Worskhop Manual

Prestige Institute of Engineering Management & Research, Indore
(Approved by AICTE New Delhi, DTE Govt. of M.P. Bhopal & Affiliated to RGPV, Bhopal MP)
Vision of the Institute
Strive continuously for academic excellence by providing best contemporary,

functional education and endeavoring to attain supreme engineering educational
excellence, through sincerity of motive and focused efforts.
Mission of the Institute
To prepare students to succeed in information directed and technology driven

global economy to become global citizens through effective teaching and learning
process with strong practical exposure
Vision of the Department

To provide academically excellent and ethical environment to learn the
fundamentals of STEM (Science Technology Engineering & Mathematics) and
build life skills.
Mission of the Department
To prepare students for :
M1. Conceptual clarity and technical acumen by relating theory with practical.
M2. Understanding the problem of real world through assignment, internship and
outreach.
M3. Acquiring the life skills by providing an excellent learning environment.
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Table of Contents
EXPERIMENT NO.1 4
EXPERIMENT NO.2 6
EXPERIMENT NO. 3 13
EXPERIMENT NO.4 23
EXPERIMENT NO. 5 36
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Please paste safety precautions and layout of workshop
(1 page for safety preacautions in hand written and 2 nd page for layout workshop
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EXPERIMENT NO.1
Aim:- Study the workshop technology and manufacturing process.
Introduction:-
The study deals with several aspects of workshops practices also for imparting the basic
working knowledge of the different engineering materials, tools, equipments, manufacturing
processes, basic concepts of electromechanical controls of machine tools, production criteria’s,
characteristics and uses of various testing instruments and measuring or inspecting devices for
checking components or products manufactured in various manufacturing shops in an industrial
environment.
It also describes and demonstrates the use of different hand tools (measuring, marking, holding
and supporting tools, cutting etc.), equipments, machinery and various methods of
manufacturing that facilitate shaping or forming the different existing raw materials into suitable
usable forms.
It should provide the knowledge of basic workshop processes namely bench work and fitting,
sheet metal, carpentry, pattern making, mould making, foundry, smithy, forging, metal working
and heat treatment, welding, fastening, machine shop, surface finishing and coatings,
assembling inspection and quality control.
Manufacturing processes:-
Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly concerned with
the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced.
It does not include the transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly
concerned with the changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced.
This refers to science and technology of manufacturing products effectively, efficiently,

economically and environment-friendly through
• Application of any existing manufacturing process and system
• Proper selection of input materials, tools, machines and environments.
• Improvement of the existing materials and processes
• Development of new materials, systems, processes and techniques
All such manufacturing processes, systems, techniques have to be
• Technologically acceptable
• Technically feasible
• Economically viable
• Eco-friendly
Classification of manufacturing process:-
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Manufacturing processes can be broadly classified in four major groups as follows:
(a) Shaping or forming Manufacturing a solid product of definite size and shape from a given
material taken in three possible states:
• In solid state – e.g., forging rolling, extrusion, drawing etc.
• In liquid or semi-liquid state – e.g., casting, injection moulding etc.
• In powder form – e.g., powder metallurgical process.
(b) Joining process welding, brazing, soldering etc.
(c) Removal process machining (Traditional or Non-traditional), Grinding etc.
(d) Regenerative manufacturing Production of solid products in layer by layer from raw
materials in different form:
• Liquid – e.g., stereo lithography
• Powder – e.g., selective sintering
• Sheet – e.g., LOM (laminated object manufacturing)
• Wire – e.g., FDM. (Fused Deposition Modeling)
Out of the aforesaid groups, Regenerative Manufacturing is the latest one which is generally
accomplished very rapidly and quite accurately using CAD and CAM for Rapid Prototyping and
Tooling.
Safety precautions for workshop:-

1. Always wear proper fitting apron/lab coat before starting work in machine shop. Do not wear
loose clothes.
2. Always wear safety goggles to protect your eyes against any flying chips or dust.
3. Keep your hands away from the moving cutter or work piece.
4. Cover the pulleys & belts with safety guards while working.
5. Never let your clothes & hand come in contact with the revolving chuck, pulleys, belts, etc.
6. Work piece should be held tightly between the live & dead centers.
7. Don’t touch the chips while the same are being generated by the machine because these are
extremely hot.
8. Bee sure that cutting tool is tightly held in tool post.
9. Do not touch the tool tip during grinding of the tool.
10. Don’t give excessive feed to the cutting tool. It damages the tool tip & may even cause
accident.
11. You must always know the position of fire extinguisher & first aid box in the shop.
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EXPERIMENT NO.2
Aim: - Study the Black smithy shop, its tools and forging operations.
Introduction:-
In order to produce the desired shape or to improve the properties of any metal, shaping is done.
Shaping process may be divided in two main groups as:
(a) Cutting, and
(b) Non-cutting
Normally, the non-cutting shaping operation is referred to as mechanical working process. One
such process is called smithy or forging.
Smithy is defined to handle relatively small jobs only such as those that can be heated in hearth
or open fire, and the work is carried out by using of hand hammers or small power hammers.
Forging refers to the production of those jobs which must be heated in a closed furnace. The
part of job where forging is done is termed as a forge. The work is normally performed by
means of heavy hammers, forging machines, presses etc.
Forging is defined as the controlled plastic deformation or working of metal into predetermined
shapes.
Forging implies the use of powerful pressure from a hammer or press on metal which has been
heated to its plastic range.
During forging, the material should have sufficient flow properties and work at the upper limit
of the material’s potential strength so as to fill the die cavity shape without resulting in cracks in
the material.
Forging is a cost effective way to produce net-shape or near-net-shape components. Virtually all
metals can be forged. This makes an extensive range of physical and mechanical properties
available in products with the highest structural integrity.
Smithy and Forging tools:-
(a) Smith’s forge:-
It is used for heating purpose during the forging operation .
The structure of hearth is made of cast iron or cast steel. It has four-legged support, an hearth
known as bottom, a chimney along with hood. An opening is also provided on the rear side of
the structure to supply the air into the furnace. The hearth is covered by fire bricks lining. For
quenching purpose, a water tank is
also provided in front side of forge. Air under pressure is supplied to the furnace by the blower.
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Smith’s forge or hearth
(b) Anvil:-
The anvil is an important smiths tool. It is used for supporting the work while hot metal
hammering.
The hardie hole is of square shape and is used for holding square shanks of swages fullers etc.
while the Pritchel hole is of circular shape used for bending rods of small diameter and as a die
for hot punching.
Anvil
(c) Swage block:-
It is a block of cast steel consisting of a number of slots of different shapes and sizes along its
four side faces. It has through holes from top face to bottom face which vary in shapes and
sizes.
It is used for mainly squaring, sizing, heading, bending, punching and forming operations. The
swage block is supported on a cast iron base. It is specified according to size of block or by
weight.
Swage Block
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(d) Hammers:-
Ball‐ Peen Hammer

Ball‐ Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by their
weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end,
particularly used for riveting.
Ball Peen Hammer
Cross‐Peen Hammer
It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping,
riveting, bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.
Cross Peen Hammer

Sledge Hammer
It has double faces on both ends as shown in figure. Sledge hammers are comparatively heavier
than hand hammers. Therefore, they are used for heavy type of forging work when heavy blows
are needed.
Sledge Hammer
Straight‐Peen Hammer
This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the hammer handle. It is used
for swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.
(e) Tongs:-
The tongs are used for holding the hot metal while is being worked. These are made of mild
steel. The various types of tongs commonly used for holding work are as follows:
a) Closed Mouth Tong: A closed mouth tong is used for holding thin sections.
b) Open Mouth Tong: An open mouth tong is suitable for holding heavier stock.
c) Round Hollow Tong: A round hallow tong is use for holding square, hexagonal and
orthogonal work.
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d) Square Hollow Tong: A square hollow tong is used for holding square, hexagonal and
octagonal section.
e) Pick-up tong: A pick-up tong is used for picking up round bars, but not for holding work
during forging.
Tongs
(g) Hardie:-
It is fitted in the hardie hole provided in the tail of anvil. It has a cutting edge at the top of body.
During cutting or shearing operations, chisels are used in conjunction with this bottom cutting
tool. It is made by high carbon steel.
Hardie
(h) Fullers:-
These are also made of tool steel (high carbon steel). They are used in pairs (top and bottom).
Bottom-one part of fuller is held in hardie hole of anvil with its square shape of shank. They are
used for necking down or to reduce the cross section of a job. In some cases, they are also used
in drawing out operation.
Fullers
(i) Swage:-
The swages are used to get different sectional shapes like round, square and hexagon. The
bottom part having square shank fits into the hardy hole on the anvil. The top part having a
handle is held by the smith.
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(j) Flatters:-
This is used for flattening and smoothing the surface of a job.
Forging Operations:-
1) UP-SETTING:
It consists of increasing the cross section of a bar at the expense of its length. In this process
first of all the heating is done and then heavy blow is given by hand hammer. Up setting may be
various kinds.
(a) Head Up-Setting: When heating is done at one end of item and pressure is applied at one
end is called head up setting.
(b) Full Up-Setting: When heating is done at both end of item and then pressure is applied at
both end is called full up setting.
(c) Central Up-Setting: When heating is done at the centre of the item and then pressure is
applied at the central position is called central up setting.
Upsetting
2) BENDING:
It is an important operation in forging and is very frequently used. In this process the item is
heated and bent as desired.
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Bending
3) DRAWING DOWN:
In this process the length of a bar stock may increased with a corresponding decrease or
reduction in its thickness, width or both of a bar stock. In other words, it is exactly a reverse
process to that of upsetting or jumping.
Drawing Down
4) SETTING DOWN:
It is a process of local thinning down effected by set hammer. The work is usually fullered at
the place where the settings down commence.
5) FULLERING:
In this operation main target is to increase the width along with a slight change in length.
Fullering operation should always be started at the centre part of stock.
Fullering
6) Punching and Drifting:

In this operation, stock of bar is placed on the pritchel hole of the anvil or over a correct hole of
swages block and then a punch in hot condition is used for producing the hole. External pressure
on punch is given by using hammering.
Punching by using die, is usually followed by drifting. In this, drift as a tool is made to pass
through the punched hole to produce a finished hole of a required size. Drift is also a large sized
punch.
Punching and Drafting

Safety and Precautions:-
1. Do not wear loose clothes.

2. Remove wrist watches, ring bracelets etc.
3. Wear goggles or a faces shield during pouring operation.
4. Hot metals should be kept away from body at a place where there is no danger of body
contact by any person.
5. Grasp the ladle firmly & be sure it is well balanced while transporting molten metal.
6. Handel hot pieces with tong.
7. keep a clear space around the pouring area.
8. Do not tough a casting immediately after removing from mould.
9. Wear proper tools while working in the pouring area.
10. the shop should be properly lighted & ventilated to avoid accident.
11. The moulding boxes should be properly lighted & ventilated to avoid bursting.
12. Switch off the electric grinder after use & do not place it not places it on floor while in
operation.
13. If you see any accident happing you immediately inform the instructor.

EXPERIMENT NO. 3
Aim:- Study the Carpentry shop, its tools and different types of wood joints.
Introduction:-
Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts from a
marketable form of wood and ends with finished products. It6 deals with the building work,
furniture, cabinet making. Etc. joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the important
operations in all woodworks.
It deals with the specific work of carpenter like making different types of joints to form a
finished product.
Timber:-
Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn
into various sizes to suit building purposes.
The word, ‘grain’, as applied to wood, refers to the appearance or pattern of the wood on the cut
surfaces. The grain of the wood is a fibrous structure and to make it strong, the timber must be
so cut, that the grains run parallel to the length.
Classification of Timber:-
Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber. Woods in
general are divided into two broad categories: Soft woods and Hard woods.
Soft woods are obtained from conifers, kair, deodar, chir, walnut and seemal.
Woods obtained from teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are known as
hard wood, but it is highly durable.
Another classification of woods is based on the name of the trees like teak, babul, shisham,
neem, kair, chir, etc.
Timber sizes:-
Timber sold in the market is in various sizes and shapes. The following are the common shapes
and sizes.
a. Log ‐ the trunk of the tree which is free from branches.
b. Balk ‐ the log, sawn to have roughly square cross section.
c. Post ‐ A timber piece, round or square in cross section, having its diameter or side from 175
to 300mm.
d. Plank ‐ A sawn timber piece, with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to 150 mm in thickness
and 2.5 to 6.5 meters in length.
e. Board ‐ A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 to 50 mm in thickness.
f. Reapers ‐ Sawn timber pieces of assorted and non‐standard sizes, which do not confirm to the
above shapes and sizes.
Seasoning of wood:-
A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content. If this is not removed, the timber is
likely to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content

under controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only seasoned
wood should be used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood resilient and lighter.
Further, it ensures that the wood will not distort after it is made into an object.
Characteristics of good timber:-
The good timber must possess the following characteristics

a. It should have minimum moisture content, i.e., the timber should be well seasoned.
b. The grains of wood should be straight and long.
c. It must retain its straightness after seasoning.
d. It should produce near metallic sound on hammering.
e. It should be free from knots or cracks.
f. It should be of uniform color, throughout the part of the wood.
g. It should respond well to the finishing and polishing operations.
h. During driving the nails and screw, it should not split easily.
Carpentry tools:-
MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS
Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce parts to
exact size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and measuring
tools that are required in a carpentry shop.
1. Steel rule and Steel tape

Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked
scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement. Steel tape is used for large
measurements, such as marking on boards and checking the overall dimensions of the work.
2. Marking gauge
It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden piece. It consists of a square
wooden stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem is fitted a marking pin,
made of steel. The stock is set at any desired distance from the marking point and fixed in
position by a screw. It must be ensured that the marking pin projects through the stem, about 3
mm and the end are sharp enough to make a very fine line. A mortise gauge consists of two
pins. In this, it is possible to adjust the distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on
the stock.
a. Marking gauge
b. Mortise gauge
3. Try‐square
It is used for marking and testing the squareness and straightness of planed surfaces. It consists
of a steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for checking the planed surfaces for
flatness. Its size varies from 150 to 300 mm, according to the length of the blade. It is less
accurate when compared to the try‐square used in the fitting shop.
4. Compass and divider

Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed surfaces of the wood.
5. Scriber or marking knife

It is used for marking on timber. It is made of steel having one end pointed and the other end
formed into a sharp cutting edge.

6. Bevel
It is used for laying‐out and checking angles. The blade of the bevel is adjustable and may be
held in place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired angle, it can be used in much the
same way as a try‐square. A good way to set it to the required angle is to mark the angle on a
surface and then adjust the blade to fit the angle.
Marking gauge
Steel Tape
Mortise gauge Try square
Compass and Divider Scriber and Bevel
MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS
HOLDING TOOLS
1. Carpenter's vice
The carpenter's bench vice is used as a work holding device in a carpenter shop. Its one jaw is
fixed to the side of the table while the other is movable by means of a screw and a handle. The
Carpenter's vice jaws are lined with hard wooden' faces.

2. C‐clamp
C‐clamp is used for holding small works.
3. Bar cramp
It is made of steel bar of T‐section, with malleable iron fittings and a steel screw. It is used for
holding wide works such as frames or tops.
Carpenter’s Vice C-Clamp Bar-Cramp
HOLDING TOOLS
PLANING TOOLS
Planing is the operation used to produce flat surfaces on wood. A plane is a hand tool used for
this purpose. The cutting blade used in a plane is very similar to a chisel. The blade of a plane is
fitted in a wooden or metallic block, at an angle.
1. Jack plane
It is the most commonly used general purpose plane. It is about 35 cm long. The cutting iron
(blade) should have a cutting edge of slight curvature. It is used for quick removal of material
on rough work and is also used in oblique planning.
2. Smoothing plane
It is used for finishing work and hence, the blade should have a straight cutting edge. It is about
20 to 25 cm long. Being short, it can follow even the slight depressions in the stock, better than
the jack plane. It is used after using the jack plane.
3. Rebate plane
It is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the edge of a piece of wood, which is
generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors.
4. Plough plane
It is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix panels in a door. Figure shows the various types
of planes mentioned above.

PLANNING TOOLS
CUTTING TOOLS
1. Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are different types of saws, designed to suit
different purposes. A saw is specified by the length of its toothed edge.
1.1 Cross‐cut or hand saw

It is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerf will be wider
than the blade thickness. This allows the blade to move freely in the cut, without sticking.
1.2 Rip saw

It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of this saw makes a steeper
angle, i.e., about 60° whereas that of crosscut saw makes an angle of 45° with the surface of the
stock.
1.3 Tenon saw

It is used for cutting the stock either along or across the grains. It is used for cutting tenons and
in fine cabinet work. However, it is used for small and thin cuts. The blade of this saw is very
thin and so it is stiffened with a thick back steel strip. Hence, this is sometimes called as
back‐saw. In this, the teeth are shaped like those of cross‐cut saw.
1.4 Compass saw

It has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is used for heavy works. It is mostly
used in radius cutting. The blade of this saw is fitted with an open type wooden handle.

TYPES OF SAWS
2. Chisels
Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels are made in various
blade widths, ranging from 3 to 50 mm. They are also made in different blade lengths. Most of
the wood chisels are made into tang type, having a steel shank which fits inside the handle.
These are made of forged steel or tool steel blades.
2.1 Firmer chisel

The word 'firmer' means 'stronger' and hence firmer chisel is stronger than other chisels. It is a
general purpose chisel and is used either by hand pressure or by a mallet. The blade of a firmer
chisel is flat.
2.2 Dovetail chisel

It has a blade with a beveled back, as shown in Figure, due to which it can enter sharp comers
for finishing, as in dovetail joints.
2.3 Mortise chisel

It is used for cutting mortises and chipping inside holes, etc. The cross‐section of the mortise
chisel is proportioned to withstand heavy blows during mortising. Further, the cross‐section is
made stronger near the shank.
Parts of chisel a. Firmer b. Dovetail c. Mortise
CHISELS
DRILLING AND BORING TOOLS
1. Carpenter’s brace
It is used for rotating auger bits, twist drills, etc., to produce holes in wood. In some designs,
braces are made with ratchet device. With this, holes may be made in a corner where complete
revolution of the handle cannot be made. The size of a brace is determined by its sweep.
2. Auger bit
It is the most common tool used for making holes in wood. During drilling, the lead screw of the
bit guides into the wood, necessitating only moderate pressure on the brace. The helical flutes
on the surface carry the chips to the outer surface.
3. Hand drill
Carpenter's brace is used to make relatively large size holes; whereas hand drill is used for
drilling small holes. A straight shank drill is used with this tool. It is small, light in weight and
may be conveniently used than the brace. The drill bit is clamped in the chuck at its end and is
rotated by a handle attached to gear and pinion arrangement.
4. Gimlet
It has cutting edges like a twist drill. It is used for drilling large diameter holes with the hand
pressure.
DRILLING TOOLS
MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS
1. Mallet
It is used to drive the chisel, when considerable force is to be applied, which may be the case in
making deep rough cuts. Steel hammer should not be used for the purpose, as it may damage the
chisel handle. Further, for better control, it is better to apply a series of light taps with the mallet
rather than a heavy single blow.
2. Pincer
It is made of two forged steel arms with a hinged joint and is used for pulling‐out small nails
from wood. The inner faces of the pincer jaws are beveled and the outer faces are plain. The end
of one arm has a ball and the other has a claw. The beveled jaws and the claw are used for
pulling out small nails, pins and screws from the wood.
3. Claw hammer

It has a striking flat face at one end and the claw at the other, as shown in figure. The face is
used to drive nails into wood and for other striking purposes and the claw for extracting
relatively large nails out of wood. It is made of cast steel and weighs from 0.25 kg to 0.75 kg.
4. Screw driver
It is used for driving screws into wood or unscrewing them. The screw driver of a carpenter is
different from the other common types, as shown in figure. The length of a screw driver is
determined by the length of the blade. As the length of the blade increases, the width and
thickness of the tip also increase.
5. Wood rasp file

It is a finishing tool used to make the wood surface smooth, remove sharp edges, finish fillets
and other interior surfaces. Sharp cutting teeth are provided on its surface for the purpose. This
file is exclusively used in wood work.
6. Bradawl
It is a hand operated tool, used to bore small holes for starting a screw or large nail.
MISCELANIOUS TOOLS
Wood joints:-
There are many kinds of joints used to connect wood stock. Each joint has a definite use and
requires lay in‐out, cutting them together. The strength of the joint depends upon amount of
contact area. If a particular joint does not have much contact area, then it must be reinforced
with nails, screws or dowels. The figure shows some commonly used wood joints.
a. Butt b. Dowell c. Dado d. Rabbet

e. Lap f. Mortise and tenon g. Miter
Lap joints
In lap joints, an equal amount of wood is removed from eac each
h piece, as shown in figure
figure. Lap
joints are easy to layout, using a try try‐square
square and a marking gauge. Follow the procedure
suggested for sawing and removing the waste stock. If the joint is found to be too tight, it is
better to reduce the width of the mating piece, instead of trimming the shoulder of the joint. This
type of joint
int is used for small boxes to large pieces of furniture.
LAP JOINT
Mortise and Tenon Joints
It is used in the construction of quality furniture. It results in a strong joint and requires
considerable skill to make it. The following are the stages involved in the work.
a. Mark the mortise and tenon layouts.
b. Cut the mortise first by drilling series of holes within the layout line, chiseling out the waste
stock and trimming the corners and sides.
c. Prepare the tenon by cutting and chiseling.
d. Check thehe tenon size against the mortise that has been prepared and adjust it if necessary.
MORTISE AND TENON JOINT

Bridle joint
This is the reverse of mortise and tenon joint in form. The marking‐out of the joint is the
same as for mortise and tenon joint. This joint is used where the members are of square or near
square section and unsuitable for mortise and tenon joint.
BRIDLE JOINT
Safety precautions:-
The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in carpentry shop, with
respect to the tools used
1. Tools that are not being used should always be kept at their proper places.
2. Make sure that your hands are not in front of sharp edged tools while you are using them.
3. Use only sharp tools. A dull tool requires excessive pressure, causing the tool to slip.
4. Wooden pieces with nails, should never be allowed to remain on the floor.
5. Be careful when you are using your thumb as a guide in cross-cutting and ripping.
6. Test the sharpness of the cutting edge of chisel on wood or paper, but not on your hand.
7. Never chisel towards any part of the body.
8. Do not use chisels where nails are present. Do not use chisel as a screw driver.
9. Do not use a saw with a loose handle.
10. Always use triangular file for sharpening the teeth.
11. Do not use a saw on metallic substances.
12. Do not use mallet to strike nails.
13. Do not use plane at the places, where a nail is driven in the wood.

EXPERIMENT NO.4
Aim:- Study the Fitting shop and its tools.
Introduction:-
Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions
when components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or
repair component which must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This
involves a certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc,
involves certain amount of bench work. The accuracy of work done depends upon the
experience and skill of the fitter.
The term ‘bench work’ refers to the production of components by hand on the bench,
where as fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain
the required fit.
Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and
considerable manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping,
scraping, sawing drilling, and tapping.
Holding Tools:-
1. Bench vice
The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most commonly used vice in a fitting
shop. The bench vice is shown in Figure.
Bench Vice
It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts,
fixed jaw and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding
jaw forces the work against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel. Serrations on
the jaws ensure a good grip. Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect finished
surfaces, gripped in the vice. The size of the vice is specified by the length of the jaws.
The vice body is made of cast Iron which is strong in compression, weak in tension and
so fractures under shocks and therefore should never be hammered.
2. V-block
V‐block is rectangular or square block with a V‐groove on one or both sides opposite to
each other. The angle of the ‘V’ is usually 900. V‐block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical
work securely, during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling for this

the bar is faced longitudinally in the V‐Groove and the screw of V‐clamp is tightened. This grip
the rod is firm with its axis parallel to the axis of the v‐groove.
3. C-Clamp
This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v‐block or any other surface, when
gripping is required.
Its fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet ‘C’ and the movable jaw is round in shape
and directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end .The working principle of this clamp is the
same as that of the bench vice.
V-block C-clamp
Marking and measuring tools:-
1. Surface plate
The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the
work piece. It is also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking
table. The degree of the finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting
shop or for using in an inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel
or Granite stone. It is specified by length, width, height and grade. Handles are provided on two
opposite sides, to carry it while shifting from one place to another.
Surface plate Angle plate
2. Try square
It is measuring and marking tool for 900 angle .In practice, it is used for checking the
squareness of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The blade of
the Try square is made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try

square is specified by the length of the blade.
3. Scriber
A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is
made of hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. The Tip of the scriber is generally gr ground
at 12oto 15o .
It is generally available in lengths, ranging from 125mm to 250mm .It has two pointed ends the
bent end is used for marking lines where the straight end cannot reach.
Try square Scriber
4. Odd leg Caliper

This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel
liners from a finished edge and also for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed
like a divider and the other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to
the hinge point.
5. Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at
the measuring edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lin lines, by
setting lines. It is made of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel.
Its size is specified by the length of the leg
leg.
Odd leg caliper and divider

6. Trammel
Trammel is used for drawing large circles
circl or arcs.
7. Punches
These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible clearly.
These are made of high carbon steel. A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say as
150’ 12.5mm). It consists of a cylindrical knurled
knurled body, which is plain for some length at the
top of it. At the other end, it is ground to a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened
over a length of 20 to 30mm.
Dot punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to
provide a small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a
conical point having 60° included angle.
Center punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point
having 90° included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.

Figure 1.9:
1.9 Punches
8. Calipers
They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These
are used with the help of a steel Rule to check ins
inside
ide and outside measurements. These are made
of Case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, but the
legs of the caliper are set against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the
distance between the legss is measured with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to
another desired place. These are specified by the length of the leg. In the case of outside caliper,
the legs are bent inwards and in the case of inside caliper, the legs bent outwards.
outwar
Calipers
9. Vernier Calipers
These are used for measuring outside as well as inside dimensions accurately. It may also
be used as a depth gauge. It has two jaws. One jaw is formed at one end of its main scale and the
other jaw is made part of a vernier scale.
Vernier caliper

10. Vernier Height Gauge
The Vernier Height gauge clamped with a scriber. It is used for Lay out work and offset
scriber is used when it is required to take measurement from the surface, on which the gauge is
standing. The accuracy and working principle of this gauge are the same as those of the vernier
calipers. Its size is specified by the maximum height that can be measured by it. It is made of
Nickel‐Chromium Steel.
Vernier Height gauge
Cutting tools:-
1. Hack Saw
The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a
thin blade, firmly in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter.
Hacksaw blades have a number of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades
having lesser number of teeth per cm are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass
and bronze. Blades having larger number of teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard
materials like steel and cast Iron.
Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible type. The all hard blades
are made of H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These
are used to cut hard metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can break easily by twisting
and forcing them into the work while sawing. Flexible blades are made of H.S.S or low alloy
steel but only the teeth are hardened and the rest of the blade is soft and flexible. These are
suitable for use by un‐skilled or semi‐skilled persons.
Hacksaw frame with blade

The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown iin
n figure and known as a ‘set of
teeth’. These make slots wider than the blade thickness,
thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.
Set of teeth
2. Chisels
Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are
made from 0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. ChiselsChisels are annealed,
hardened and tempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the
internal stresses in a metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.
Flat chisel
3. Twist Drill
Twist drills are used for making holes. These are made of High speed steel. Both straight
and taper shank twist drills are used. The parallel shank twist drill can be held in an ordinary
self – centering drill check. The tapper shank twist drill fits iinto
nto a corresponding tapered bore
provided in the drilling machine spindle.
Twist drills
4. Taps and Tap wrenches

A tap is a hardened and steel tool, used for cutting internal thread in a drill hole. Hand
Taps are usually supplied
plied in sets of three in each diameter and thread size. Each set consists of a
tapper tap, intermediate tap and plug or bottoming tap. Taps are made of high carbon steel or
high speed steel.
Taps and tap wrench

wrenc
5. Dies and die-holders

Dies are the cutting tools used for making external thread. Dies are made either solid or
split type. They are fixed in a die stock for holding and adjusting the die gap. They are made of
Steel or High Carbon Steel.
Dies and die holder

6.Bench Drilling Machine
Holes are drilled for fastening parts with rivets, bolts or for producing internal thread.
Bench drilling machine is the most versatile machine used in a fitting shop for the purpose.
Twist drills, made of tool steel or high speed steel are used with the drilling machine for dr
drilling
holes.

Following are the stages in drilling work
1. Select the correct size drills, put it into the check and lock it firmly
2. Adjust the speed of the machine to suit the work by changing the belt on the pulleys. Use
high speed for small drills and soft materials and low speed for large diameter drills and hard
materials.
3. Layout of the location of the pole and mark it with a center punch.
4. Hold the work firmly in the vice on the machine table and clamp it directly on to the
machine table.
5. Put on the power, locate the punch mark and apply slight pressure with the Feed Handle.

6. Once Drilling is commenced at the correct location, apply enough pressure and continue
drilling. When drilling steel apply cutting oil at the drilling point.
7. Release the pressure slightly, when the drill point pierces the lower surface of the metal.
This prevents the drill catching and damaging the work or drill.
8. On completion of drilling retrace the drill out of the work and put‐off the power supply.
Bench drill
Finishing tools:-
1. Reamers
Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting
tool called reamer having a number of cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of
which is slightly smaller than the finished size and then a hand reamer or machine reamer is
used for finishing the hole to the correct size.
Hand Reamer is made of High Carbon Steel and has left‐hand spiral flutes so that, it is
prevented from screwing into the whole during operation. The Shank end of the reamer is made
straight so that it can be held in a tap wrench. It is operated by hand, with a tap wrench fitted on
the square end of the reamer and with the work piece held in the vice. The body of the reamer is
given a slight tapper at its working end, for its easy entry into the whole during operation, it is
rotated only in clock wise direction and also while removing it from the whole.
Reamers
2. Files
Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a
metal part. A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on
its surfaces.
On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to
fit into a wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is parallel
in width and tapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double cut teeth.
On the faces,
aces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known as a safe
edge.
Parts of a hand file
Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth.
The figure shows the various us types of files based on their shape.
Single and double cut files
Types of files
Needle file

Miscellaneous tools:-
1.File card
It is a metal brush, used for cleaning the files, to free them from filings, clogged in‐between the teeth.
File card
2. Spirit level
It is used to check the leveling of machines.
3. Ball-Peen Hammer
Ball‐Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by their
weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end, particularly used
for riveting.
Ball peen hammer
4. Cross-Peen Hammer
It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping, riveting,
bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.
5. Straight-Peen Hammer
This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the hammer handle. It is used for
swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.
Cross peen hammer Straight peen hammer
6. Screw driver
A screw driver is designed to turn screws. The blade is made of steel and is available in different
lengths and diameters. The grinding of the tip to the correct shape is very important.
A star screw driver is specially designed to fit the head of star screws. The end of the blade is fluted
instead of flattened. The screw driver is specified by the length of the metal part from handle to the tip.
Screw drivers
7. Spanners
A spanner or wrench is a tool for turning nuts and bolts. It is usually made of forged steel. There are
many kinds of spanners. They are named according to the application. The size of the spanner denotes the
size of the bolt on which it can work.
Spanners
Safety Precaution:-
The following are some of the safe and correct work practices in bench work and fitting shop, with
respect to the tools used
1.Keep hands and tools wiped clean an and free of dirt, oil and grease. Dry tools are safer to use than
slippery tools.
2. Do not carry sharp tools on pockets.
3. Wear leather shoes and not sandals.
4. Don’t wear loose clothes.
5. Do no keep working tools at the edge of the table.
6.Position thee work piece such that the cut to be made is close to the vice. This practice prevents
springing, saw breakage and personal injury.
7.Apply force only on the forward (cutting) stroke and relieve the force on the return stroke while
sawing and filing.
8. Do not hold the work piece in hand while cutting.
9. Use the file with a properly fitted tight handle.
10.After filing, remove the burrs from the edges of the work, to prevent cuts to the fingers.
11.Do not use vice as an anvils.
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
Aim:- Study the Foundry shop and Moulding.
Introduction:
There are large number of tools and equipment’s used in foundry shop for carrying out different operations
such as sand preparation, molding, melting, pouring and casting. They can be broadly classified as hand
tools, sand conditioning tool, flasks, power operated equipments, metal melting equipments and fettling and
finishing equipments. Different kinds of hand tools are used by molder in mold making operations. Sand
conditioning tools are basically used for preparing the various types of molding sands and core sand. Flasks
are commonly used for preparing sand moulds and keeping molten metal and also for handling the same
from place to place. Power operated equipments are used for mechanizing processes in foundries.
They include various types of molding machines, power riddles, sand mixers and conveyors, grinders etc.
Metal melting equipment includes various types of melting furnaces such as cupola, pit furnace, crucible
furnaces etc. Fettling and finishing equipments are also used in foundry work for cleaning and finishing the
casting.
General tools and equipment used in foundry are discussed as under.
Hand tools used in foundry shop
The common hand tools used in foundry shop are fairly numerous. A brief description of the following
foundry tools (Fig.) used frequently by molder is given as under.
Hand riddle:
Hand riddle is shown in Fig. It consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh equipped with circular
wooden Frame. It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing foreign material such as nails, shot
metal, splinters of wood etc. from it. Even power operated riddles are available for riddling large volume of
sand.
Shovel:
Shovel is shown in Fig. It consists of a steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle. It is used in mixing,
tempering and conditioning the foundry sand by hand. It is also used for moving and transforming the
molding sand to the container and molding box or flask. It should always be kept clean.
Rammers:
Rammers are shown in Fig. These are required for striking the molding sand mass in the molding box to
pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern.
The common forms of rammers used in ramming are hand rammer, peen rammer, floor rammer and
pneumatic rammer which are briefly described as

(i) Hand rammer:
It is generally made of wood or metal. It is small and one end of which carries a wedge type construction,
called peen and the other end possesses a solid cylindrical shape known as butt. It is used for ramming the
sand in bench molding work.
(ii) Peen rammer:
It has a wedge-shaped construction formed at the bottom of a metallic rod. It is generally used in packing the
molding sand in pockets and comers.
(iii) Floor rammer
It consists of a long steel bar carrying a peen at one end and a flat portion on the other. It is a heavier and
larger in comparison to hand rammer. Its specific use is in floor molding for ramming the sand for larger
molds. Due to its large length, the molder can operate it in standing position.
(iv) Pneumatic rammers
They save considerable time and labor and are used for making large molds. Sprue pinSprue pin is shown in
Fig. It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold cavity while the
molding sand in the cope is being rammed. Later its withdrawal from cope produce a vertical hole in
molding sand, called sprue through which the molten metal is poured into the mould using gating system. It
helps to make a passage for pouring molten metal in mold through Gating system
Sprue pin
Sprue pin is shown in It is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to join mold
cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed. Later its withdrawal from cope produce a
vertical hole in molding sand, called sprue through which the molten metal is poured into the mould using
gating system. It helps to make a passage for pouring molten metal in mold through gating system
Strike off bar:

Strike off bar is a flat bar having straight edge and is made of wood or iron. It is used to strike off or remove
the excess sand from the top of a molding box after completion of ramming thereby making its surface plane
and smooth. It’s one edge is made beveled and the other end is kept perfectly smooth and plane.

Mallet
Mallet is similar to a wooden hammer and is generally as used in carpentry or sheet metal shops. In molding
shop, it is used for driving the draw spike into the pattern and then rapping it for separation from the mould
surfaces so that pattern can be easily withdrawn leaving the mold cavity without damaging the mold
surfaces.
Draw spike
Draw spike is shown Fig. It is a tapered steel rod having a loop or ring at its one end and a sharp point at the
other. It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern for it withdrawal from the mold. It is
used for driven into pattern which is embedded in the molding sand and raps the pattern to get separated
from the pattern and finally draws out it from the mold cavity.
Vent rod
Vent rod is shown in Fig. It is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one end and a
wooden handle or a bent loop at the other. After ramming and striking off the excess sand it is utilized to
pierce series of small holes in the molding sand in the cope portion. The series of pierced small holes are
called vents holes which allow the exit or escape of steam and gases during pouring mold and solidifying of
the molten metal for getting a sound casting.
Lifters
Lifters are shown in Fig. They are also known as cleaners or finishing tool which are made of thin sections
of steel of various length and width with one end bent at right angle. They are used for cleaning, repairing
and finishing the bottom and sides’ of deep and narrow openings in mold cavity after withdrawal of pattern.
They are also used for removing loose sand from mold cavity.

Trowels
Trowels are shown in Fig. They are utilized for finishing flat surfaces and joints and partings lines of the
mold. They consist of metal blade made of iron and are equipped with a wooden handle. The common metal
blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or contoured or rectangular oriented. The trowels are basically
employed for smoothing or slicking the surfaces of molds. They may also be used to cut in-gates and repair
the mold surfaces.
Slicks
Slicks are shown in Fig. They are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool which are
generally used for repairing and finishing the mold surfaces and their edges after withdrawal of the pattern.
The commonly used slicks are of the types of heart and leaf, square and heart, spoon and bead and heart and
spoon. The, nomenclatures of the slicks are largely due to their shapes.
Smoothers
Smothers are shown in Fig. According to their use and shape they are given different names. They are also
known as finishing tools which are commonly used for repairing and finishing flat and round surfaces, round
or square corners and edges of molds

Swab
Swab is shown in Fig. It is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of sand mould, which are
in contact with the pattern surface before withdrawing the pattern. It is used for sweeping away the molding
sand from the mold surface and pattern. It is also used for coating the liquid blacking on the mold faces in
dry sand molds.
Spirit level
Spirit level is used by molder to check whether the sand bed or molding box is horizontal or not.
Gate cutter
Gate cutter (Fig.) is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut runners and feeding gates for
connecting sprue hole with the mold cavity.
Gaggers
Gaggers are pieces of wires or rods bent at one or both ends which are used for reinforcing the downward
projecting sand mass in the cope are known as gaggers. They support hanging
Bodies of sand. They possess a length varying from 2 to 50 cm. A gagger is always used in cope area and it
may reach up to 6 mm away from the pattern. It should be coated with clay wash so that the sand adheres to
it. Its surface should be rough in order to have a good grip with the molding sand. It is made up of steel
reinforcing bar.
Spray-gun
Spray gun is mainly used to spray coating of facing materials etc. on a mold or core surface.
Nails and wire pieces

They are basically used to reinforce thin projections of sand in the mold or cores. Wire pieces, spring and
nails they are commonly used to reinforce thin projections of sand in molds or cores. They are also used to
fasten cores in molds and reinforce sand in front of an in-gate.
Bellows
Bellows gun is shown in Fig. It is hand operated leather made device equipped with compressed air jet to
blow or pump air when operated. It is used to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the surfaces of
mold cavities.

Clamps, cotters and wedges
They are made of steel and are used for clamping the molding boxes firmly together during pouring.
Flasks
The common flasks are also called as containers which are used in foundry shop as mold boxes, crucibles
and ladles.
1. Moulding Boxes
Mold boxes are also known as molding flasks. Boxes used in sand molding are of two types:
(a) Open molding boxes.

Open molding boxes are shown in Fig. They are made with the hinge at one corner and a lock on the
opposite corner. They are also known as snap molding boxes which are generally used for making sand
molds. A snap molding is made of wood and is hinged at one corner. It has special applications in bench
molding in green sand work for small nonferrous castings. The mold is first made in the snap flask and then
it is removed and replaced by a steel jacket. Thus, a number of molds can be prepared using the same set of
boxes.
(b) Closed molding boxes.

Closed molding boxes are shown in Fig. which may be made of wood, cast-iron or steel and consist of two
or more parts. The lower part is called the drag, the upper part the cope and all the intermediate parts, if
used, cheeks. All the parts are individually equipped with suitable means for clamping arrangements during
pouring. Wooden Boxes are generally used in green-sand molding. Dry sand moulds always require metallic
boxes because they are heated for drying. Large and heavy boxes are made from cast iron or steel and carry
handles and grips as they are manipulated by cranes or hoists, etc. Closed metallic molding boxes may be
called as a closed rectangular molding box or a closed round molding box

2. Crucible
Crucibles are made from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable refractory material like fire clay. They are
commonly named as metal melting pots. The raw material or charge is broken into small pieces and placed
in them. They are then placed in pit furnaces which are coke-fired. In oil- fired tilting furnaces, they form an
integral part of the furnace itself and the charge is put into them while they are in position. After melting of
metals in crucibles, they are taken out and received in crucible handle. Pouring of molten is generally done
directly by them instead of transferring the molten metal to ladles. But in the case of an oil fired furnace, the
molten metal is first received in a ladle and then poured into the molds
3. Ladle
It is similar in shape to the crucible which is also made from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable
refractory material like fire clay. It is commonly used to receive molten metal from themelting furnace and
pour the same into the mold cavity. Its size is designated by its capacity. Small hand shank ladles are used
by a single foundry personal and are provided with only one handle. It may be available in different
capacities up to 20 kg. Medium and large size ladles are provided with handles on both sides to be handled
by two foundry personals. They are available in various sizes with their capacity varying from 30 kg to 150
kg. Extremely large sizes, with capacities ranging from 250 kg to 1000 kg, are found in crane ladles. Geared
crane ladles can hold even more than 1000 kg of molten metal.
Power operated equipments
Power operated foundry equipments generally used in foundries are different types of molding machines and
sand slingers, core making, core baking equipment, power riddles, mechanical conveyors, sand mixers,
material handling equipment and sand aerators etc. Few commonly used types of such equipments are
discussed as under.
Moulding Machines
Molding machine acts as a device by means of a large number of co-related parts and mechanisms, transmits
and directs various forces and motions in required directions so as to help the preparation of a sand mould.
The major functions of molding machines involves ramming of molding sand, rolling over or inverting the
mould, rapping the pattern and withdrawing the pattern from the mould. Most of the molding machines
perform a combination of two or more of functions. However, ramming of sand is the basic function of most

of these machines. Use of molding machine is advisable when large number of repetitive castings is to be
produced as hand molding may be tedious, time consuming, laborious and expensive comparatively.
Classification of Moulding Machines:

1. Squeezer machine
2. Jolt machine
3. Jolt-squeezer machine
4. Slinging machines
5. Pattern draw machines
6. Roll-over machine
Mold and core making:
A suitable and workable material possessing high refractoriness in nature can be used for mould making.
Thus, the mold making material can be metallic or non-metallic. For metallic category, the common
materials are cast iron, mild steel and alloy steels. In the non-metallic group molding sands, plaster of Paris,
graphite, silicon carbide and ceramics are included. But, out of all, the molding sand is the most common
utilized non-metallic molding material because of its certain inherent properties namely refractoriness,
chemical and thermal stability at higher temperature, high permeability and workability along with good
strength. Moreover, it is also highly cheap and easily available.
Molding sand
The general sources of receiving molding sands are the beds of sea, rivers, lakes, granular elements of rocks,
and deserts. The common sources of molding sands available in India are as follows:
1. Batala sand (Punjab)
2. Ganges sand (Uttar Pradesh)
3 .Oyaria sand (Bihar)
4. Damodar and Barakar sands (Bengal- Bihar Border)
5 .Londha sand (Bombay)
6 .Gigatamannu sand (Andhra Pradesh) and
7 .Avadi and Veeriyambakam sand (Madras)
Molding sands may be of two types namely natural or synthetic. Natural molding sands contain sufficient
binder. Whereas synthetic molding sands are prepared artificially using basic sand molding constituents
(silica sand in 88-92%, binder 6-12%, water or moisture content 3-6%) and other additives in proper
proportion by weight with perfect mixing and mulling in suitable equipments.
Properties of molding sand:

The essential requirement of a good molding sand it should produce sound castings which are free from
defects. For producing sound castings, molding sand or mold should possess the following properties
1. Porosity or permeability:
When molten metal is poured into a mold, gases and steam be formed. The sand mold should have sufficient
porosity to allow the gases and steam to pass through it. If they are not removed, casting defects such as
blow holes will be formed
2. Plasticity:
It is the property of the molding sand by virtue of which, it flows to all the corners around pattern in the
mold
3. Cohesiveness:
It is the property of the molding sand by which the sand particles stick to each other. Coarse-grained sand
particles give better cohesiveness than spherical grained sand particles

4. Adhesiveness:
Sticking of the sand particles to another body is known as adhesiveness. The molding sand sticks to the sides
of the cope and drag parts of the molding box.
5. Refractoriness:
It is the property of the molding sand, to resist high temperature, without undergoing any changes.
6. Collapsibility:
It is the property of the molding sand by which the mould should disintegrate with minimum force after the
casting has solidified
Kinds of moulding sand
Molding sands can also be classified according to their use into number of varieties which are described
below.
Green sand
Green sand is also known as tempered or natural sand which is a just prepared mixture of silica sand with 18
to 30 percent clay, having moisture content from 6 to 8%. The clay and water furnish the bond for green
sand. It is fine, soft, light, and porous. Green sand is damp, when squeezed in the hand and it retains the
shape and the impression to give to it under pressure. Molds prepared by this sand are not requiring backing
and hence are known as green sand molds. This sand is easily available and it possesses low cost. It is
commonly employed for production of ferrous and non-ferrous castings.
Dry sand
Green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable oven after the making mold and cores, is called dry sand.
It possesses more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is mainly suitable for larger castings. Mold
prepared in this sand are known as dry sand molds.
Loam sand
Loam is mixture of sand and clay with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high clay as much
as 30-50% and 18% water. Patterns are not used for loam molding and shape is given to mold by sweeps.
This is particularly employed for loam molding used for large grey iron castings.
Facing sand
Facing sand is just prepared and forms the face of the mould. It is directly next to the surface of the pattern
and it comes into contact molten metal when the mould is poured. Initial coating around the pattern and
hence for mold surface is given by this sand.. It is made of silica sand and clay, without the use of used sand.
Different forms of carbon are used to prevent the metal burning into the sand. A facing sand mixture for
green sand of cast iron may consist of 25% fresh and specially prepared and 5% sea coal. They are
sometimes mixed with 6-15 times as much fine molding sand to make facings. The layer of facing sand in a
mold usually ranges from 22-28 mm. From 10 to 15% of the whole amount of molding sand is the facing
sand.
Backing sand
Backing sand or floor sand is used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole volume of the
molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose. The backing sand is sometimes
called black sand because that old, repeatedly used molding sand is black in color due to addition of coal
dust and burning on coming in contact with the molten metal.
System sand

In mechanized foundries where machine molding is employed. A so-called system sand is used to fill the
whole molding flask. In mechanical sand preparation and handling units, no facings and is used. The used
sand is cleaned and re-activated by the addition of water and special additives. This is known as system
sand. Since the whole mold is made of this system sand, the properties such as strength, permeability and
refractoriness of the molding sand must be higher than those of backing sand.
Melting and Pouring of Metals

The next important step in the making of casting is the melting of metal. A melting process must be capable
of providing molten metal not only at the proper temperature but also in the desired quantity, with an
acceptable quality, and within a reasonable cost.
In order to transfer the metal from the furnace into the molds, some type of pouring device, or ladle, must be
used. The primary considerations are to maintain the metal at the proper temperature for pouring and to
ensure that only quality metal will get into the molds. The operations involved in melting of metal in oil
fired furnace/induction furnace and pouring of liquid metal into the mold cavity will be shown during the
demonstration.
Removal and Finishing of Castings

After complete solidification, the castings are removed from the mold. Most castings require some
Cleaning and finishing operations, such as removal of cores, removal of gates and risers, removal of fins and
flash, cleaning of surfaces, etc.
Pattern making
For producing a mould or impression of desired shape in Moulding sand or other materials, one needs to
have a wooden or metallic pattern similar to the shape of the mould. The art and science of preparing the
pattern is called pattern making.
Patterns
A pattern is a replica of the desired casting, which when packed in a suitable material, produces a cavity
called the mould. This cavity filled with molten metal, produces the desired casting after solidification

Pattern Materials
Some of the common materials used for pattern making are wood, metal, plaster, wax and plastic.
Wood
Wood is the most common material used for pattern making as it satisfies most of the essential requirements
which are considered for a good pattern. It is light in weight and easily available at low cost, may be easily
shaped into different forms as obtained good surface finish easily. The most common woods used for pattern
are Deodar, Teak, Shishum and Mahogany.
Metal
It is used for pattern when a large number of casting with a closer dimensional accuracy is desired. The
pattern of metal has a much longer life than wooden pattern as it does not change its shape when subjected
to moist conditions. A metal pattern is itself cast from a wooden pattern called “Master Pattern”. Cast-iron,
aluminium and its alloys, brass and white metal are commonly used as a pattern metals.
Plaster
Plaster of Paris (gypsum cement) is also used for making patterns and core-boxes. It can be easily worked
and casted into desired shape. It has a high compressive strength (up to 300 kg/ cm2). Its specific use is in
making small patterns and core-boxes involving intricate shapes and closer dimensional control.
Wax
Patterns which are generally used in investment casting process are made by wax. The wax patterns are
made by pouring the heated wax into a split die or metal mould. The die is kept cool by circulating the water
around it. After complete cooling, the die parts are separated and wax in shape of pattern is taken out.
Plastic
At present, plastics are finding their place as a pattern materials due to their specific characteristics such as
high strength and resistance to wear, lightness in weight, fine surface finish and low solid shrinkage etc.
Types of patterns:
Wood or metal are used in foundry practice. These are difficulty of Moulding on account of design or
typical shape of casting. The most common types of pattern are listed and described below:
(a) Solid or Single Piece Pattern
(b) Split Pattern
(c) Gated Pattern
(d) Loose Piece Pattern
(e) Sweep Pattern
(f) Match Plate Pattern
(g) Multipiece Pattern
Solid or Single Piece Pattern

This type of pattern is the simplest of all the patterns. It is made without joints, partings or loose pieces For
Moulding with two patterns, one or two Moulding boxes may be used. Moulding operation with this pattern
takes more times as the moulder has to cut his own runners, risers and feeding gates. This type of patterns
are usually used for simple and large sizes of casting.
Split Pattern
Whenever the design of casting offers difficulty in making of mould and withdrawal of pattern with a single
piece pattern, split or two-piece pattern is most suitable. This type of pattern eliminates this difficulty and
can be used to form the mould of intricate design or unusual shape of casting. Split patterns are made in two

parts so that one is placed in cope and other in drag with the dowel pins holding the two together (Figure
The surface formed at the line of separation of the two parts, usually at the center line of the pattern, is
called parting line.
Gated Pattern Workshop Technology

In mass production, a number of castings are prepared in a single multi cavity mould by joining a group of
patterns. In such type of multi cavity mould, gates or runners for the molten metal are formed by connecting
parts between the individual patterns as shown in Figure These are made of wood or metal and specially
used for mass productions of small castings.
Loose Piece Pattern

As per requirement, some solid or single piece type of patterns are made as assemblies of loose component
pieces. Loose pieces are arranged in such a way that it can be removed from the mould easily as shown in
Figure. Usually, this type of pattern requires much maintenance and are slower to mould.
Sweep Pattern
Large sizes of symmetrical moulds are generally prepared by means of sweep patterns. It consists of a base,
a wooden sweep board and a vertical spindle. The outer end of sweep board carries a shape corresponding to
the shape of desired casting. Usually, sweep patterns are employed for Moulding part carrying circular
sections. The sweep board is attached with the vertical spindle. After holding the spindle in vertical position,
the Moulding sand is rammed in place.
Multipiece Pattern
Sometimes, it is necessary to prepare a pattern in more than two parts in order to facilitate an easy Moulding
and withdrawal of pattern
This type of pattern is known as Multipiece pattern. This type of pattern is used for casting having a more
complicated design. For the preparation of mould this type of pattern requires generally three Moulding
boxes.
Pattern Making Allowances
Usually, the pattern is always made larger than the desired size of the casting on account of allowance which
should be allowed for machining, shrinkage, distortion and rapping etc. For a pattern, the following
allowances are provided:
Machining Allowance
The extra amount of metal provided on the surfaces of casting to be machined is called as a machining
allowance. The amount of this allowance depends upon the method of casting used, metal of casting, method
of machining. Size and shape of casting etc. Ferrous types of metals require more allowance comparative to
non-ferrous metals.
Shrinkage Allowance
Metals used for casting usually shrink and contract due to solidification and cooling. It is compensated by
providing adequate amount of allowance in the pattern which is called as shrinkage allowance.
Distortion Allowance
Casting of irregular shape and design tend to distort during cooling period. Distortion of casting will take
place due to uneven metal thickness, shrinkage and rate of cooling. To eliminate this defect, distortion in
opposite direction is provided in the pattern so that this effect of distortion may be neutralized.

Rapping Allowance
When a pattern is withdrawn from a mould, rapping is used in the pattern. As a result of this rapping, the
cavity in the mould is slightly increased. Therefore, a negative allowance is to be provided in the pattern to
compensate the same.
Draft Allowance
To facilitate easy and early with drawl of pattern from the mould without injuring the vertical surfaces and
edges of mould, patterns are given a slight taper on all vertical surfaces. This slight taper inward on the
vertical surfaces of a pattern is known as the draft or draft allowance. Draft allowance may be expressed
either in degrees or in terms of millimeter per meter on a side. Its amount varies from 10 mm to 25 mm per
meter on external surfaces and from 40 mm to 70 mm per meter on internal surfaces.
Wooden pattern and wooden core box making tools
1. Measuring and Layout Tools

1. Wooden or steel scale or rule 2. Dividers
3. Calipers 4. Try square
5. Caliper rule 6. Flexible rule
7. Marking gauge 8. T-bevel
9. Combination square
2. Sawing Tools
1. Compass saw 2. Rip saw
3. Coping saw 4. Dovetail saw
5. Back saw 6. Panel saw
7. Miter saw
3. Planning Tools
1. Jack plane 2. Circular plane
3. Router plane 4. Rabbet plane
5. Block plane 6. Bench plane
7. Core box plane
4. Boring Tools
1. Hand operated drills 2. Machine operated drills
3. Twist drill 4. Countersunk
5. Brace 6. Auger bit
7. Bit gauge
5. Clamping Tools
1. Bench vice 2. C-clamp
3. Bar clamp 4. Hand screw
5. Pattern maker’s vice 6. Pinch dog
6. Miscellaneous Tools
1. Screw Driver 2. Various types of hammers
3. Chisel 4. Rasp
5. File 6. Nail set
7. Screw driver 8. Bradawl
9. Brad pusher 10. Cornering tool
Colour Coding for Patterns

Representation of different types of surfaces by means of different colours is known as colour coding. By
accepted colour code on pattern, we can judge the casting surfaces either to be machined or not. Parts of
pattern as a core print or seat for loose piece are also justified by it. A widely accepted colour code for
common practice is given below:
Black color -Surfaces to be left unmachined

Red color - Surfaces to be machined
Yellow colour -Core prints
Red strips on Yellow base Seats for loose pieces
Black strips on Yellow base Stop offs
No colour or Clear Parting surface
Wooden pattern and wooden core box making machines
Modern wooden pattern and wooden core making shop requires various wood working machines for quick
and mass production of patterns and core boxes. Some of the commonly machines used in making patterns
and core boxes of various kinds of wood are discussed as under.
1. Wood Turning Lathe. Patterns for cylindrical castings are made by this lathe.
2. Abrasive Disc Machine. It is used for shaping or finishing flat surfaces on small pieces of wood.
3. Abrasive Belt Machine. It makes use of an endless abrasive belt. It is used in shaping the patterns.
4. Circular Saw. It is used for ripping, cross cutting, beveling and grooving.
5. Band Saw. It is designed to cut wood by means of an endless metal saw band.
6. Jig or Scroll Saw. It is used for making intricate irregular cuts on small work.
7. Jointer. The jointer planes the wood by the action of the revolving cutter head.
8. Drill Press. It is used for drilling, boring, mortising, shaping etc.
9. Grinder. It is used for shaping and sharpening the tools.
10. Wood Trimmer. It is used for mitering the moldings accurately.
11. Wood Shaper. It is used for imparting the different shapes to the wood.
12. Wood Planer. Its purpose is similar to jointer but it is specially designed for planning larger size.
13. Tennoner. These are used for sawing (accurate shape and size).
14. Mortiser. It is used to facilitate the cutting of mortise and tenon.
1. Do not wear loose clothes.

2. Remove wrist watches, ring bracelets etc.
3. Wear goggles or a faces shield during pouring operation.
4. Hot metals should be kept away from body at a place where there is no danger of body contact by
any person.
5. Grasp the ladle firmly & be sure it is well balanced while transporting molten metal.
6. Handel hot pieces with tong.
7. keep a clear space around the pouring area.
8. Do not tough a casting immediately after removing from mould.
9. Wear proper tools while working in the pouring area.
10. the shop should be properly lighted & ventilated to avoid accident.
11. The moulding boxes should be properly lighted & ventilated to avoid bursting.
12. Switch off the electric grinder after use & do not place it not places it on floor while in operation.
13. If you see any accident happing you immediately inform the instructor.

EXPERIMENT NO. 6
Aim:- Study the Foundry shop and Moulding.
Introduction
Welding is the process of joining similar metals by the application of heat, with or without
application of pressure or filler metal, in such a way that the joint is equivalent in composition and
characteristics of the metals joined. In the beginning, welding was mainly used for repairing all kinds of
worn or damaged parts. Now, it is extensively used in manufacturing industry, construction industry
(construction of ships, tanks, locomotives and automobiles) and maintenance work, replacing riveting and
bolting, to a greater extent.
The various welding processes are:
1. Electric arc welding,
2. Gas welding
3. Thermal welding
4. Electrical Resistance welding and
5. Friction welding
However, only electric arc welding process is discussed in the subject point of view.
Electric arc welding
Arc welding is the welding process, in which heat is generated by an electric arc struck between an
electrode and the work piece. Electric arc is luminous electrical discharge between two electrodes through
ionized gas.
Arc welding set up.
Any arc welding method is based on an electric circuit consisting of the following parts:
a. Power supply (AC or DC);

b. Welding electrode;
c. Work piece;
d. Welding leads (electric cables) connecting the electrode and work piece to the power supply.
Electric arc between the electrode and work piece closes the electric circuit. The arc temperature may reach
10000°F (5500°C), which is sufficient for fusion the work piece edges and joining them. When a long joint
is required the arc is moved along the joint line. The front edge of the weld pool melts the welded surfaces
when the rear edge of the weld pool solidifies forming the joint.
Transformers, motor generators and rectifiers’ sets are used as arc welding machines. These
machines supply high electric currents at low voltage and an electrode is used to produce the necessary arc.
The electrode serves as the filler rod and the arc melts the surface so that, the metals to be joined are actually
fixed together.
Sizes of welding machines are rated according to their approximate amperage capacity at 60% duty
cycle, such as 150,200,250,300,400,500 and 600 amperes. This amperage is the rated current output at the
working terminal.
1. Transformers
The transformers type of welding machine produces A.C current and is considered to be the least
expensive. It takes power directly from power supply line and transforms it to the voltage required for
welding. Transformers are available in single phase and three phases in the market.
2. Motor generators
These are D.C generators sets, in which electric motor and alternator are mounted on the same shaft
to produce D.C power as pert the requirement for welding. These are designed to produce D.C current in
either straight or reversed polarity. The polarity selected for welding depends upon the kind of electrode
used and the material to be welded.
3. Rectifiers
These are essentially transformers, containing an electrical device which changes A.C into D.C by
virtue of which the operator can use both types of power (A.C or D.C, but only one at a time).In addition to
the welding machine, certain accessories are needed for carrying out the welding work.
4. Welding cables
Two welding cables are required, one from machine to the electrode holder and the other, from the
machine to the ground clamp. Flexible cables are usually preferred because of the case of using and coiling
the cables. Cables are specified by their current carrying capacity, say 300 A, 400 A, etc.
5. Electrodes
Filler rods are used in arc welding are called electrodes. These are made of metallic wire called
core wire, having approximately the same composition as the metal to be welded. These are coated
uniformly with a protective coating called flux. While fluxing an electrode; about 20mm of length is left at
one end for holding it with the electrode holder. It helps in transmitting full current from electrode holder
to the front end of the electrode coating. Flux acts as an insulator of electricity. Figure.4 shows the various
parts of an electrode.

Parts of an electrode
In general, electrodes are classified into five main groups; mild steel, carbon steel, special alloy
steel, cast iron and non‐ferrous. The greatest range of arc welding is done with electrodes in the mild steel
group.
Various constituents like titanium oxide, potassium oxide, cellulose, iron or manganese, Ferro‐
silicates, carbonates, gums, clays, asbestos, etc., are used as coatings on electrodes. While welding, the
coating or flux vaporizes and provides a gaseous shield to prevent atmospheric attack.
The size of electrode is measured and designated by the diameter of the core wire in SWG and
length, apart from the brand and code names; indicating the purpose for which there are most suitable.
Electrodes may be classified on the basis of thickness of the coated flux. As

1. Dust coated or light coated
2. Semi or medium coated and
3. Heavily coated or shielded
Electrodes are also classified on the basis of materials, as

1. Metallic and
2. Non‐metallic or carbon
Metallic arc electrodes are further sub‐divided into
1. Ferrous metal arc electrode (mild steel, low/medium/high carbon steel, cast iron, stainless steel, etc )
2. Non‐ferrous metal arc electrodes (copper, brass, bronze, aluminum, etc).
In case of non‐metallic arc electrodes, mainly carbon and graphite are used to make the electrodes.
Welding tools
Electrode holder
The electrode holder is connected to the end of the welding cable and holds the electrode. It should be
light, strong and easy to handle and should not become hot while in operation. Figure shows one type of
electrode holder. The jaws of the holder are insulated, offering protection from electric shock.
Electrode holder Ground clamp
Ground clamp
It is connected to the end of the ground cable and is clamped to the work or welding table to
complete the electric circuit. It should be strong and durable and give a low resistance connection.
Wire brush and chipping hammer

A wire brush is used for cleaning and preparing the work for welding. A chipping hammer is used for
removing slag formation on welds. One end of the head is sharpened like a cold chisel and the other, to a
blunt, round point. It is generally made of tool steel. Molten metal dispersed around the welding heads, in
the form of small drops, is known as spatter. When a flux coated electrode is used in welding process, then a

layer of flux material is formed over the welding bead which contains the impurities of weld material. This
layer is known as slag. Removing the spatter and slag formed on and around the welding beads on the metal
surface is known as chipping.
Wire brush Chipping hammer
Welding table and cabin

It is made of steel plate and pipes. It is used for positioning the parts to be welded properly. Welding
cabin is made‐up by any suitable thermal resistance material, which can isolate the surrounding by the heat
and light emitted during the welding process. A suitable draught should also be provided for exhausting the
gas produced during welding.
Face shield
A face shield is used to protect the eyes and face from the rays of the arc and from spatter or flying
particles of hot metal. It is available either in hand or helmet type. The hand type is convenient to use
wherever the work can be done with one hand. The helmet type though not comfortable to wear, leaves both
hands free for the work.
Shields are made of light weight non‐reflecting fiber and fitted with dark glasses to filter out the
harmful rays of the arc. In some designs, a cover glass is fitted in front of the dark lens to protect it from
spatter.
Hand gloves
These are used to protect the hands from electric shocks and hot spatters
Hand-held type Helmet type
Techniques of welding
Preparation of work
Before welding, the work pieces must be thoroughly cleaned of rust, scale and other foreign material.
The piece for metal generally welded without beveling the edges, however, thick work piece should be
beveled or veed out to ensure adequate penetration and fusion of all parts of the weld. But, in either case, the
parts to be welded must be separated slightly to allow better penetration of the weld.
Before commencing the welding process, the following must be considered
a) Ensure that the welding cables are connected to proper power source.

b) Set the electrode, as per the thickness of the plate to be welded.
c) Set the welding current, as per the size of the electrode to be used.
Table Electrode current Vs electrode size Vs plate thickness.
Electrode current range,

Plate thickness, mm Electrode size, mm amp
1.6 1.6 40‐60

2.5 2.5 50‐80
4.0 3.2 90‐130
6.0 4.0 120‐170
8.0 5.0 180‐270
25.0 6.0 300‐400
NOTE: While making butt welds in thin metal, it is a better practice to tack‐weld the pieces intervals to hold
them properly while welding.
Striking an arc
The following are the stages and methods of striking an arc and running a bead
a) Select an electrode of suitable kind and size for the work and set the welding current at a proper value.
b) Fasten the ground clamp to either the work or welding table.
c) Start or strike the arc by either of the following methods
Strike and withdraw

In this method the arc is started by moving the end of the electrode onto the work with a slow
sweeping motion, similar to striking a match.
Touch and with draw

In this method, the arc is started by keeping the electrode perpendicular to the work and touching
or bouncing it lightly on the work. This method is preferred as it facilitates restarting the
momentarily broken arc quickly. If the electrode sticks to the work, quickly bend it back and forth,
pulling at the same time. Make sure to keep the shield in front of the face, when the electrode is freed
from sticking.
d) As soon as the arc is struck, move the electrode along, slowly from left to right, keeping at 15º to 25º
from vertical and in the direction of welding.
Strike and withdraw Touch and withdraw
Weaving
A steady, uniform motion of the electrode produces a satisfactory bead. However, a slight weaving or
oscillating motion is preferred, as this keeps the metal molten a little longer and allows the gas to escape,
bringing the slag to the surface. Weaving also produces a wider bead with better penetration.
Types of joints
Welds are made at the junction of the various pieces that make up the weldment. The junctions of
parts, or joints, are defined as the location where two or more numbers are to be joined. Parts being joined to
produce the weldment may be in the form of rolled plate, sheet, pipes, castings, forgings, or billets. The five
basic types of joints are listed below.
Types of welding joints.
A butt joint is used to join two members aligned in the same plane (fig view A). This joint is
frequently used in plate, sheet metal, and pipe work. A joint of this type may be either square or grooved.
Corner and tee joints are used to join two members located at right angles to each other (fig. 3.10,
views B and C). In cross section, the corner joint forms an L‐shape, and the tee joint has the shape of the
letter T. Various joint designs of both types have uses in many types of metal structures.
A lap joint, as the name implies, is made by lapping one piece of metal over another (fig. 3.10, view
D). This is one of the strongest types of joints available; however, for maximum joint efficiency, you should
overlap the metals a minimum of three times the thickness of the thinnest member you are joining. Lap
joints are commonly used with torch brazing and spot welding applications.
An edge joint is used to join the edges of two or more members lying in the same plane. In most cases,
one of the members is flanged, as shown in figure 3.10, view E. While this type of joint has some
applications in plate work, it is more frequently used in sheet metal work. An edge joint should only be used
for joining metals 1/4 inch or less in thickness that are not subjected to heavy loads.
Welding positions
Depending upon the location of the welding joints, appropriate position of the electrode and hand
movement is selected. The figure shows different welding positions.

Welding positions
Flat position welding

In this position, the welding is performed from the upper side of the joint, and the face of the weld is
approximately horizontal. Flat welding is the preferred term; however, the same position is sometimes called
down hand.
Horizontal position welding

In this position, welding is performed on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and
against an approximately vertical surface.
Vertical position welding

In this position, the axis of the weld is approximately vertical as shown in figure.
Overhead position welding

In this welding position, the welding is performed from the underside of a joint.
Advantages & disadvantages of arc welding
Advantages
1. Welding process is simple.
2. Equipment is portable and the cost is fairly low.
3. All the engineering metals can be welded because of the availability of a wide variety of electrodes.
Disadvantages
1. Mechanized welding is not possible because of limited length of the electrode.
2. Number of electrodes may have to be used while welding long joints.
3. A defect (slag inclusion or insufficient penetration) may occur at the place where welding is restarted
with a fresh electrode.
Always weld in a well ventilated place. Fumes given off from welding are unpleasant and in some cases
may be injurious, particularly from galvanized or zinc coated parts.
1. Do not weld around combustible or inflammable materials, where sparks may cause a fire.
2. Never weld containers, which have been used for storing gasoline, oil or similar materials, without first
having them thoroughly cleaned.
3. Check the welding machine to make sure that it is properly grounded and that all leads properly
insulated.
4. Never look at the arc with the naked eye. The arc can burn your eyes severely. Always use a face shield
while welding.
5. Prevent welding cables from coming in contact with hot metal, water, oil, or grease. Avoid dragging the
cables around sharp corners.
6. Ensure proper insulation of the cables and check for openings.
7. Always wear the safety hand gloves, apron and leather shoes.
8. Always turn off the machine when leaving the work.
9. Apply eye drops after welding is over for the day, to relieve the strain on the eyes.
10. While welding, stand on dry footing and keep the body insulated from the electrode, any other parts of
the electrode holder and the work.
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
Aim:- Study the Machine shop.
Introduction
In a machine shop, metals are cut to shape on different machine tools. A lathe is used to cut and
shape the metal by revolving the work against a cutting tool. The work is clamped either in a chuck, fitted on
to the lathe spindle or in‐between the centers. The cutting tool is fixed in a tool post, mounted on a movable
carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The cutting tool can be fed on to the work, either lengthwise or
cross‐wise. While turning, the chuck rotates in counter‐clockwise direction, when viewed from the tail stock
end.
Principal parts of a lathe
Figure shows a center lathe, indicating the main parts. The name is due to the fact that work pieces
are held by the centers.
Parts of a center lathe

Bed
It is an essential part of a lathe, which must be strong and rigid. It carries all parts of the machine and
resists the cutting forces. The carriage and the tail stock move along the guide ways provided on the bed. It
is usually made of cast iron.
Head stock
It contains either a cone pulley or gearings to provide the necessary range of speeds and feeds. It
contains the main spindle, to which the work is held and rotated.
Tail stock
It is used to support the right hand end of a long work piece. It may be clamped in any position along
the lathe bed. The tail stock spindle has an internal Morse taper to receive the dead center that supports the
work. Drills, reamers, taps may also be fitted into the spindle, for performing operations such as drilling,
reaming and tapping.

Carriage or Saddle
It is used to control the movement of the cutting tool. The carriage assembly consists of the
longitudinal slide, cross slide and the compound slide and apron. The cross slide moves across the length of
the bed and perpendicular to the axis of the spindle. This movement is used for facing and to provide the
necessary depth of cut while turning. The apron, which is bolted to the saddle, is on the front of the lathe and
contains the longitudinal and cross slide controls.
Compound Rest
It supports the tool post. By swiveling the compound rest on the cross slide, short tapers may be
turned to any desired angles.
Tool Post
The tool post, holds the tool holder or the tool, which may be adjusted to any working position.
Lead Screw
It is a long threaded shaft, located in front of the carriage, running from the head‐stock to the tail
stock. It is geared to the spindle and controls the movement of the tool, either for automatic feeding or for
cutting threads.
Centers
There are two centers known as dead center and live center. The dead center is positioned in the tail
stock spindle and the live center, in the head‐stock spindle. While turning between centers, the dead center
does not revolve with the work while the live center revolves with the work.
Work‐holding devices
Three jaw chuck

It is a work holding device having three jaws (self‐centering) which will close or open with respect to
the chuck center or the spindle center, as shown in figure. It is used for holding regular objects like round
bars, hexagonal rods, etc.
Three jaw chuck Four jaw chuck
Face plate
It is a plate of large diameter, used for turning operations. Certain types of work that cannot be held
in chucks are held on the face plate with the help of various accessories.

Face plate Lathe dog and driving plate
Lathe dogs and driving plate

These are used to drive a work piece that is held between centers. These are provided with an
opening to receive and clamp the work piece and dog tail, the tail of the dog is carried by the pin provided in
the driving plate for driving the work piece.
Measuring instruments
Outside and inside Calipers

Firm joint or spring calipers are used for transfer of dimensions with the help of a steel rule.
Calipers
Vernier Calipers
Vernier caliper is a versatile instrument with which both outside and inside measurements may be
made accurately. These instruments may have provision for depth measurement also.
Vernier Caliper
Micrometers
Outside and inside micrometers are used for measuring components where greater accuracy is
required.
Cutting parameters
Cutting speed
It is defined as the speed at which the material is removed and is specified in meters per minute. Ti
depends upon the he work piece material, feed, depth of cut, type of operation and so many other cutting
conditions. It is calculated from the relation,
Spindle speed (RPM) = cutting speed x 1000 / (πD) Where

D is the work piece diameter in mm.
Feed
It is the distance traversed by the tool along the bed, during one revolution of the work. Its value
depends upon the depth of cut and surface finish of the work desired.
Depth of Cut
It is the movement of the tip of the cutting tool, from the surface of the work piece and perpendicular
to the lathe axis. Its value depends upon the nature of operation like rough turning or finish turning.
Tool materials
General purpose hand cutting tools are usually made from carbon steel or tool steel. The single point
lathe cutting tools are made of high speed steel (HSS).the main alloying elements in 18‐4‐1 HSS
tools are 18 percent tungsten, 4 percent chromium and 1 percent vanadium.5 to 10 percent cobalt is also
added to improve the heat resisting properties of the tool.
Carbide tipped tools fixed in tool holders, are mostly used in production shops.
Tool geometry
A single point cutting tool used on lathe may be considered as a simple wedge. Figure 4.8 shows the
common turning tools used for different operations. Figure 6.9 shows the basic angles of a simple turning
tool.
Common turning tools Tool geometry
Lathe operations
Turning
Cylindrical shapes, both external and internal, are produced by turning operation. Turning is the
process in which the material is removed by a traversing cutting tool, from the surface of a rotating work
piece. The operation used for machining internal surfaces is often called the boring operation in which a hole
previously drilled is enlarged.
For turning long work, first it should be faced and center drilled at one end and then supported by
means of the tail‐stock centre.
Boring
Boring is enlarging a hole and is used when correct size drill is not available. However, it should be

noted that boring cannot make a hole.
Facing
Facing is a machining operation, performed to make the end surface of the work piece, flat and
perpendicular to the axis of rotation. For this, the work piece may be held in a chuck and rotated about the
lathe axis. A facing tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the lathe. The tool is slightly inclined towards the
end of the work piece.
Taper Turning
A taper is defined as the uniform change in the diameter of a work piece, measured along its length. It
is expressed as a ratio of the difference in diameters to the length. It is also expressed in degrees of half the
included (taper) angle.
Taper turning refers to the production of a conical surface, on the work piece on a lathe.
Short steep tapers may be cut on a lathe by swiveling the compound rest to the required angle. Here, the
cutting tool is fed by means of the compound slide feed handle. The work piece is rotated in a chuck or face
plate or between centers.
Drilling
Holes that are axially located in cylindrical parts are produced by drilling operation, using a twist
drill. For this, the work piece is rotated in a chuck or face plate. The tail stock spindle has a standard taper.
The drill bit is fitted into the tail stock spindle directly or through drill chuck. The tail stock is then moved
over the bed and clamped on it near the work. When the job rotates, the drill bit is fed into the work by
turning the tail stock hand wheel.
Knurling
It is the process of embossing a diamond shaped regular pattern on the surface of a work piece using
a special knurling tool. This tool consists of a set of hardened steel rollers in a holder with the teeth cut on
their surface in a definite pattern. The tool is held rigidly on the tool post and the rollers are pressed against
the revolving work piece to squeeze the metal against the multiple cutting edges. The purpose of knurling is
to provide an effective gripping surface on a work piece to prevent it from slipping when operated by hand.
Chamfering
It is the operation of beveling the extreme end of a work piece. Chamfer is provided for better look,
to enable nut to pass freely on threaded work piece, to remove burrs and protect the end of the work piece
from being damaged.
Threading
Threading is nothing but cutting helical groove on a work piece. Threads may be cut either on the
internal or external cylindrical surfaces. A specially shaped cutting tool, known as thread cutting tool, is
used for this purpose. Thread cutting in a lathe is performed by traversing the cutting tool at a definite rate,
in proportion to the rate at which the work revolves.

Operations of Lathe
1. Always wear eye protection preferably‐ industrial quality safety glasses with side‐shields. The lathe
can throw off sharp, hot metal chips at considerable speed as well as spin off spirals of metal that can be
quite hazardous. Don't take chances with your eyes.
2. Wear short sleeve shirts, loose sleeves can catch on rotating work and quickly pull your hand or arm into
harm's way.
3. Wear shoes preferably‐ leather work shoes to‐protect your feet from sharp metal chips on the shop floor
and from tools and chunks of metal that may get dropped.
4. Remove wrist watches, necklaces, chains and other jewelry. Tie back long hair so it can't get caught in
the rotating work. Think about what happens to your face if your hair gets entangled.
5. Always double check to make sure your work is securely clamped in the chuck or between centers before
starting the lathe. Start the lathe at low speed and increase the speed gradually.
6. Get in the habit of removing the chuck key immediately after use. Some users recommend never
removing your hand from the chuck key when it is in the chuck. The chuck key can be a lethal projectile
if the lathe is started with the chuck key in the chuck.
7. Keep your fingers clear of the rotating work and cutting tools. This sounds obvious, but I am often
tempted to break away metal spirals as they form at the cutting tool.
8. Avoid reaching over the spinning chuck. For filing operations, hold the tang end of the file in your left
hand so that your hand and arm are not above the spinning chuck.
9. Never use a file with a bare tang the‐ tang could be forced back into your wrist or palm.

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Prestige Institute of Engineering Management & Research, Indore

Vision of the Institute

Strive continuously for academic excellence by providing best contemporary,

Mission of the Institute

To prepare students to succeed in information directed and technology driven

Vision of the Department

Mission of the Department

To prepare students for :

PIEMR Indore Page 1

PIEMR Indore Page 2

PIEMR Indore Page 3

This refers to science and technology of manufacturing products effectively, efficiently,

Classification of manufacturing process:-

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Safety precautions for workshop:-

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Smithy and Forging tools:-

(a) Smith’s forge:-

It is used for heating purpose during the forging operation .

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(c) Swage block:-

Ball‐ Peen Hammer

Ball Peen Hammer

Cross Peen Hammer

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This is used for flattening and smoothing the surface of a job.

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Punching and Drafting

1. Do not wear loose clothes.

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Characteristics of good timber:-

The good timber must possess the following characteristics

MARKING AND MEASURING TOOLS

1. Steel rule and Steel tape

4. Compass and divider

5. Scriber or marking knife

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Mortise gauge Try square

Compass and Divider Scriber and Bevel

MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS

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Carpenter’s Vice C-Clamp Bar-Cramp

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1.1 Cross‐cut or hand saw

1.2 Rip saw

1.3 Tenon saw

1.4 Compass saw

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2.1 Firmer chisel

2.2 Dovetail chisel

2.3 Mortise chisel

Parts of chisel a. Firmer b. Dovetail c. Mortise

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5. Wood rasp file

a. Butt b. Dowell c. Dado d. Rabbet

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MORTISE AND TENON JOINT

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