1.

Tropical biome
Tropical Evergreen forests are a dominant part of the Natural vegetation in
India. They flourish in the areas having more than 200 cm of rainfall. Types of
forests form an important part of the Indian
This article will provide details about the topical evergreen forests also called
tropical rainforests.
Introduction to Tropical Evergreen Forests
The evergreen forests are essential in not only promoting greenery on the planet,
but they are also useful in the continual survival of animals and plants in the
forest ecosystem. The trees are evergreen as there is no period of drought. They
are mostly tall and hardwood.
Tropical Evergreen Forests – Characteristics
Learn to identify the tropical evergreen forests, a type of natural vegetation,
through the points given below:

Tropical Evergreen Forests

 The tropical wet evergreen forest in India is usually found in areas

receiving more than 200 cm of rainfall and having a temperature of 15-30
degrees Celsius.
 They occupy about 7% of the earth’s surface.
 They are found mostly near the equator.
 They have sparse undergrowth interspersed with clearings
 They have a scarce presence of litter (organic matter settling on the
ground)
 These forests are dense and multi-layered.
 They harbor many types of plants and animals.
 The forests constitute an important part of the environment and ecology.
 These trees are an important component of the Forest Biology and
ecosystem, that helps to promote life in the ecosystem. This allows the
plants and animal life to harmonize and live with one another in absolute
peace.
Tropical Evergreen Forest – Geographical Location
These forests are found on the eastern and western slopes of the Western Ghats.

The states where these forests are predominantly identified are :

1. Tamil Nadu
2. Kerala
3. Karnataka
4. Maharashtra
5. Assam
6. Arunachal Pradesh
7. Nagaland
8. Tripura
9. Meghalaya
10.West Bengal
11.Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
There are quite a few different plants and animals that exist in harmony with
one another for the continual survival of the species. This co-existing system of
plants and animals leads to the existence of a biome. A biome is the collection
of all wildlife and plants that coexist in a certain environment defined by certain
geographical boundaries.
Tropical Evergreen Forests Host Varieties of Plants & Animals

Plant Species in Tropical Evergreen Animal Species in Tropical Evergreen

Forests Forests

 Ebony  Elephants
 Mahogany  Monkeys
 Rosewood  Lemur
 Rubber Chinchona  Deer
 One-Horned Rhino (Assam, West
Bengal)
 Birds
 Bats
 Sloth
 Scorpions
 Snails

The different types of animals that live in the evergreen forests are usually of a
certain type such as indigenous birds like owls, hawks, cardinals, and even
some mammals such as deers, possums, and raccoons.
In India, evergreen forests are primarily located in states such as Karnataka and
even Kerala. The Western Ghats are the primary location of the evergreen
forest. The forests mainly contain trees such as rosewood, mahogany, and
ebony.
Threats to Evergreen Forests in India
Evergreen forests in India are threatened by a number of factors, including:
Deforestation: Deforestation is the clearing of forests for other land uses, such
as agriculture and development.
Climate change: Climate change is causing the Earth’s temperature to rise,
which is leading to more extreme weather events, such as droughts and floods.
Poaching: Poaching is the illegal hunting of wildlife.
Encroachment: Encroachment is the illegal occupation of forest land
Tropical Evergreen Rainforest Biome
Climate:

 Average annual rainfall is about 2000 mm. Every month receives rainfall
of at least 200mm.
 Most of the rainfall is through convectional mechanism leading to heavy
downpour through cumulonimbus clouds.
 Mean annual temperature is around 20 degrees Celsius but the highest
temperature of the year touches 30 degree Celsius.
 Annual range of temperature is around 1 degree Celsius but daily range is
around 5 degrees Celsius.
Regions:
 It extends between 10-degree N and 10-degree S.
 Maximum development of this biome is has taken place in Amazon basin,
Congo basin and Indo-Malaysian basin.
 In some areas, spatial coverage of this biome extends beyond the Equator
also.
This biome is called ‘Optimum Biome’ because of uninterrupted supply of
abundant moisture, water and heat throughout the year which ensure continuous
growth of plants. The upper canopy of tallest trees receives maximum sunlight,
and the lower levels experience maximum darkness. This sets in keen
competition among plants and trees to reach to the highest levels and hence the
grate heights of trees in this Biome.
There is maximum interception of falling rains by the uppermost canopy of the
forest and thus the intercepted water reaches the surface through leaves,
branches and stems of trees in the form of ‘aerial streamlets’ which allows
maximum infiltration of rainwater in the ground surface. Primary productivity
of tropical rainforest biomes is the highest of all biome types of the world.
Species Composition:
 It accounts for the largest number of plant species.
 There is almost uniformity and similarity in the life forms across all the
parts of the world.
 Tree is the most significant member. It has a huge diversity.
 Creepers and climbers are the second important floral members. In
constant struggle for light, they have developed mechanism for reaching
the high insolation areas. Rainforests account for 90% of all the climber
species.

2. Temperate Deciduous Forest Biome

Temperate deciduous forest biomes are geographically located between the
polar regions and the tropics. These are also known as the Mid-Latitude
deciduous forest biome. These forests are spread over the eastern parts of
the United States of America and Canada, central European regions, and
parts of China and Japan. Air masses from both the cold polar regions and
the warm tropical regions largely affect these biogeographical areas which
lead to the significant changes in climatic conditions.
Temperature ranges between -30oC and 30oC while precipitation varies from
750 to 1500 mm annually. You will find a major chunk of the human
population in this geographical region. The significant vegetation is deciduous
forest covered with an abundance of deciduous trees. “Deciduous” means ‘to
fall off’, or ‘shed’, seasonally. Just as the name implies, these trees shed their
leaves during autumn season every year. As they fell off, they decay, and the
nutrients contained in the leaves are absorbed by the soil. Due to
decomposition of trees and leaves, the soils of this biome tends to be very
fertile.
Flora: Trees of this biome include maple, oak, hickory, birch, magnolia,
hemlock, spruce, fir, etc. A deciduous forest typically creates several layers of
plant growth. Top layer is created by the tall deciduous trees with moderate
canopy as it allows sunlight to reach the ground. The shorter species of trees
make up the second layer of plant growth. Shrubs and forest herbs include
wild flowers and berries are able to grow quickly taking an advantage of
intervening period of shedding leaves by deciduous trees. The last layer
includes mosses and lichens that largely grow on tree trunks.
Initially the deciduous trees begin to produce thin, broad, light-weight leaves
and are turned to green due to warm temperature and plenty of sunlight.
However, when temperatures are cold, the broad leaves expose too much
surface area to water loss and leads to tissue damage. When the temperature
dips coupled with limited sunlight; the trees start to shed their leaves.
Deciduous trees stay dormant in the winter season and bloom again in the
spring season.
Fauna: In this geographical region, we largely find a wide variety of
mammals, birds, insects and reptiles. It includes bears, raccoons, squirrels,
skunks, wood mice, salamanders, frogs, turtles white-tailed deer, elk, bison,
bobcats, mountain lions, timber wolves, and coyotes, etc. As the season
changes, the animals in this biome try to adopt hibernation and others are
able to migrate to suitable lower areas that enable them to live in the habitat.
We can find a wide variety of birds that migrates and many of the mammals
hibernating during cool temperatures when food is in short supply. During the
summer, squirrels, chipmunks, and jays use to gather the nuts and seeds,
and store them in the hollows of trees for feeding during the winter months.
Cold temperatures help to prevent decomposition of the nuts and seeds.

Temperate Grasslands Biome

As we discussed earlier, the name itself suggests that these are characterized
by a dominance of grass. Temperate grasslands are distinguished from
tropical grasslands by the absence of trees and shrub plant life. These are
found in the north and south of the tropics. The major temperate grasslands in
the world are:
1. Veldts of South Africa
2. Puszta of Hungary,
3. Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay
4. Steppes of Russia and China
5. Plains and Prairies of North America
6. Downs of Australia and New Zealand
Temperatures vary significantly from summers to winters, and the amount of
rainfall is lesser in temperate grasslands than in Savannas. The annual range
of temperature varies between – 40oC and 38oC. The average annual rainfall
ranges from 500 mm to 800 mm which is considered to be low. There is a
positive relationship with the growth of grass to the amount of rainfall. The
high rainfall results into the growth of grass in this biome. Drought and fire
plays a greater role in keeping the trees from taking over the grasslands as
like that of tropical grasslands.
Flora: Plants growing in the steppes, usually in dry habitats, are more or less
30 cm in height. The various species of grasses include purple needle grass,
blue grama, buffalo grass, sagebrush, spear grass, cacti, and galleta. The
famous plant called ‘sweet’ (Adonis Vernalis) grows in steppes that is widely
used as a tranquiliser and a powerful medicine for treating heart and kidney
diseases.
Fauna: The fauna like bison, saiga antelope, coyotes, bobcats, wolf, prairie
chicken, badgers, eagles, hawks, owls, snakes, etc., can be found in this
biogeographical region. The saiga antelope has a large, inflatable, humped
and movable nose, living in the extremely cold and dusty environment. Today,
people use steppes to graze livestock and to grow wheat and other food
crops. Overgrazing, ploughing, and irrigation are being affected the steppes
on large scale.
3. What's a temperate biome?
Temperate biomes are between the tropics and the polar regions. The changes in
these regions between summer and winter are generally moderate, rather than
having extreme differences. This allows for numerous types of habitats,
including forests and grasslands.
Temperate Biomes
Temperate biomes cover most of the continental United States and Europe.
They also cover large parts of Asia. Types of temperate biomes include forests,
grasslands, and chaparral.
Temperate Forests
There are two types of temperate forests: temperate deciduous forests and
temperate rainforests. Both types have a temperate climate and good soil. A
temperate climate is a moderate climate that is neither extremely hot nor
extremely cold. A temperate climate can be either continental or coastal.
Continental temperate climates are found inland, and they tend to have cold
winters, hot summers, and moderate precipitation. Coastal temperate climates
are found near the ocean, and they tend to have mild winters, cool summers, and
high precipitation.
 Temperate deciduous forests are found in areas with continental
temperate climates, such as the eastern United States and Canada and
throughout much of Europe. These forests consist mainly of deciduous
trees, such as maples and oaks, which lose their leaves in the fall. There
are many other species of plants as
well. Animals include insects, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. Mammals
are also common, including rabbits and wolves.
 Temperate rainforests are found in areas with coastal temperate
climates, such as the northwestern coast of North America and certain
coastal regions of other continents. These forests consist mainly of
evergreen trees, such as hemlocks and firs. Mosses, lichens, and ferns
grow on the forest floor. There are also many epiphytic plants. Animals
include insects, amphibians, reptiles, and birds. There are also many
mammals, such as squirrels and deer.
Epiphytes are plants that grow on other plants. They use the other plants for
support, not nutrients, and generally do not harm the plants they grow on. They
grow high in the branches of trees where there is more sunlight available
for photosynthesis.
Temperate Grasslands
Temperate grasslands are temperate biomes that consist mainly of grasses.
They are found in the midwestern region of North America and in inland areas
of most other continents. The climate is continental, and precipitation is
relatively low. However, the majority of the precipitation falls during the
growing season when plants need it the most.
Biomes are often referred to by local names. For example, a temperate grassland
biome is known as prairie in North America, outback in Australia, pampa in
South America, and steppe in central Asia.
The soil of temperate grasslands is the richest, deepest soil on Earth. It is
densely covered with thick grasses that decompose to add large amounts of
organic matter and nutrients to the soil. Grasses also have thick mats
of roots that hold the soil in place and prevent erosion. The low rainfall does not
leach many nutrients from the soil, but it does lead to frequent fires. The fires
help prevent woody vegetation from moving in if a grassland is disturbed. This
is because grasses can grow back after a fire, whereas most woody plants
cannot.
The rich, deep soil supports high productivity. This is why the temperate
grassland of the US midwest is known as the Breadbasket of America. Grass
plants are closely spaced and can support many herbivore consumers. These
range from grasshoppers to deer. Many worms and other invertebrates (animals
without a backbone) consume organic matter in the soil. Grassland animals also
include carnivores such as foxes and coyotes.
Chaparral
Chaparral is a shrub forest biome dominated by densely-growing evergreen
shrubs or small trees, such as scrub oak. There are few other species of plants.
Chaparral is found mainly in central and southern California and around the
Mediterranean Sea. The climate, called a Mediterranean climate, has mild wet
winters and hot dry summers. Fires are frequent because of the summer dryness,
and the soil is relatively poor.
The majority of chaparral trees and plants are adapted to the dry summers. For
example:
 Trees are short, which reduces their need for water.
 Many plants are dormant during the dry season, which also reduces water
needs.
 The leaves of some plants have waxy coatings, which reduce water loss.
Most chaparral plants are adapted to frequent fires, as well. For example:
 Many plants can grow back quickly from the roots after burning to the
ground.
 Some plants produce seeds that need fire in order to germinate.
 Many plants have thick underground stems that can survive fires.
The densely growing trees make it difficult for very large animals to penetrate
the chaparral, so most chaparral animals are small. They include insects, birds,
reptiles, and rodents. The largest animals are deer, which browse on the leaves
of chaparral trees.
Summary
 Temperate biomes include forests, grasslands, and chaparral.
  Temperate deciduous forests are found in areas with continental
temperate climates and temperate rainforests are found in areas with
coastal temperate climates.
 Temperate grasslands are temperate biomes that consist mainly of
grasses.
 Chaparral is a shrub forest biome dominated by densely-growing
evergreen shrubs or small trees

4. Marine biomes
Marine biomes are bodies of water with salt concentrations that are equivalent
to or greater than that of seawater (i.e., 35 ppt or above). Marine ecosystems,
which live in salty waters, are the largest of the Earth’s aquatic ecosystems.
As previously stated, freshwater habitats contain less salt than saltwater ones.
Marine biomes are aquatic biomes found in the ocean’s saline water.
The three major marine biomes are neritic, oceanic, and benthic. Intertidal
zones, estuaries, and coral reefs are examples of marine biomes.
Neritic Biomes
 Neritic biomes are found in ocean water around the continental shelf.
 They extend from the low-tide water line to the continental shelf’s edge.
 Because the water is shallow here, there is enough sunlight for
photosynthesis.
 The water is also high in nutrients, which have been washed into it from
neighbouring land.
 Because of these favourable conditions, neritic biomes support high
concentrations of phytoplankton.
 They generate adequate food for many other creatures, including
zooplankton and nekton.
 As a result, neritic biomes have high biomass and diversity.
 Several types of insects and fish live in them. In reality, neritic biomes are
home to the majority of the world’s major saltwater fishing locations.
Oceanic Biomes
 Oceanic biomes are found beyond the continental shelf in the open ocean.
 Because dissolved nutrient contents are lower away from shore, the
oceanic zone has a lower organism density than the neritic zone.
 The oceanic zone is further subdivided into zones based on sea depth.
 The epipelagic zone is defined as the top 200 metres of water, or the
depth to which sufficient sunlight may enter for photosynthesis.
 The bathypelagic zone extends from 1,000 to 4,000 metres below sea
level. Because sunlight does not penetrate below 1,000 metres, this zone
is completely dark.
 Between 4,000 and 6,000 metres below sea level lies the abyssopelagic
zone.
 The hadopelagic zone is located in deep ocean trenches beneath 6,000
metres of water.
Benthic Biomes
Benthic biomes are found at the ocean’s bottom, where benthos live.Certain
benthos, such as sponges, are sessile, meaning they cannot move and reside
glued to the ocean floor.Some benthos, such as clams, dig through ocean
floor sediments.
The benthic zone is further subdivided dependent on how much below sea level
the ocean bottom is.
 The sublittoral zone is the area of the ocean floor near the shoreline that
comprises the continental shelf.
 The bathyal zone is the section of the ocean floor that forms the
continental slope. It is located between 1,000 and 4,000 metres below sea
level.
 The abyssal zone is a section of the deep open ocean’s ocean floor. It
ranges between 4,000 and 6,000 metres below sea level.
 In deep ocean trenches, the hadal zone is the ocean bottom below 6,000
metres. The only species known to dwell in this zone are found around
hydrothermal vents, where invertebrates like tubeworms and clams can be
discovered. For feeding, they rely on minute archaea species.
Intertidal zone
  The intertidal zone is a short strip of land between the high- and low-tide
water lines.
 It is also known as the littoral zone.
 The regular passage of the tides in and out is a prominent aspect of this
zone.
 This happens twice a day in most places.
 This zone alternates between being underwater at high tide and being
exposed to the air at low tide due to tides.
 The high tide brings in coastal water with its heavy supply of dissolved
nutrients on a regular basis.
 There is also an abundance of sunshine for photosynthesis.
 Also, the shallow water keeps bigger predators out of the intertidal zone,
such as whales and huge fish.
Estuary
 A bay where a river drains into the ocean is known as an estuary.
 It is normally semi-enclosed, which makes it a safe setting.
 The water is nutrient-rich from the river and shallow enough to allow
sunlight to penetrate for photosynthesis.
 As a result, estuaries are teeming with marine life.
Coral reef
 A coral reef is an underwater limestone structure formed by corals, which
are microscopic invertebrate organisms.
 Coral reefs can only be found in shallow tropical ocean water.
 Corals release calcium carbonate (limestone) to construct an exterior
skeleton.
 Corals live in colonies, and the skeletal material accumulates over time to
form a reef. Coral reefs are teeming with marine life, including over
4,000 tropical fish species.