absorb visible light are called pigments.
- In photoexcitation of chlorophyll always begin when a chlorophyll molecule absorbs light
energy.
- chlorophyll absorbs light in the red (long wavelength) and the blue (short wavelength) regions
of the visible light spectrum. Green light is not absorbed but reflected, making the plant appear
green. Chlorophyll is found in the chloroplasts of plants.

- The light-independent stage, also known as the Calvin Cycle, takes place in the stroma, the
space between the thylakoid membranes and the chloroplast membranes, and does not require
light, hence the name light-independent reaction. Can also be known Dark reaction.

- The light reaction takes place in the thylakoid discs. There, water (H20) is oxidized, and oxygen
(O2) is released. The electrons freed up from the water are transferred to ATP and NADPH. The
dark reaction occurs outside of the thylakoids.

- CALVIN CYCLE
It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast
It returns ADP, inorganic phosphate, and NADP+ to the light reactions.
It incorporates carbon dioxide into organic molecules through carbon fixation

- The Calvin cycle has three stages: Stage 1: Fixation, Stage 2: Reduction, Stage 3: Regeneration

- What is the primary function of the Calvin Cycle? To produce ATP and NADPH for the Calvin
cycle and to produce O2 for Photosynthesis. To produce simple sugars for the plant that can be
transformed into Glucose for the plant.

- Aerobic means 'with air' and refers to the body producing energy with the use of oxygen. This
typically involves any exercise that lasts longer than two minutes in duration. Continuous 'steady
state' exercise is performed aerobically. Anaerobic means 'without air' and refers to the body
producing energy without oxygen.

- Anaerobic respiration is a type of cellular respiration where respiration takes place in the
absence of oxygen. The process is also called as fermentation. Only 2 ATP molecules are
liberated per glucose molecule during anaerobic respiration.

- the role of ATP synthase in cellular respiration:

It catalyzes the formation of the energy storage molecule.
It catalvzes the synthesis of ATP from ADP and phosphate.
It directly generates adenosine triphosphate (ATP) during the process of cellular
respiration
It forms ATP from adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate (Pi) through
oxidative phosphorylation, which is a process in which enzyme oxidizes nutrients to form ATP
- In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis are transported
into mitochondria, which are sites of cellular respiration. If oxygen is available, aerobic
respiration will go forward.

- Thus the correct order of the stages in cellular respiration is: Glycolysis - Oxidative
decarboxylation - Krebs cycle - Electron transport chain - Oxidative phosphorylation.

- Cellular respiration is a series of chemical reactions that break down glucose to produce ATP.

- Glucose is oxidized to carbon dioxide, water and energy in aerobic respiration.

- The first step in both anaerobic and aerobic respiration is called glycolysis.

- The three-carbon molecule is called pyruvate. Pyruvate is oxidized and converted into Acetyl
CoA. These two steps occur in the cytoplasm of the cell.

- Glycolysis. Stage one of cellular respiration is glycolysis. Glycolysis is the splitting, or lysis of
glucose.

- Which stage in cellular respiration is considered as an aerobic pathway for energy production?
Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidative phosphorylation is the final stage of aerobic cellular respiration. There are two
substages of oxidative phosphorylation, Electron transport chain and Chemiosmosis.

- The production of ATP using the process of chemiosmosis in mitochondria is called oxidative
phosphorylation.

- Chemiosmosis help in the synthesis of ATP because:

I. Chemiosmosis is used to generate 90 percent of the ATP made during aerobic glucose
catabolism.
II. During chemiosmosis, the free energy from the series of reactions that make up the electron
transport chain is used to pump hydrogen ions across the membrane, establishing an
electrochemical gradient.
Ill. In oxidative phosphorylation, the hydrogen ion gradient formed by the electron transport
chain is used by ATP synthase to form ATP.
IV. It is also the method used in the light reactions of photosynthesis to harness the energy of
sunlight in the process of photophosphorylation.
- The end product of citric acid cycle is 2 carbon dioxide molecules, 1 GTP/ATP, 3 NADH and 1
FADH2.

- Some prokaryotes and eukaryotes use anaerobic respiration in which they can create energy for
use in the absence of oxygen

- some of the needed and starting materials for the first stage in cellular respiration to takes place
to produce ATP are Glucose, ATP, NAD+ & Pi

- Aside from ATP, the other end products in cellular respiration after electron transport and
chemiosmosis in mitochondria are H2O, NAD+, ATP, protons & FAD

- the pathway of electron flow in the absence of oxygen

I. Some living systems use an inorganic molecule (such as nitrate or sulfur) to regenerate NAD*
II. Through the processes that use an organic molecule to regenerate NAD* from NADH
collectively referred to as fermentation.
IlI. When no oxygen is present, the electron transport chain can't run because there is
no oxvgen to act as the final electron acceptor.

- Fermentation is another anaerobic (non-oxygen-requiring) pathway for breaking down

glucose, one that's performed by many types of organisms and cells.

- fermentation is important in cellular respiration because It makes it possible for cells to continue
generating ATP through glycolysis.

- The disadvantage of fermentation as a process is:

Cells relying on lactic acid fermentation need to consume more glucose to get the same amount
of energy as cells using aerobic respiration.

- The required number of molecules in converting the nutrients we gain from the food we eat into
a form of energy our bodies can use readily is 1.

- the process where fuel molecules enter the inner membrane of the mitochondria so they can be
converted into ATP is cellular respiration

- Aerobic respiration and fermentation are two processes which are used to provide energy to
cells. In aerobic respiration, carbon dioxide, water, and energy in the form of adenosine
triphosphate (ATP) is produced in the presence of oxygen while in fermentation the process of
energy production happens in the absence of oxygen.

- Nata-de-coco a cellulosic white to creamy yellow substance formed by acetobacter aceti

- some of the health benefits of using virgin coconut oil:

 I. May boost heart health.
II. Most dietary fats are categorized as long-chain triglycerides (LCTs), while coconut oil contains
some medium-chain triglycerides (MCTs), which are shorter fatty acid chains.
III. The fatty acids in coconut oil can encourage your body to burn fat, and they provide
quick energy to your body and brain.
IV. They also raise HDL (good) cholesterol in your blood, which may help reduce heart
disease risk.

- the side effects of using virgin coconut oil:

I. Coconut oil may also increase levels of bad cholesterol, increasing cardiovascular risk.
II. Consumption of saturated fatty acids (SFAs) in rich diets has been attributed to
increased risk of cardiovascular disease.
III. C. Ingesting large amounts of coconut oil can cause diarrhea, cramps, and
gastrointestinal discomfort.
IV. D. Some of the allergic reactions include hives and anaphylaxis (a lethal emergency that
involves troubled breathing).

- In finding the amount of ATP In the average humans hydrolyzed per day:
(molecular weight multiply by the amount of ATP)