Student Notes - Organizational Analysis

Lecture 1-Part 1
Introduction to Organizations:
- Organizations are prevalent in various forms and play a crucial role in society.
- Many societal issues are rooted in organizational dynamics.
- Studying organizations enhances our comprehension of the world and its management.

Defining Organizations:
- Organizations are social structures formed by individuals to collectively pursue specific goals.
- Richard Scott's definition highlights coordination, shared objectives, and productivity.
- Organizations involve members collaborating to achieve common goals or create products.

Identifying Organizations:
- Notable examples of organizations include hospitals, schools, companies, and factories.
- Even families, voluntary associations, and street gangs can be considered organizations.
- Characteristics defining an organization include coordinated behavior, shared objectives, and
productivity.

Distinguishing Organizations from Non-Organizations:

- Collections without roles, rules, goals, or behavior patterns lack organization.
- Ambiguous cases include street gangs, social movements, and friendship groups.
- Street gangs may lack clear shared goals, have porous boundaries, and fluid participants.

Importance of Organizations:
- Organizations serve diverse societal needs, from education and tax collection to disaster relief.
- They are the means to achieve collective goals and have become integral to modern life.
- Organizations are collective entities that act, use resources, own property, and enter contracts.

Diversity of Organizations:
- Organizations come in varying sizes, from massive companies to small voluntary groups.
- They exist across private, public, and nonprofit sectors, like unions and associations.
- Organizations have hierarchical, centralized, flat, or differentiated structures.

Environmental Variation:
- Organizations are influenced by temporal, regional, and cultural contexts.
- The same organization can have different impacts based on these variations.

Changing Organizational Landscape:

- Organizations are integral to society and have evolved over the past 50 years.
- Economic shifts, gender dynamics, and technological advancements drive change.
- Educational organizations frequently undergo reforms, many of which fail due to complex
reasons.
Organizational Reforms:
- Reforms seek to alter organizational features, often targeting specific aspects.
- Reforms can focus on social structure, technology, or environmental pressures.
- Challenges arise from local adaptation, disrupted coordination patterns, and governance
resistance.
- Reforms may emphasize certain rules, roles, and goals while neglecting others, leading to
complications.

Student Notes - Organizational Analysis

Lecture 1- Part 2
Importance of Studying Organizations:
- Learning about organizations is essential in today's society due to their prevalence and societal
relevance.
- Understanding and managing organizations is vital for societal progress and development.
- The course aims to equip students with skills to comprehend, operate, and manage
organizations effectively.

Complexity of Organizational Problems:

- Organizations are present everywhere and underlie many societal challenges.
- Society's issues are often intertwined with organizational dynamics.
- Aims to develop a deeper understanding of organizational functioning and management.

Course Overview and Target Audience:

- The course serves as an introductory exploration of organizations' intricacies.
- Applicable to advanced undergraduates, master's, and doctoral students interested in
organizations.
- Focuses on real cases, including nonprofits, educational institutions, government agencies, and
private firms.

Utility for Managers, Policymakers, and Analysts:

- Organizations are omnipresent, making understanding them an educational necessity.
- Knowledge of organizations is crucial for effective societal change and comprehension.
- Conceptual frameworks aid in navigating the complex social reality of organizational life.

Organizational Challenges:
- Organizations encounter various issues such as defining objectives, ensuring participation,
coordinating tasks, and resource allocation.
- Balancing multiple activities and tasks requires effective implementation and coordination.
- Selecting, training, and replacing members while maintaining a cohesive organization is a
continual challenge.
- Maintaining external relationships, including competitors and the environment, is crucial for
organizational success.
Role of Theories in Understanding Organizations:
- The course presents multiple theoretical perspectives to enhance understanding.
- Theories help individuals see beyond their personal perspectives and develop different accounts
of organizational phenomena.
- Various theories provide different explanatory narratives, enriching one's comprehension of
organizational complexities.

Developing Multiple Perspectives:

- Different theories highlight diverse features of organizational life.
- Theories provide tools for understanding and managing complex realities.
- Rather than providing one-size-fits-all solutions, the course equips students with adaptable
tools for various situations.

Conclusion and Course Approach:

- The course focuses on enriching students' understanding of organizational phenomena.
- It emphasizes developing analytical tools to navigate the complexities of organizational life.
- Students will learn to apply various theoretical perspectives and choose the most applicable
tools for different situations.

Student Notes - Organizational Analysis

Lecture 2- Part 1

Core Analytic Features of Organizations:

- Lecture focuses on core analytic features of organizations that provide a language for
understanding them.
- These features are abstractions that help in comprehending complex organizational dynamics.

Analytic Elements of Organizations:

1. Participants:
 - Refers to individuals and stakeholders associated with the organization.
- Social actors contributing to and benefiting from the organization.

2. Social Structure:
- Involves the pattern of relationships among participants within the organization.
- Can be formal (prescribed positions) or informal (emergent relations).

3. Goals:
- Desired ends that participants strive to achieve through task activities.
- Organizations often have multifaceted goals that can sometimes conflict.

4. Technology (Tasks):
- Means by which organizations accomplish work and transform inputs into outputs.
- Encompasses tasks ranging from material processing to education.

5. Environment:
- External context in which an organization operates, including physical, cultural, and social
factors.
- Organizations interact with their environment, adapting and responding to its influences.

Participant Environment Linkages:

- Boundary permeability determines how participants interact with the external environment.
- Schools can have varying degrees of openness, affecting their relationships with communities
and stakeholders.

Technology Environment Linkage

- Organizations adopt and adapt tasks and technologies from external sources.
- Norms of larger professions or communities influence the technology adopted.

Goal Environment Linkages:

- Goals' significance and prioritization vary based on the environmental context.
- Different communities may emphasize different aspects of an organization's goals.

Social Structure Environment Linkages:

- The way roles are performed within an organization can be influenced by external cultural
norms.
- Different communities may have diverse expectations about role behaviors and outcomes.

Complexity and Ambiguity:

- Real-world organizations are characterized by ambiguity and complexity.
- Uncertain technologies, ambiguous indicators, and participants' multiple affiliations contribute
to the complexity.
- Theoretical frameworks provide a foundation for understanding these complexities and
discussing them.
The lecture provides a structured framework for dissecting organizations and understanding their
intricate interplays with their environments. It highlights the interdependencies between core
analytic features and how they adapt to the contextual factors of the external world.

Student Notes - Organizational Analysis

Lecture 2- Part 2
Evolution of Organizational Theories:
- Richard Scott's review of organizational research identified three classes of organizational
theories.
- Each class characterized organizations differently based on their interrelation with elements and
their environment.

Rational Systems:
- Early theories viewed organizations as rational systems.
- Organizations were seen as goal-oriented collectives with formalized structures.
- Emphasis on administrative units and rational decision-making to optimize solutions.

Natural Systems:
- Later theories portrayed organizations as natural systems.
- Organizations were collectivities with participants pursuing multiple interests, leading to
conflict and consensus.
- Focus on survival and perpetuation of the organization as a valuable resource.
- Informal structures, emergent relations, and coalitions played a vital role.

Open Systems:
- Recent theories depict organizations as open systems.
- Organizations are dynamic entities with intermittent activities and shifting participant
coalitions.
- Emphasis on interactions with a wider material resource and institutional environment.
- Environment's influence on the organization is paramount.
Analyzing the Three Theories:
- Rational Systems:
- Focus on administrative unit.
- Emphasis on formal hierarchy and rational decision-making.
- Goals are specific missions.
- Technology aims for optimal decisions and standard procedures.
- Environment is often ignored.

- Natural Systems:
- Focus on participants across roles.
- Informal structure influences behavior.
- Goals are multifaceted and sometimes conflicting.
- Technology involves contingent decisions and unintended outcomes.
- Environment has a minor role, influenced by norms.
- Open Systems:
- Focus on organizational field.
- Stakeholders, employees, and consumers matter.
- Goals focus on survival and legitimacy.
- Technology adapts to external determinants and legitimation.
- Environment is a key driver of organizational behavior.

Continuous Presence of All Three Theories:

- The evolution of theories doesn't necessarily indicate historical progression in organizations.
- Rational, natural, and open system qualities coexist in many organizations.
- Organizational theories may have expanded their focus as our understanding of organizations
grew.

Learning from Different Perspectives:

- The course aims to provide insights into various perspectives on organizations.
- Understanding rational, natural, and open system qualities helps analyze complex
organizational dynamics.

The lecture explains how different organizational theories have evolved over time, focusing on
various aspects and characteristics of organizations. It highlights that while the emphasis might
shift, organizations often exhibit elements from all three perspectives simultaneously. This
understanding is crucial for comprehending the intricacies of real-world organizations.

Student Notes - Organizational Analysis

Lecture 3 - Case Application: Adams Avenue
School - Part 1
Case Overview: Adams Avenue School
- Case focuses on a school reform effort involving the creation of a magnet middle school with a
new curriculum.
- Aims to serve a struggling population, build a sense of community, and improve overall student
achievement.
- Initially a seventh-grade annex to a crowded African American junior high school, later
transformed into a magnet school.
- Focuses on the implementation of "individually guided education" program.

Organizational Elements in the Case:

1. Actors/Participants:
- Organizational participants contribute to and benefit from the school.
- Includes students, teachers, principal, parents, district officials.

2. Social Structure:
- Persistent relations among participants in the organization.
 - Teachers' relationships with students emphasized over program specifics.
- Positive relations between faculty, parents, and students.
3. Goals:
- Desired ends participants aim to achieve through task activities.
- Adams Avenue School's goals: improve student achievement, build community, serve
struggling population.

4. Technology/Tasks:
- Means by which organizations accomplish work.
- "Individually guided education" program: curriculum designed for individualized progress,
mastery of material.
- Teachers' varying levels of compliance with the program, adapted to student needs.

5. Environment:
- Physical, technological, cultural, and social context surrounding the organization.
- Adams Avenue School situated in a lower-middle-class community.
- Diversity of students and parents, changing school population over time.

Impacts of "Individually Guided Education":

- Program influences social structure and relationships among participants.
- Changes in organizational structure, removing grade-level differentiation.
- Altered reward structure: Effort-based reward system equalizes social prestige.
- Impacts task structure: Group instruction followed by individual progress guidance.
- Builds trust, reduces conflict, and equalizes individuals, fostering interracial ties.

Case Analysis:
- The case of Adams Avenue School demonstrates how organizational elements interact and
change due to the introduction of a new program.
- Organizational theories can help interpret the case and understand its dynamics.
- The "individually guided education" program influences various elements and shapes the
school's character, relationships, and structure.

Conclusion:
- Applying organizational theories to real cases enhances understanding of organizational
dynamics.
- Elements like participants, social structure, goals, technology, and environment interact to
create complex organizational scenarios.
- The "individually guided education" program illustrates the influence of technology on various
elements and their interrelation.

Lecture 3 - Case Applications - Part 2

It seems like you've provided a detailed transcript of Mary Metz's lecture on the case of
Adams Avenue School and its organizational elements. From the discussion, several key
points can be identified:
1. Organizational Elements: The lecture identifies various organizational elements
within the case of Adams Avenue School, including:
- Actors or Participants: These include the principal, teachers, students, parents, and
administrators. Different groups have varying roles and relationships within the
organization.
- Social Structure: The relationships among participants, such as teacher-student
relationships, teacher-principal interactions, and even parent involvement, play a crucial
role in shaping the school's environment.
- Goals: The primary goal is to improve student achievement, but there are also goals
related to discipline, community-building, and addressing overcrowding.
- Technology or Tasks: The curriculum of individually guided education serves as a
technology that influences how students learn and how teachers teach. The organization
of small schools within the school is another aspect of the technology.
- Environment: The physical setting, including the school's location and building,
impacts interactions, field trips, and the overall atmosphere.

2. Interrelation and Change: The lecture explores how these organizational elements
are interconnected and how changes in one element can impact others. For instance, the
individually guided education curriculum affects the social structure by promoting
positive teacher-student relationships and equalizing prestige among students. The
physical environment also influences interactions and contributes to the warm
atmosphere.

3. Cultural Elements: The lecture emphasizes the importance of organizational culture

and ethos. Positive teacher-student relationships are a central aspect of this culture, and it
contributes to the successful implementation of the individually guided education
curriculum. The cultural norms influence the way participants interact and approach their
roles.

4. Leadership Influence: The principal, Ms. Michaels, plays a significant role in shaping
the organizational dynamics. She uses both informal means (speeches, encouragement)
and formal authority (direct implementation of the curriculum) to influence the culture
and the adoption of the individually guided education program.

5. Resistance and Change Management: The lecture touches on teacher resistance to

the individually guided education program initially. Some teachers were resistant to
change, but the school managed to create a culture that facilitated adaptation and
eventually integration of the new program.

6. Natural System Perspective: The lecture presents a natural system perspective, where
the technology (individually guided education), social structure (positive relationships),
and cultural elements (ethos) interact to shape the overall functioning of the organization.
This perspective emphasizes emergent processes, adaptation, and alignment between
various elements.

Overall, the lecture provides a comprehensive analysis of how different organizational

elements are interconnected and how they collectively contribute to the functioning and
success of Adams Avenue School.

Lecture 4 - Rational Actor - Part 1

1. James G Marge's Work on Decision Making:

- Reading about decision making by James G Marge at Stanford.

- Classification of organizational decision-making into the Logic of Consequence and Logic

of Appropriateness.

- Rational and natural classes of organizational depictions discussed by Dick Scott's work.

2. Logic of Consequence (Rational Choice Theory):

- Rational actor model follows the logic of consequence.

- Aspects include knowing alternatives, consequences, ordered preferences, and decision rules.

- Two types of rational actors: Ideally rational person and boundedly rational person.

3. Decision Tree for Dating Scenario:

- Decision tree analysis for asking someone out based on attractiveness and probability of a
positive response.

- Calculation of net expected utility for asking or not asking someone out.

4. Extending Decision-Making Concepts to Organizations:

- Mention of applying decision tree concepts to organizational decisions.

- Upcoming discussion on the Cuban missile crisis as an example of organizational decisions.

- Acknowledgment of ambiguity in real-world decision-making scenarios.

Lecture 4 - Rational Actor - Part 2

Boundedly Rational Model:

1. Choice Process for Boundedly Rational Models:

- Model assumes uncertainty about consequences and costs.

- Ordering of preferences is unclear.

- Herbert Simon proposed the theory of satisficing as an alternative.

 - Decision-makers start with an option close to them and check if it has a satisfactory
consequence.

- No exhaustive calculation of all alternatives; a threshold or habit of decision-making is

established.

2. Satisficing Decision in Dating Example:

- Example: Deciding whom to ask out among ten people.

- Sequential search until a person above the expected utility threshold (e.g., three) is found.

- Decision stops once a satisfactory option is found (satisficing), but it may not be the optimal
choice.

Logic of Appropriateness:

3. Introduction to Logic of Appropriateness:

- Introduced as a second class of decision-making models.

- People in organizations often follow rules even if not in their self-interest.

- Soldiers following orders in war as an example.

- In organizations, tasks, routines, and procedures are performed based on rules.

4. Factors in Rule-Following and Logic of Appropriateness:

- Decisions categorized based on rules and identities.

- Decision-makers have official identities and roles.

- Rules matched to the perceived appropriateness of the situation and identity.

- Similarities to Graham Allison's inference pattern.

5. Rule-Following in Organizational Decisions:

- Rule-following observed in traditions, cultural norms, advice, existing rules, SOPs, and
heuristics.

- Less concerned with consequences; more about matching rules and identities.
6. Ambiguity in Decision Making via Rules:

- Ambiguity lies in agreements and experiences rather than consequences.

- Decision-making is less conscious, often done subconsciously.

- Leads to sense-making and the issue of whether decision-making is more about meaning-
making than consequences.

7. Interplay of Decision Processes:

- Decision processes may be less about outcomes and more about establishing social meanings.

- Organizational dynamics arise for engaging in a meaningful process.

8. Complications with Multiple Actors:

- Organizations composed of multiple actors with inconsistent and conflicting preferences and
identities.

- Theory of coalitions, negotiation, and bargaining process mentioned.

- Two-stage decision process: bargaining and consensus, followed by execution.

9. Temporal Orderings and Organized Anarchy:

- Reference to organized anarchy or garbage can theory.

- Discussion on distinct theories of coalition and organized anarchy to be covered in future

weeks.

10. Summary of Jim March's Perspective:

- Both logics (consequence and appropriateness) get complicated in organizations with

multiple actors.

- Coalition theory, negotiation, bargaining, and organized anarchy are integral components.
Lecture 5 - Example: Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis, a pivotal event in 1962, provides a rich context for exploring different
theoretical models of decision-making. Graham Allison, in his analysis, applies three models: the
Rational Actor model, the Organizational Process model, and the Bureaucratic Politics model.

1. Rational Actor Model:

- Assumptions: Assumes decisions are the result of rational choices with clear goals,
consequences, and options.

- Application to the Crisis: Analyzes the U.S. response as a rational decision-making process.

- Decision Tree Example: Explores options like doing nothing, diplomatic response,
approaching Castro, invasion, airstrike, and blockade, weighing the costs and benefits.

- Critique: May oversimplify decision-making by portraying a unitary actor and may not
consider the complexity of real-world decision environments.
2. Organizational Process Model:

- Assumptions: Focuses on organizations as quasi-independent actors with routines, standard

operating procedures, and limited problem-solving capacities.

- Application to the Crisis: Describes how organizations, like the Navy or CIA, follow
routines, which could lead to delayed and distorted information.

- Examples: Highlighted the delayed report on missile sightings due to organizational routines
and the challenge of coordinating actions among various organizations.

- Critique: May not fully explain instances of adaptation and negotiation within organizations.

3. Bureaucratic Politics Model:

- Assumptions: Views the government as comprising multiple actors with different problems,
objectives, and bargaining power. Emphasizes power dynamics, compromises, and temporary
coalitions.

- Application to the Crisis: Explores the different perspectives and interests of key players
like Kennedy, the military, and other agencies.
 - Example: Describes the coalitions formed around the blockade and airstrike options,
influenced by individual personalities and parochial interests.

- Critique: Requires a significant amount of detailed information and may not be easily
applicable to all situations.

4. Integration of Models:

- Allison's Perspective: Suggests that these models can complement each other. The Rational
Actor model provides a simplified overview, the Organizational Process model delves into
routines and actions, and the Bureaucratic Politics model offers a nuanced understanding of
individual and collective decision-making.

- Synthesis: Argues for synthesizing these models for a more comprehensive analysis,
acknowledging that each has its limitations.

5. Critical Reflection:

- Applicability: Considers the circumstances under which each model might be more suitable,
such as the Rational Actor model for planning, Organizational Process for crisis response, and
Bureaucratic Politics for negotiation and decision adjustment.

- Integration Potential: Suggests that integration could lead to a more nuanced and complete
understanding of a phenomenon.
In conclusion, the Cuban Missile Crisis serves as a valuable case study to explore and compare
these decision-making models, shedding light on their strengths, weaknesses, and potential for
integration.
For lecture 6 part 1

For lecture 6 part 2

Bureaucratic Politics rules
Lecture 9 - Hula and Lobbying Coalitions -
Part 2
Interest Group Coalitions and Lobbying in Congress - Student Notes

- Introduction:

- Legislative decisions crucial for social reforms in democracies.

- Lobbying and interest group coalitions play a key role.

- Kevin Hula's Model:

- Utilizes an exchange model similar to social exchange theory.

- Lobbyists are already committed activists, focus on levels and types of involvement.

- Reasons for Joining a Coalition:

1. Reference broad goals to unite diverse interests.

2. Shape coalition agenda and platform early.

3. Information benefits, especially for smaller groups.

4. Symbolic benefits for visibility and legitimacy.

- Variability in Commitment:

- Incentives influence commitment levels.

- Three rings of commitment: Core members, players, and tag-alongs.

- Types of Coalition Members:

1. **Core Members:

- View the issue as very important.

- Interested in a broad range of issues.

- Bring significant resources and commit intensely.

2. Players and Specialists:

- Care about specific goals.

- Bring enough resources for a seat at the negotiating table.

- Focus on specific issues and expertise.

3. Tag-Alongs:

- Least interested.

- Goal is to acquire coalition byproducts.

- Limited resources but willing to lend their name.

- Maintaining a Coalition:

- Rousseau quote emphasizes the challenge of aligning goals.

- Coalition managers must ensure varied commitments are sustained.

- Offering "rabbits" along the way keeps less committed members engaged.

- Developing and Managing a Coalition:

1. Identify all interested actors and organizations.

2. Understand their interests and potential alignment.

 3. Utilize staff members with relevant histories and linkages.

4. Short-term coalitions rely on immediate ties.

5. Engage in bargaining, negotiation, and logrolling.

- Application and Discussion:

- Apply coalition views to real cases like the Milwaukee Voucher Program.

- Discuss potential shifts in coalitions based on political changes.

- Explore the role of liberal groups in forming coalitions.

Fail Fast Theory (From Threads)

The "fail fast" theory is a concept often associated with agile and entrepreneurial approaches,
emphasizing the idea that it is better to identify and address failures quickly rather than allowing
them to persist. In the context of organizational change or product development, the fail fast
approach encourages rapid experimentation and learning.
Key characteristics of the fail fast theory include:

1. Quick Iterations: Organizations iterate through ideas, strategies, or products rapidly,

allowing for continuous improvement.

2. Early Detection of Issues: Fail fast encourages the early identification of problems or
weaknesses in a process or product, enabling timely adjustments.

3. Risk Management: Rather than investing significant time and resources into a single, large-
scale plan, the fail fast approach involves taking calculated risks in smaller, manageable
increments.

4. Learning from Failure: Failures are seen as opportunities for learning and improvement. The
emphasis is on extracting valuable insights from failures to inform future decisions.

5. Adaptability: The approach promotes adaptability by responding swiftly to changing

circumstances, market feedback, or internal dynamics.

6. Innovation: By fostering a culture that accepts failure as a natural part of experimentation,

organizations are more likely to foster innovation and creative problem-solving.

In summary, the fail fast theory advocates for a mindset where organizations proactively seek out
and learn from failures early in the process, using that knowledge to make informed adjustments
and increase the likelihood of success in the long run.

Lecture 10 - Organized Anarchy

1. **Introduction to Decision Making:**

 - The lecture introduces basic features of decision-making and mentions the garbage can theory
of organizations.

- Students engage in a simulation related to coalition theory, focusing on conflicting stakes in

scenarios like the Milwaukee Voucher Program.

2. **Coalition Theory Simulation:**

- Students assume roles representing different organizations with conflicting interests in issues
like the Milwaukee Voucher Program.

- Groups engage in pairwise encounters, using various exchange techniques to build coalitions
and find resolutions.

3. **Organized Anarchy in Decision Making:**

- The discussion shifts to the characteristics of decision-making resembling organized anarchy.

- Decision processes exhibit chaotic and dynamic qualities, going beyond traditional coalition
and exchange theories.

4. **Key Aspects of Organized Anarchy:**

- Ill-defined goals, unclear technology, fluid participation, and independent streams of

solutions, problems, and participants characterize organized anarchy.

- The lecture highlights the importance of context for meaning-making in organized anarchies.

5. **Garbage Can Theory:**

- The garbage can theory views organizations as collections of choices seeking opportunities to
make decisions.

- Decision situations are likened to garbage cans where problems, solutions, and participants
are dumped and collide to form decisions.

6. **Streams in Garbage Can Theory:**

- Three streams—issues, solutions, and participants—flow quasi-independently within the

garbage can.

- The timing of choice opportunities is crucial, and the confluence of these streams results in
decisions.

7. **Outcomes of Choice Arenas:**

 - Meetings may result in no decisions or the adoption of solutions that do not necessarily
address specific problems.

- Decisions may not be made when problems are overlooked or deferred, but the lecture
emphasizes instances where problems are genuinely resolved.

1. **Access Structures:**

- Choice opportunities or meetings have different access rules, represented by access

structures.

- Loose structures allow unrestricted access, fostering more energy but also increasing
conflicts.

- Hierarchical structures prioritize access based on importance, where significant actors have
priority.

- Specialized structures give access to specific committees based on expertise, such as

technology committees for technical issues.

2. **Constraints on Access:**

- Deadlines act as temporary boundaries, influencing the timing of decision arenas and the
flows of problems, solutions, and participants.

- Constraints include arrival times of problems and solutions, turnover due to work cycles, and
external factors like budget schedules.

3. **Characteristics of Decision Making in Organized Anarchies:**

- Decisions result from the interaction of constraints, access structures, and deadlines.
 - The dynamic and fluid nature of decision-making in organized anarchies resembles the reality
of decision-making in various organizational settings.

4. **Concrete Example – Faculty Meeting:**

- The text provides a detailed example using a faculty meeting as a case study.

- Problems (P1 to P5) and solutions (S1 to S4) enter a choice arena (faculty meeting) with a
hierarchical access structure.

- Some problems are resolved, some decisions are made by flight or oversight, and others are
left unconnected to solutions due to timing and relevance.

- The example illustrates how the streams of problems, solutions, and participants collide and
are influenced by ordering and deadlines.

5. **Managing Organized Anarchies:**

- Three types of reactions to organized anarchies are discussed:

- **Reformer:** Focuses on eliminating chaotic elements, creating order and control.

- **Enthusiast:** Views decision-making as symbolic, emphasizing sense-making, and sees

advantages in flexible implementation.

- **Pragmatist:** Exploits organized anarchies, strategically timing solutions, setting

meeting agendas, and being opportunistic.

- Pragmatists may abandon initiatives entangled with others, overload the system, and provide
alternative choice opportunities.