5.1-5.

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Biology Major
5.1 - BIOMOLECULES
The difference between organic and inorganic molecules:

Organic molecules contain carbon atoms, while inorganic molecules do not contain carbon
atoms.

Monomer definition: A monomer is a small molecule that can be combined with other similar
molecules to form a larger polymer.

Polymer definition and examples: A polymer is a large molecule made up of many repeating
units of similar or identical monomers. Examples of polymers include DNA, proteins, cellulose,
and nylon.

- The process in which polymers are formed is called polymerization.

- The process in which polymers are broken down is called hydrolysis.

 5.2 MACROMOLECULES
Proteins: provide structure and transport molecules

- Made up of amino acids

- Includes elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and sometimes Sulfur (CHON[S])

Carbohydrates: Quick energy source and give structural support

- Made up of monosaccharides and simple sugars

- Includes elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)

Lipids: long term energy source / energy storage. Provide insulation.

- Made up of fatty acids

- Includes elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen (CHO)

Nucleic Acids: store and transmit genetic information

- Made up of nucleotides (ATGC and sometimes U)

- Includes elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, and Phosphorus (CHONP)
 Dehydration synthesis : removing water to combine

5.2 - continued
two monomers

Hydrolysis: adding water to split up two monomers

*note: one water molecule is needed to hydrolyze

Carbohydrates: or split two monomers

Monosaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose

Disaccharides: sucrose, lactose, maltose
Polysaccharides: starch, cellulose, glycogen

Lipids: Fatty acids: palmitic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid

Triglycerides: butter, vegetable oil, lard

Phospholipids: lecithin, sphingomyelin
Steroids: cholesterol, estrogen, testosterone

Proteins:
Enzymes: amylase, lactase, pepsin
Structural proteins: collagen, keratin, elastin
Transport proteins: hemoglobin, transferrin Hormones: insulin, growth hormone

Nucleic acids:
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
5.3 - INTRO TO CELLS
Cell theory: All living things are made up of cells and cells are the basic units of life. Cells arise from
pre-existing cells. The chemical reactions that sustain life occur within cells.

Prokaryotic cells:

- Lack a true nucleus, instead they have a nucleoid region where DNA is located
- Lack most membrane-bound organelles, except for some specialized structures like the cell wall and
plasma membrane
- Have ribosomes, which are small structures responsible for protein synthesis
- May have flagella or pili for movement and attachment, respectively

Eukaryotic cells:

- Have a true nucleus that contains DNA

- Have a variety of membrane-bound organelles, such as mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, and more Have ribosomes that are both membrane-bound and free-floating
- May have cilia or flagella for movement and sensory functions, and centrioles for cell division.
5.4 - ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
Animal cells:

- Do not have a cell wall, but have a plasma membrane

- Have centrioles, which are involved in cell division
- May have small lysosomes
- Store energy in the form of glycogen

Plant cells:

- Have a cell wall made of cellulose in addition to a plasma membrane

- Have chloroplasts, which are involved in photosynthesis
- Have a large central vacuole, which stores water and other substances
- Store energy in the form of starch
5.4 - CONTINUED
Nucleus: contains genetic material (DNA) and controls cell functions

Ribosomes: synthesize proteins

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): modifies, folds, and transports proteins and lipids

Golgi apparatus: processes and packages proteins and lipids for transport Mitochondria: produce
energy through cellular respiration

Chloroplasts (in plants): produce energy through photosynthesis

Vacuole: stores water and other substances

Lysosomes (in animal cells): break down waste and cellular debris

Cell wall (in plants): provides structure and support to the cell Plasma membrane: controls what enters
and exits the cell, maintains cell shape
5.5 - THE MICROSCOPE
Eyepiece or ocular lens: the lens closest to the eye, usually with a magnification of 10x

Objective lenses: lenses located close to the specimen that provide varying levels of magnification (typically 4x,
10x, 40x, and 100x)

Focus knobs: knobs used to adjust the focus of the image

Stage: the platform on which the specimen is placed Light source: provides illumination to the specimen

Calculating magnification: To calculate the total magnification when using a microscope, you need to multiply
the magnification of the eyepiece (usually 10x) by the magnification of the objective lens being used.

For example:

When using the 10x objective lens, the total magnification is 10x (eyepiece) x 10x (objective lens) = 100x
magnification

When using the 40x objective lens, the total magnification is 10x (eyepiece) x 40x (objective lens) = 400x
magnification
5.6 - STUCTURE OF DNA
Define a gene: A gene is a sequence of DNA that codes
for a specific protein or RNA molecule, which in turn
determines a particular trait or characteristic in an
organism.

Structure of DNA:

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded helix

made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a
sugar molecule (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a
nitrogenous base (adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine).
The two strands of DNA are held together by hydrogen
bonds between the nitrogenous bases, with adenine
pairing with thymine and guanine pairing with cytosine.
5.6 - CONTINUED
DNA:

● Double-stranded helix
● Deoxyribose sugar
● Adenine pairs with thymine; guanine pairs with cytosine
● Mainly located in the nucleus

RNA:

● Single-stranded
● Ribose sugar
● Adenine pairs with uracil; guanine pairs with cytosine
● Found in the nucleus and cytoplasm
● Types of RNA include messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA
(tRNA), and ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
● Plays a role in protein synthesis
5.7 - DNA REPLICATION
Why is it needed?

Replication is necessary because cells need to make an exact copy of

their DNA before they divide, so that each new cell receives a
complete set of genetic instructions.

Outline the role of enzymes:

Helicase: unwinds and separates the double-stranded DNA helix

Primase: adds a short RNA primer to the template strand

DNA polymerase: adds new nucleotides to the growing strand in a 5' to

3' direction

Ligase: seals the gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging

strand
5.7 - CONTINUED
Initiation:

- Helicase enzyme unwinds the double helix by breaking hydrogen bonds between base pairs
- Replication fork is formed where the strands separate

Elongation:

- Primase enzyme adds RNA primers to the template strand

- DNA polymerase enzyme adds nucleotides to the new complementary strand in a 5' to 3' direction
- Leading strand is synthesized continuously
- Lagging strand is synthesized in short Okazaki fragments

Termination:
- DNA polymerase reaches the end of the template strand and falls off
- RNA primers are replaced with DNA nucleotides by DNA polymerase
- Ligase enzyme seals the gaps between Okazaki fragments on the lagging strand
- Two identical double-stranded DNA molecules are formed
5.8 - CELL CYCLE AND MITOSIS
G1 (first gap): the cell grows and carries out its normal metabolic functions

S (synthesis): DNA replication occurs, producing two identical copies of each chromosome

G2 (second gap): the cell continues to grow and prepare for cell division

Mitosis (nucleus division): the duplicated chromosomes are separated into two nuclei

Cytokinesis (cytoplasm division): the cytoplasm and organelles are divided between the two daughter cells
5.8 - CONTINUED *NOTE: remember order by PMAT (people
meet and talk)
Prophase:

- chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes

- nuclear envelope breaks down
- spindle fibers form

Metaphase:

- chromosomes align at the metaphase plate

- pindle fibers attach to the centromeres

Anaphase:

- sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibers

- move towards opposite poles of the cell

Telophase:
- chromosomes reach opposite poles
- decondense into chromatin
- nuclear envelopes reform around the chromosomes
- the spindle fibers break down
5.10 - TRANSCRIPTION
Initiation:

- RNA polymerase binds to the promoter region on the DNA

template strand
- and the double helix is unwound

Elongation:

- RNA polymerase reads the DNA template strand

- Adds complementary RNA nucleotides (A, U, C, G) to the growing
RNA strand in a 5' to 3' direction

Termination:

- RNA polymerase reaches the terminator sequence

- The RNA transcript is released from the DNA template strand
5.10 - CONTINUED
Codon: a sequence of three nucleotides on the mRNA that codes for a specific amino acid during translation

Anticodon: a sequence of three nucleotides on the tRNA that binds to the complementary codon on the mRNA
during translation

- To determine the codon, transcribe the DNA template strand into mRNA by replacing thymine (T) with
uracil (U)

- The complementary anticodon on the tRNA is determined by pairing the mRNA codon with the
appropriate anticodon, based on the rules of base pairing (A-U, C-G)

- Amino acids are specified by a sequence of three nucleotides (a codon) on the mRNA during translation
Use a genetic code chart to identify the amino acid corresponding to each codon on the mRNA

- Start codon (AUG) specifies methionine, and stop codons (UAA, UAG, UGA) do not specify an amino acid
 5.11 - TRANSLATION
Translation is the process by which the sequence of mRNA is translated into a sequence of amino acids to form a
protein.

Initiation:

- the small subunit of the ribosome binds to the mRNA at the start codon (AUG)
- initiator tRNA carrying methionine binds to the start codon.

Elongation:

- The ribosome moves along the mRNA in a 5' to 3' direction.

- As each codon is exposed, the corresponding tRNA with its attached amino acid binds to the mRNA codon
through base pairing between the anticodon of the tRNA and the codon on the mRNA.
- Peptide bonds are formed between the adjacent amino acids, and the ribosome moves to the next codon.

Termination:

- The ribosome reaches one of the three stop codons (UAA, UAG, or UGA), and the polypeptide is released from
the ribosome.
- The ribosome subunits, mRNA, and tRNA dissociate from each other.
 5.11 CONTINUED
mRNA: Carries the genetic code for a specific protein.

Ribosome: Site of protein synthesis composed of two

subunits.

tRNA: Binds to a specific amino acid and carries it to

the ribosome where it binds to the corresponding mRNA
codon.

Amino acids: The building blocks of proteins that are

joined together by peptide bonds.

The process of translation requires energy and is

assisted by various translation factors and enzymes,
such as initiation factors, elongation factors, and
release factors.