CHAPTER-1

Basic Electricity
1.1 AC and DC system

Alternating current or AC electricity is the type of electricity commonly used in homes and
businesses throughout the world. While the flow of electrons through a wire in direct current
(DC) electricity is continuous in one direction, the current in AC electricity alternates in
direction. The back-and-forth motion occurs between 50 and 60 times per second, depending on
the electrical system of the country. That is called frequency.

AC is created by an AC electric generator, which determines the frequency. What is special

about AC electricity is that the voltage in can be readily changed, thus making it more suitable
for long-distance transmission than DC electricity. But also, AC can employ capacitors and
inductors in electronic circuitry, allowing for a wide range of applications. DC is generated from
battery or DC generator since there is no change in direction of DC wave so there is no
frequency.

Advantages of AC over DC

 AC can be relatively easily and economically stepped up or down with a transformer to suit
the application. DC cannot be wired through a transformer.
 Because it can be stepped up (and down), AC can be increased to high voltage levels for
transmission over large distances, then stepped down to safer levels for consumer use.
 High voltages can be generated in AC. This is more difficult with DC.
 Because of the high voltages that can be generated, AC can be transmitted over long distances.
 Long-range transmission results in relatively low energy losses resulting from resistance.
 AC is cheaper to generate than DC.
 AC can be easily converted to DC if required
Disadvantages of AC over DC

• First disadvantage is that the shock of the ac is attractive but the shock of dc is repulsive.
• At high voltages, it is more dangerous to work with ac than dc.
• In the processes like electro refining, electroplating etc., one cannot use the ac. In these
processes, only dc is used.

1.2 Phase angle and Power Factor

Real power (P), also known as true or active power, performs the “real work” within an electrical
circuit. Real power, measured in watts, defines the power consumed by the resistive part of a
circuit. Then real power, (P) in an AC circuit is the same as power, P in a DC circuit. So just like
DC circuits, it is always calculated as I2*R, where R is the total resistive component of the circuit.

Real Power P = I2R = V*I*cos(Φ) Watts, (W)

Reactive power (Q), (sometimes called wattless power) is the power consumed in an AC circuit
that does not perform any useful work but has a big effect on the phase shift between the voltage
and current waveforms. Reactive power is linked to the reactance produced by inductors and
capacitors and counteracts the effects of real power. Reactive power does not exist in DC
circuits.

Unlike real power (P) which does all the work, reactive power (Q) takes power away from a
circuit due to the creation and reduction of both inductive magnetic fields and capacitive
electrostatic fields, thereby making it harder for the true power to supply power directly to a
circuit or load.
The power stored by an inductor in its magnetic field tries to control the current, while the power
stored by a capacitors electrostatic field tries to control the voltage. The result is that capacitors
“generate” reactive power and inductors “consume” reactive power. This means that they both
consume and return power to the source so none of the real power is consumed.

Reactive Power Q = I2X = V*I*sin (Φ) volt-amperes reactive, (VAR)

Apparent Power: Then there is a mathematical relationship between the real power (P), and the
reactive power (Q), called the complex power. The product of the voltage, V applied to an AC
circuit and the current, I flowing into that circuit is called the “volt-ampere product” (VA) given
the symbol S and whose magnitude is known generally as apparent power.

This complex Power is not equal to the algebraic sum of the real and reactive powers added
together, but is instead the vector sum of P and Q given in volt-amps (VA). It is complex power
that is represented by the power triangle.

Power Factor in AC Circuits

Power factor, cos(Φ), is an important part of an AC circuit that can also be expressed in terms of
circuit impedance or circuit power. Power factor is defined as the ratio of real power (P) to
apparent power (S), and is generally expressed as either a decimal value, its value always lies
between 0 to 1.
Power factor defines the phase angle between the current and voltage waveforms, were I and V
are the magnitudes of current and voltage. Note that it does not matter whether the phase angle is
the difference of the current with respect to the voltage, or the voltage with respect to the current.
The mathematical relationship is given as:

1.3 Star Delta connection of 3 phase system

There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase system.
In single phase circuit, there will be only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only one
wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the circuit. So in
single phase minimum amount of power can be transported. Three phase circuit is the
polyphase system where three phases are send together from the generator to the load Each phase
are having a phase difference of 120o, i.e 120o angle electrically. So from the total of 360o, three
phases are equally divided into 120o each.

In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:

1. Star connection
2. Delta connection
In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and fourth is neutral which is
taken from the star point. Star connection is preferred for long distance power transmission
because it is having the neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept of balanced and
unbalanced current in power system.
When equal current will flow through all the three phases, then it is called as balanced current.
And when the current will not be equal in any of the phase, then it is unbalanced current.
In star connection, the line voltage is √3 times of phase voltage. Line voltage is the voltage
between two phases in three phase circuit and phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to
the neutral line. And the current is same for both line and phase. It is shown as expression below

In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is taken. Normally delta
connection is preferred for short distance due to the problem of unbalanced current in the circuit.
The figure is shown below for delta connection. In the load station, ground can be used as neutral
path if required. In delta connection, the line voltage is the same as that of phase voltage. And
the line current is √3 times of phase current. It is shown as expression below.

Generally, star connection is used where you need a neutral and two separate voltages, like our
distribution system.
Delta connection is generally preferred where neutral conductor is not needed like for
transmission of high voltage power.