MEYCAUAYAN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL

Senior High School

EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

MODULE 5: HOW ANIMALS SURVIVE

Fig. 1: Seeing plates of food triggers the secretion of saliva in the mouth and the production of
HCl in the stomach. (Image source: Jonny, 2014)

INTRODUCTION

Most animals obtain their nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. The
nutrients and macromolecules present in food are not immediately accessible to the cells, thus,
animals must convert these into simple molecules required for maintaining cellular functions,
such as assembling and repairing cells, and tissues.

In this module, you will be able to discuss the main stages of food processing, identify
the functions of each organ in the digestive system, and explain enzymatic hydrolysis in the
human digestive system.

LESSON 1: ANIMAL NUTRITION

Learning Targets

General Objective:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
• describe the general and unique characteristics of the different organ systems in
representative animals (S11/12LT-IIIaj- 21); and
• analyze and appreciate the functional relationships of the different organ systems in
ensuring animal survival (S11/12LT-IIIaj- 22).

Specific Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to
• discuss the main stages of food processing;
• identify the functions of each organ in the digestive system; and
• explain enzymatic hydrolysis in the human digestive system.
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Try This!

True or False. Read each statement carefully. Write TRUE if it is correct, write FALSE if
incorrect. Do this on a separate sheet of paper.
_____1. Amylase, maltase, and lactase in the mouth digest carbohydrates.
_____2. Bile emulsifies lipids in the small intestine.
_____3. The first portion of the small intestine is the doudenum.
_____4. Incomplete digestive tract is also called an alimentary canal.
_____5. Digestion is the process of breaking food down into insoluble molecules

Do This!

CLASSIFYING INGREDIENTS OF YOUR FOOD

Using any native Filipino food that you often eat, note down its major ingredients and
classify if each ingredient is high in carbohydrates, proteins, fats, or nucleic acid. Write your
answers using the following table format. Do this on a separate sheet of paper.

Your chosen food: ___________________

Ingredients Classification

Explore!

Answer the following on a separate sheet of paper:

1. Where do people get energy?
2. How does the energy from food get into the body?
3. What system of the body is responsible for processing the food that you eat?
4. How does the human body use carbohydrates, fats, and proteins?
5. How does your body process your food?

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Discussion

Animal nutrition is the process of taking in, taking apart and taking up the nutrients
from a food source (Campbell et.al., 2008). Animals need biological molecules such as amino
acids, lipid molecules, nucleotides, and simple sugars to perform functions. That is why, they
must convert macromolecules obtained from the food they eat (i.e. proteins, fats, and complex
carbohydrates) into the simple molecules.

An animal’s diet must supply chemical energy (converted into ATP that powers processes
in the body), organic molecules, and essential nutrients.
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Four classes of essential nutrients:

• Essential amino acids
Animals need 20 amino acids and can synthesize about half from molecules in
their diet (Campbell et.al.,2008). The remaining amino acids, which are the essential
amino acids, cannot be synthesized by the human body and therefore must be obtained
from the food. These amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine,
phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine (Bagchi, Nair, & Sen, 2018, p. 509).
A diet that provides insufficient essential amino acids causes malnutrition called
protein deficiency. For vegetarian diet, most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid
makeup thus they need to eat specific plant combinations to get all essential amino
acids (Campbell et.al.,2008).

Table 1: Essential Amino Acids

Amino acids that must be Amino acids anabolized by the
consumed body
isoleucine alanine

leucine selenocysteine

lysine aspartate

methionine cysteine

phenylalanine glutamate

tryptophan glycine

valine proline

histidine* serine

threonine tyrosine

arginine* asparagine

*The human body can synthesize histidine and arginine, but not in the
quantities required, especially for growing children.
Source: Rye et.al., 2020, via OpenStax

• Essential fatty acids

The essential fatty acids are certain unsaturated fatty acids that must be
obtained from the diet. Unsaturated fats are considered beneficial fats because they can
improve blood cholesterol levels, ease inflammation, stabilize heart rhythms, and play a
number of other beneficial roles. These are predominantly found in foods from plants,
such as vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds (Harvard T.H. Chan, 2018).
Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids they need thus deficiencies in fatty
acids are rare.

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• Vitamins Table 2: Vitamin Requirements of Humans*

Vitamins are organic
molecules (contains carbon
atoms) required in the diet in
small amounts. All of the water-
soluble vitamins and two of the
fat-soluble vitamins, A and K,
function as coenzymes which
participates in numerous
biochemical reactions involving
energy release or
catabolism(Caballero, Finglas, &
Toldra, 2003, p. 1476).

Table 3: Mineral Requirements of Humans*

• Minerals
Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients,
usually required in small amounts.
Minerals serve a variety of important
functions including enzymes cofactors
(Campbell et.al., 2008)

*Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

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MAIN STAGES OF FOOD PROCESSING

Fig. 2: Stages of Food Processing. (Image source: http://bio1152.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch41/food_processing.html)

1. Ingestion
In ingestion, or process of taking in food substances, the animal takes in food in
different ways:
1.1 Suspension feeders - Many aquatic animals are suspension feeders, which sift small
food particles from the water. Examples of these are clams, mussels, whales, etc.
1.2 Substrate feeders - animals live in or on their food source. Examples of this are the
leaf miner, maggots and other parasites.
1.3 Fluid feeders - suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host. Example: Mosquito
1.4 Bulk feeders - eat relatively large pieces of food. Example: Rock python
In vertebrates, the teeth, saliva, and tongue play important roles in mastication
(chewing). While the food is being mechanically broken down, the enzymes in saliva
begin to chemically process the food as well. The combined action of these processes
modifies the food from large particles to a soft mass that can be swallowed and can
travel the length of the esophagus.
2. Digestion
It is the process of breaking food down into soluble molecules – small enough to
absorb.
2.1 Mechanical digestion aids in physically breaking down food particles for easier
chemical digestion.
2.2 Chemical digestion, also known as hydrolysis, is the process of breaking down
complex molecules into simpler molecules through chemical hydrolysis.
Complex molecules of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids must be reduced to
simpler particles such as simple sugars before they can be absorbed by the digestive
epithelial cells. The animal diet needs carbohydrates, protein, and fat, as well as
vitamins and inorganic components for nutritional balance.
3. Absorption
It is uptake of nutrients by body cells. It allows the animals to acquire the necessary
energy, organic molecules and essential nutrients from the digested food.
4. Elimination
It is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment. 5
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THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Animals with simple body plans have a gastrovascular cavity with only one opening that
functions as mouth/anus. This gastrovascular cavity functions in both digestion and
distribution of nutrients. More complex animals have a digestive tube with two openings, a
mouth and an anus. This one way digestive tube is called a complete digestive tract or an
alimentary canal. It can have specialized regions that carry out digestion and absorption in
an efficient fashion.
The human digestive system can serve as a model for other organisms with complete
digestive system. Variations is a result of adaptation to particular food, such as the four-
chambered stomach of the cow, the long cecum (appendix) of herbivores, rough tongue and
sharp dentition of carnivores, etc.

Fig. 3: Human digestive system: parts and functions. (Image source: M. Vacas via Pinterest)
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The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus

The mouth or oral cavity is responsible for ingestion. In humans, the mouth have
specialized dentition for mechanical digestion of food. With the aid of the salivary gland, food
is softened and rolled by the tongue, which results in a round, semi-digested food called the
bolus. Teeth chew food into smaller particles. This is mechanical digestion that increases the
surface area exposed to the enzyme salivary amylase, initiating breakdown of glucose
polymers. Some animals do not have teeth, such as birds and earthworms, they use a structure
called gizzard, a muscular organ which grinds food with the aid of ingested pebbles or stones.
The bolus enters the digestive tract, via a cross-road of food and air called the pharynx
(a junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea which leads to the lungs). To
prevent food from entering the respiratory system, the epiglottis (leaf-shaped flap of cartilage
located behind the tongue, at the top of the larynx) covers the opening (called the glottis) to the
respiratory when swallowing.
The esophagus, which has voluntary muscles at the pharyngeal end, allows the
movement of bolus to the stomach by lubricating its walls with mucus produced by goblet cells.
Movement of food, not only through the esophagus, but throughout the digestive tract is
caused by peristalsis or the wavelike movement of the muscles of the organs of digestion.

Fig. 4: From mouth to stomach: The swallowing reflex and peristalsis (Image source: Pearson Education, Inc.)

Chemical Digestion in the Stomach

The stomach is a bag which mainly functions in the storage of food. Chemical digestion
of food starts here through the action of gastric juice made up of pepsin (an enzyme for protein
digestion) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions
separately and chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin when mixed
with hydrochloric acid in the stomach. This action of gastric juice helps in breaking cells,
activating pepsinogen (a proenzyme) to pepsin (active enzyme), and denaturing proteins.
Denaturation is the process of breaking the bonds of protein, through acids, bases, heavy

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metals, high temperature and others. This is observed in cooked white egg, whitening of the
lips when consuming acidic food, etc. Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice.
Coordinated contraction and relaxation of stomach muscle churn the stomach’s
contents. Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the esophagus and regulate its entry into
the small intestine.

Fig. 5: Stomach and its secretions (Image source: Pearson Education, Inc.)

Digestion in the Small Intestine

When the stomach is filled, the product of its digestion called chyme or acidic chyme
(due to its acidic nature) moves to the small intestines which is the longest section of the
alimentary canal and the major organ of digestion and absorption. The first portion of the small
intestine is the duodenum, where acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices
from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself.

Pancreatic Secretions
The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin, protein-digesting enzymes
that are activated after entering the duodenum. Its solution is alkaline and neutralizes the
acidic chyme.

Bile Production by the Liver

Bile is a substance produced by the liver and stored in the gall bladder which aids in
the digestion of fats by emulsification of fat molecules which is considered physical not
chemical digestion. Fat emulsification increases the surface area for chemical digestion of fats
by lipases (enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of fats). 8
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Secretions of the Small Intestine

The epithelial lining of the duodenum, called the brush border, produces several
digestive enzymes. Enzymatic digestion is completed as peristalsis moves the chyme and
digestive juices along the small intestine. Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the jejunum
and ileum function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water.

Absorption in the Small Intestine

Villus (plural- villi) and microvillus (plural- microvilli) are structures responsible for
the efficient absorption of the digested molecules. The enormous microvillar surface area
greatly increases the rate of nutrient absorption.

Fig. 6: Structure of the small intestine. (Image source: Pearson Education, Inc.)

Each villus contains a network of blood vessels and a small lymphatic vessel called a
lacteal. After glycerol and fatty acids are absorbed by epithelial cells, they are recombined into
fats within these cells. These fats are mixed with cholesterol and coated with protein, forming
molecules called chylomicrons, which are transported into lacteals. Amino acids and sugars
pass through the epithelium of the small intestine and enter the bloodstream. Capillaries and
veins from the lacteals converge in the hepatic portal vein and deliver blood to the liver and
then on to the heart.

Absorption in the Large Intestine

The large intestine, termed for its larger diameter compared to the small intestine, is
responsible for water reabsorption and temporary storage of feces. Water from the process of
digestion, which comes from the surrounding tissues (mucus, saliva, chemicals), is recycled
by the large intestine by reabsorbing it. The rate of water reabsorption has implication on the
hardness/softness of the feces to be eliminated. In humans, the cecum is a structure called
appendix, a vestigial organ. It does not have any known digestive function, but some argue
that it has immune functions. The rectum is the structure of the large intestine which
temporary store feces, the movement of the feces is regulated by a voluntary muscle called the
anus.
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DIGESTION OF FOUR MAJOR CLASSES OF BIOMOLECULES

Fig. 7: Enzymatic Hydrolysis in the Human Digestive System. (Image source: Pearson Education, Inc.)

Carbohydrate Digestion
The digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth. The salivary enzyme amylase
begins the breakdown of food starches into maltose, a disaccharide. As the bolus of food travels
through the esophagus to the stomach, no significant digestion of carbohydrates takes place.
The next carbohydrate digestion takes place in the duodenum. The chyme from the
stomach enters the duodenum and mixes with the digestive secretion from the pancreas, liver,
and gallbladder. Pancreatic juices also contain amylase, which continues the breakdown of
starch and glycogen into maltose. The disaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides
by enzymes called maltases, sucrases, and lactases, which are also present in the brush border
of the small intestinal wall (See figure 8).

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Fig. 8: Digestion of Carbohydrates by several enzymes. (Image source: Rye et.al., 2020, via OpenStax)
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The monosaccharides are absorbed and then can be used in metabolic pathways to
harness energy. The monosaccharides are transported across the intestinal epithelium into the
bloodstream to be transported to the different cells in the body.

Protein Digestion
A large part of protein digestion takes place in
the stomach. The enzyme pepsin plays an important
role in the digestion of proteins by breaking down the
intact protein to large polypeptides. In the duodenum,
other enzymes—trypsin elastase, and chymotrypsin—
act on the peptides reducing them to smaller
peptides. Trypsin elastase, carboxypeptidase, and
chymotrypsin are produced by the pancreas and
released into the duodenum where they act on the
chyme. Further breakdown of peptides to single
amino acids is aided by enzymes called peptidases
(those that break down peptides). Specifically,
carboxypeptidase, dipeptidase, and aminopeptidase
play important roles in reducing the peptides to free Fig. 9: Protein digestion diagram.
(Image source: Oak Park Unified School District)
amino acids. The amino acids are absorbed into the
bloodstream through the small intestines.

Nucleic Acid Digestion

The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are found in most of the foods you eat. Two types of
pancreatic nuclease are responsible for their digestion: deoxyribonuclease, which digests DNA,
and ribonuclease, which digests RNA. The nucleotides produced by this digestion are further
broken down by two intestinal brush border enzymes (nucleosidase and phosphatase) into
pentoses, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases (see figure 7), which can be absorbed through
the alimentary canal wall (OpenStax, 2017).

Lipid Digestion
The three lipases responsible for lipid digestion
are lingual lipase, gastric lipase, and pancreatic lipase.
However, because the pancreas is the only
consequential source of lipase, virtually all lipid
digestion occurs in the small intestine. Pancreatic
lipase breaks down each triglyceride into two free fatty
acids and a monoglyceride. The fatty acids include both
short-chain (less than 10 to 12 carbons) and long-
chain fatty acids.

Fig. 10: Lipid digestion diagram.

(Image source: Oak Park Unified School District)

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Apply What You Have Learned

Part 1: Sites of Digestion

Using the table of the native Filipino food you have chosen, where do you think are the
sites of digestion of the ingredients? Copy the table below and supply the needed information.
Do this on a separate sheet of paper.

Ingredients Classification Sites of Digestion

Part 2: Digestive Health Problems

Source: The Nemours Foundation/KidsHealth.

You have learned how the digestive system delivers nutrients to the body. But what if
something goes wrong? Copy the following table on a separate sheet of paper. Give at least one-
sentence description for each problem, write another sentence or two about how the problem
affects the digestive system’s ability to do its job, and how the problem can be prevented and/or
treated.

How it affects the Prevention and/or

Health Problems Description
digestive system treatment

Constipation

Gastroesophageal
Reflux Disease
(GERD)

Inflammatory Bowel
Disease

Ulcer

Cystic Fibrosis

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Assess What You Have Learned

Direction: Answer the following on a separate sheet of paper.

I. Multiple Choice. Write the letter of the best answer.

_____1. The digestive system breaks down food into:
A. nutrients C. saliva
B. amylase D. sphincters
_____2. During the process of absorption, nutrients from food go from:
A. the intestines into the bladder
B. the blood into the organs
C. the intestines into the bloodstream
D. the mouth into the stomach
_____3. Macro molecules responsible for the growth and development of tissues in the body
A. Carbohydrates C. Fat
B. Glucose D. Protein
_____4. Process of breaking down of food into smaller components, for Absorption of the
body.
A. Digestion C. Respiration
B. Elimination D. Pulmonary respiration
_____5. Building blocks of protein
A. Amino acid C. Nucleic acid
B. Glucose D. Pepsin

II. Identification. Identify what is being asked in each statement.

_____Peristalsis______1. Waves of muscle contractions that force food down through the
esophagus tothe stomach.
____Epih________2.
A flexible flaptoof prevent choking.
tissue that reflexively closes over the windpipe when we swallow
____________3. Product of digestion in the stomach.
____________4. Main energy currency of the cell.
____________5. The inner wall of the small intestine is covered with millions of microscopic,
finger-like projections through which nutrients can be absorbed into the body.

Self-Check

Place a check (✔) mark in the first column below to indicate whether the objectives
were met upon completion of this module. Answer the following reflection with an honest
assessment of what you've learned, what you find interesting and what needs to be improved.
Do this in your notebook.

Check I can…

discuss the main stages of food processing.

identify the functions of each organ in the digestive system.

explain enzymatic hydrolysis in the human digestive system.

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Reflect

Today I have learned that ________________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________.
I find __________________________ the most interesting because _____________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________.
I need to improve on _______________________because ______________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________.

References

Bagchi, D., Nair, S., & Sen, C. K. (2018). Nutrition and Enhanced Sports Performance: Muscle
Building, Endurance, and Strength (2nd ed.). Academic Press.

Caballero, B., Finglas, P., & Toldra, F. (2003). Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition
(2nd ed.). Academic Press.

Campbell, N. A., Reece, J. B., Urry, L. A., Cain, M. L., Wasserman, S. A., Minorsky, P. V., &
Jackson, R. B. (2008). Biology, 8th Edition (8th ed.). Pearson Benjamin Cummings.

Commission on Higher Education. 2016. Teaching Guide for Senior High School: Earth and
Life Science. Quezon City, Philippines: EC-TEC Commercial.

Harvard T.H. Chan. (2018, July 24). Types of Fat. The Nutrition Source.
https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/what-should-you-eat/fats-and-
cholesterol/types-of-
fat/#:%7E:text=Unsaturated%20fats%2C%20which%20are%20liquid,number%20of%2
0other%20beneficial%20roles.

IFFGD. (2019, October 2). The Digestive System. https://www.iffgd.org/the-digestive-

system.html

Johnson, G. B., & Losos, J. B. (2007). The Living World (5th ed.). McGraw-Hill Science
Engineering.

Jonny. (2014, June 1). Delicious!! and other taste terms [Photograph]. Wordpress.Com.
https://jonatagalog.wordpress.com/2014/06/01/delicious-and-other-taste-terms/

Oak Park Unified School District. (n.d.). The Digestive System [Illustration]. Oak Park Unified
School District.
https://www.oakparkusd.org/cms/lib5/CA01000794/Centricity/Domain/307/23%2
0The%20Digestive%20System.pdf

OpenStax. (2017, February 6). LibGuides: BIO 140 - Human Biology I - Textbook: Chapter 20 -
Chemical Digestion and Absorption. Hostos Community College.
https://guides.hostos.cuny.edu/bio140/5-
20#:%7E:text=Nucleic%20Acid%20Digestion,and%20ribonuclease%2C%20which%20d
igests%20RNA.
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Quipper. (2016, August 6). Nutrient Absorption in Cells.

https://link.quipper.com/en/organizations/547ff924d2b76d0002001a6e/curriculum
#curriculum

Rye, C., Wise, R., Jurukovski, V., DeSaix, J., Choi, J., & Avissar, Y. (2020, August 15). 34.3:
Digestive System Processes. Biology LibreTexts.
https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Introductory_and_General_Biology/Book%3A_
General_Biology_(OpenStax)/7%3A_Animal_Structure_and_Function/34%3A_Animal_
Nutrition_and_the_Digestive_System/34.3%3A_Digestive_System_Processes

The four stages of food processing. (n.d.). [Illustration]. Biology 1152 Principles of Biological
Science. http://bio1152.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch41/food_processing.html

The Nemours Foundation/KidsHealth. (2016). Digestive System. Kids Health in the

Classroom.
https://classroom.kidshealth.org/classroom/9to12/body/systems/digestive.pdf

Vacas, M. (n.d.). The Human Digestive System [Illustration]. Pinterest.

https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/465981892697359709/

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ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ms. Kimberly Mae S. Isaac is a Special Science Teacher I in

Meycauayan National High School, Senior High School
Department, handling Science and Math - related subjects since
2016. A graduate of Bachelor of Science in Food Technology at
Polytechnic University of the Philippines - Manila. She was a
recipient of Junior Level Science Scholarship from Department
of Science and Technology (DOST) for two (2) consecutive years.
She completed 18 units of Continuing Professional Teacher
Education (CPTE) at La Consolacion University Philippines, and
currently taking up Master of Arts in Teaching Science (MATS) at
University of Caloocan City. She is a Licensed Professional
Teacher and a Licensed Chemical Technician. A Science Quiz Bee
Coach of a National Qualifier in the “National Battle of Math and Science Champions 2020” by
the Association of Science and Mathematics Educators of the Philippine Private Schools. A
Division Writer for Senior High School's Learning Activity Sheets in Earth & Life Science. An
Outstanding teacher based on Results-Based Performance Management System since 2019.

CONTENT EDITOR

Mrs. Reychelle A. Serrano is a Master Teacher I in

Meycauayan National High School – Senior High School
Department. She is currently on her 10th year of teaching
after finishing her Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in
Physical Sciences at Bulacan State University. She also
graduated Master of Arts in Education major in Physics in
the same academe. She is presently handling science
subjects like Earth & Life Science, Earth Science, Physical
Science, General Chemistry 1, General Biology 1 and General
Physics 1 and 2 and the Subject Group Head of all SHS
Science teachers. She is a consistent Division Science Quiz
Bee coach winner since 2011 for Grades 10, 11 and 12, and
the trainer of “2019 National Battle of Science Quiz Bee
Champions” winner who bagged 3rd Place for the SDO - City of Meycauayan. Also, she is a
Division Research Finalist in the 2019 Division Research Congress funded by Basic Education
Research Fund (BERF) and a Division Resource Speaker. She also became a Division Strategic
Intervention Material (SIM) author for Grade 12 STEM in SHS entitled “Project-ILE Motion”.
Likewise, she is a Division Module Content Evaluator in Science for Elementary, Junior High
School and Senior High School Self-Learning Modules for SDO- Meycauayan. In addition, she
was also a consistent awardee as Outstanding Master Teacher based on RPMS since 2016.

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