AS1605

Personality

The term personality may mean variously to different people. It covers how we perceive the world and how the
world perceives us. It tells a lot about ourselves, of what makes us who we are.

The word personality originates from the Latin word “persona”, which means mask. From the modern meaning
of mask, it means a cover used for disguise. However, from the ancient Latin-speaking world, the word is used
not to conceal something, but to represent a character in theater plays. Thus, personality is what differentiates
or distinguishes a person. It is a mask that sets an individual apart from others.

For a more detailed description of personality, it is defined as the sum total of the qualities and characteristics
of a person as shown in the manner of walking, talking, dressing, and attitudes, interests, and ways of reacting
to other people. Consequently, to make things simpler and to quote from Glen Allsopp, a popular internet
blogger, personality is a set of qualities that make a person distinct from another.

I. Psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud

Psychoanalysis was pioneered by Sigmund Freud. This perspective believes that there are three (3) levels
of awareness or divisions of the mind namely conscious, preconscious and unconscious. Freud represented
these levels of awareness through an iceberg. The part of the iceberg visible above the surface is the
conscious mind. Just below the surface is the preconscious mind, anything that is not yet part of the
conscious mind. Hidden deep below the surface is the unconscious mind, feelings, memories, thoughts,
and urges that cannot be easily brought into consciousness. The unconscious can be revealed in dreams
and Freudian slips (or slip of the tongue is a verbal or memory mistake believed to be linked with the
unconscious mind).

In addition, according to Freud, there are three (3) parts of personality called as id, ego, and superego. The
id works on the pleasure principle. Its goal is instant gratification and satisfaction from our primitive drives
related to hunger, sex, aggression, and irrational impulses. The ego works on the reality principle. It protects
the person against the immediate gratification of the id. Conscious awareness resides in the ego, although
not all of the operations of the ego are conscious. The ego brings the person down to what is real. As an
example, when a person is hungry or is sexually driven, the desire can only be satisfied at the right place
and at the right time. The ego controls the person’s actions and allows for higher level cognitive skills. The
superego, on the other hand, is the moral center of personality, containing the ego ideal and the conscience,
and is the source of moral anxiety. The superego would create perfectionist and civilized individuals that
are incapable of compromising what life requires. While the id would create pleasure-seeking individuals
whose main goal is to satisfy every desire without delay. The ego balances the person as it compromises
what the id desires in accordance to the superego.

II. Carl Gustav Jung’s Psychoanalytic Perspective

Carl Gustav Jung believed that there was not only a personal unconscious, as described by Freud, but a
collective unconscious as well. This collective unconscious served as a form of psychological inheritance.
It contains all of the knowledge and experiences we share as a species.

The collective unconscious contains archetypes or models of people, behaviors, and personalities. These
archetypes are innate, universal, and hereditary. These are unlearned and function to organize how we
experience certain things.

The four (4) major archetypes according to Jung are: the self, the shadow, the anima or animus, and the
persona. The self is the unification of the consciousness and unconsciousness wherein various aspects of
personality are integrated. The shadow exists as part of the unconscious mind and is described as the
darker side of the psyche. It is composed of weaknesses, repressed ideas, desires, instincts, and short
comings. The anima is the feminine image in the male psyche while the animus is the male image in the
female psyche. It is represented as the “true self” rather than the image a person projects to others. Lastly,
the persona is how we project ourselves to the world. It is like our social mask that we wear for different
situations and groups. It shields the ego from negative images.

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Archetypes are not limited to the four (4) types previously mentioned nor are fixed. Other archetypes that
Jung described are: the father (authority figure), the mother (nurturing and comforting), the child (longing
for innocence), the hero (champion, defender), and the trickster (liar, deceiver) among others.

III. Birth Order Theory

Psychiatrist Alfred Adler proposed feelings of inferiority as the driving force behind personality and
developed the birth order theory. Firstborn children with younger siblings feel inferior once those younger
siblings get all the attention and often overcompensate by becoming overachievers. Middle children feel
superior over the dethroned older child while dominating younger siblings and they tend to be very
competitive. Younger children feel inferior because they are not allowed the freedom and responsibility like
those of the older children.

Frank Sulloway, another theorist, proposed that birth order has a profound effect on one’s personality.
Firstborns are more dominant, less open to new ideas, and more conscientious than later-born children.
Consequently, later-born children are more open and rebellious.

IV. Behaviorist Perspective

Behaviorists define personality as a set of learned responses or habits. This means that everything a person
or an animal does is a response to some environmental stimulus that has been reinforced or strengthened
by reward in some way. For instance, a shy personality may be explained this way: beginning in childhood,
a person might be exposed to a parent with a rather harsh discipline style (stimulus). Avoiding the attention
of that parent would result to fewer punishments or scolding, so that avoidance response is negatively
reinforced – the punishment is avoided by keeping out of sight or being quiet. Later, that child might
generalize that avoidance response to authority figures and adults, such as teachers, developing a pattern
(habit) of shyness.

V. Social Cognitive Perspective

The social cognitive view of personality includes cognitive processes, observational learning, self-efficacy,
and situational influences. Psychologist, Albert Bandura believed that there are three factors that influence
one another, which determines personality: the environment, characteristics of the person, and the
behavior. He called this the concept of reciprocal determinism. The environment can influence behavior,
but behavior can also influence change in the environment.

As an example, a person can show aggressive personality due to the maltreatment he experienced from
his peers. His aggression is expressed by way of violent acts. This behavior can then trigger a higher level
of aggression or even fear inside his peer’s minds which can then cause a change in the environment.

He also talked about self-efficacy, wherein a persons’ belief in his/her competencies and characteristics can
actually produce designated level of performance/result. People with high assurance in their capabilities
approach tasks as a challenge rather than as threats which to be avoided. People with high sense of self-
efficacy reduce stress and lowers vulnerability to depression. On the other hand, those who think low of
their capabilities try to avoid difficult tasks and view them as threats. They have low aspirations, give up
quickly and tend to dwell on their personal deficiencies. They fall easily to depression and stress.

Perceived self-efficacy can be influenced by mastery experiences, seeing people accomplish tasks
successfully, social persuasion that one has the capabilities to succeed and inferences from emotional
states that indicate a person’s strengths and weaknesses.

VI. Humanistic Perspective

Humanism is developed as a reaction against the negativity of psychoanalysis and the deterministic nature
of behaviorism. Humanistic theories focus on the things that make people uniquely human, such as
subjective emotions and the freedom to choose one’s own destiny or the fulfillment of one’s potential rather
than reacting to environmental stimuli and reinforcers. Humanistic psychologists tend to have a positive
outlook on human nature. Humanistic theory is not scientifically researched, but has been effective in
therapy situations.

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Carl Rogers, a clinical psychologist who believed with Abraham Maslow’s self-actualization as the peak of
man’s needs, proposed that a person operates from his own belief about themselves or the essence of self-
concept. He agreed with Maslow that man’s basic motive is the tendency to self-actualize. It is fulfilling one’s
potential and achieving the highest level of “beingness.” Rogers believed that man is inherently good and
creative. Man will only become destructive due to poor self-concept.

VII. Trait Theory of Personality

The trait theory focuses on the differences among individuals. Trait theorists describe personality traits in
order to predict behavior. A trait is a consistent, enduring way of thinking, feeling or behaving. Psychologists
Gordon Allport pioneered the study of traits. He categorized traits into three general levels:

a. Cardinal traits – traits that dominate an individual to the point that a person becomes known specially
for these traits. Examples of these traits include “Christ-like,” “Freudian,” and “Narcissist” among others.
The person carrying such trait may even become famous and have their name synonymous with these
traits.

b. Central traits - general traits used to describe another person. Examples include kind, sincere, humble,
etc.

c. Secondary traits – traits that are sometimes related to attitudes or preferences and often appear on
certain situations or specific circumstances. An example could be getting anxious when presenting to a
group or impatient while waiting in line.

VIII. The Big-Five Theory of Personality

According to Costa and McCRae, there are five (5) broad domains or dimensions of personality that are
used to describe human personality. The Big-Five factors are:

a. Openness – tendency to be imaginative, curious, and creative.

b. Conscientiousness – tendency to be organized, dutiful, and methodical.
c. Extraversion – tendency to be outgoing, gregarious, active, and energetic.
d. Agreeableness – tendency to be friendly, compassionate, helpful, and trusting.
e. Neuroticism – tendency to be sensitive, nervous, and impulsive. Persons that are neurotic may develop
psychological stress or be depressed.

IX. Assessment of Personality

Interviews are used primarily by psychoanalysts and humanists and can include structured or unstructured
interviews. Disadvantages of interviews can include the halo effect (tendency of an interviewer to allow
positive characteristics of a client to influence the assessments of the client’s behavior and statements) and
bias of the interpretation on the part of the interviewer.

Projective tests are based on the defense mechanism of projection and are used by psychoanalysts.
Projective tests include Rorschach Inkblot Test and the Thematic Apperception Test.

a. The Rorschach Inkblot Test is a psychological test in which subjects' perceptions of inkblots are
recorded and then analyzed using psychological interpretation, complex algorithms, or both. This test
is named after the Swiss psychologist Hermann Rorschach. It is used to examine a person’s personality
characteristics and emotional functioning.

b. The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) was developed by American psychologists Henry A. Murray
and Christiana D. Morgan. According to the proponents of the test, a person’s responses to the TAT
cards can provide information about his or her views of the self, the world, and interpersonal
relationships. It is popularly known as the picture interpretation technique. The subject is asked to tell a
story for each picture presented. The story includes the event shown in the picture, preceding events,
emotions and thoughts of the characters in the picture, and the outcome of the event shown. The story
content and structure are thought to reveal the subject's attitudes, inner conflicts, and views.

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Behavioral assessments are primarily used by behaviorists and include direct observation of behavior,
rating scales of specific behavior, and frequency counts of behavior. They have the disadvantage of the
observer effect, which causes an observed person’s behavior to change, and observer bias on the part of
the person doing the assessment.

Personality inventories are typically developed by trait theorists and provide a detailed description of certain
personality traits. They are objective tests rather than subjective.

a. The NEO Personality Inventory is used to measure the Big Five personality traits.

b. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is based on Jung’s theory of personality types. It is a
psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive
the world and make decisions. For each question, there are two different options that the test taker must
choose from. This was initially developed by Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs
Myers.

c. The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2) is designed to aid in the assessment of a
wide range of clinical conditions. In nonclinical settings, it is used to assess persons who are candidates
for high-risk public safety positions such as police officers, nuclear power plant personnel, firefighters,
pilots, and air-traffic controllers, and in criminal and civil forensic settings.

References:
Ciccarelli, Saundra K. & Meyer, Glenn E. (2007). Understanding psychology. Singapore: Pearson Education
South Asia.
Feldman, Robert. (2011). Essentials of understanding psychology (9th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc.

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