Electronic test equipment (sometimes called "testgear" or "bench top") is used to create signals and capture responses from

electronic Devices Under Test (DUTs). In this way, the proper operation of the DUT can be proven or faults in the device can be traced and repaired. Use of electronic test equipment is essential to any serious work on electronics systems. Practical electronics engineering and assembly requires the use of many different kinds of electronic test equipment ranging from the very simple and inexpensive (such as a test light consisting of just a light bulb and a test lead) to extremely complex and sophisticated such as Automatic Test Equipment. ATE often includes many of these instruments in real and simulated forms. Generally, more advanced test gear is necessary when developing circuits and systems than is needed when doing production testing or when troubleshooting existing production units in the field.

Contents
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1 Test Equipment Switching 2 Types of test equipment o 2.1 Basic equipment o 2.2 Advanced or less commonly used equipment 2.2.1 Probes 2.2.2 Analyzers 2.2.3 Signal-generating devices o 2.3 Miscellaneous devices 3 Test Equipment Platforms o 3.1 GPIB/IEEE-488 o 3.2 LAN eXtensions for Instrumentation (LXI) o 3.3 VME eXtensions for Instrumentation (VXI) o 3.4 PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation (PXI) o 3.5 Universal Serial Bus (USB) o 3.6 RS-232 o 3.7 Test Script Processors and a Channel Expansion Bus 4 See also 5 External links 6 References

[edit] Test Equipment Switching

The addition of a high-speed switching system to a test systems configuration allows for faster, more cost-effective testing of multiple devices, and is designed to reduce both test

errors and costs. Designing a test systems switching configuration requires an understanding of the signals to be switched and the tests to be performed, as well as the switching hardware form factors available.

[edit] Types of test equipment

[edit] Basic equipment

Agilent commercial digital voltmeter checking a prototype The following items are used for basic measurement of voltages, currents, and components in the circuit under test.

Voltmeter (Measures voltage) Ohmmeter (Measures resistance) Ammeter, e.g. Galvanometer or Milliameter (Measures current) Multimeter e.g., VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliameter) or DMM (Digital Multimeter) (Measures all of the above)

The following are used for stimulus of the circuit under test:

Power supplies Signal generator Digital pattern generator Pulse generator

Howard piA digital multimeter The following analyze the response of the circuit under test:

Oscilloscope (Measures all of the above as they change over time) Frequency counter (Measures frequency)

And connecting it all together:

Test probes

[edit] Advanced or less commonly used equipment

Meters

Solenoid voltmeter (Wiggy) Clamp meter (current transducer) Wheatstone bridge (Precisely measures resistance) Capacitance meter (Measures capacitance) LCR meter (Measures inductance, capacitance, resistance and combinations thereof) EMF Meter (Measures Electric and Magnetic Fields) Electrometer (Measures charge)

[edit] Probes

A multimeter with a built in clampfacility. Pushing the large button at the bottom opens the lower jaw of the clamp, allowing the clamp to be placed around a conductor (wire).

RF probe Signal tracer

[edit] Analyzers

Logic analyzer (Tests digital circuits) Spectrum analyzer (SA) (Measures spectral energy of signals) Protocol analyzer (Tests functionality, performance and conformance of protocols) Vector signal analyzer (VSA) (Like the SA but it can also perform many more useful digital demodulation functions) Time-domain reflectometer (Tests integrity of long cables) Semiconductor curve tracer

[edit] Signal-generating devices

Leader Instruments LSG-15 signal generator.

Signal generator Frequency synthesiser Function generator Digital pattern generator Pulse generator Signal injector

[edit] Miscellaneous devices

Continuity tester Cable tester Hipot tester Network analyzer (used to characterize components or complete computer networks) Test light Transistor tester Tube tester Electrical tester pen

Receptacle tester

[edit] Test Equipment Platforms

Keithley Instruments Series 4200 CVU Several modular electronic instrumentation platforms are currently in common use for configuring automated electronic test and measurement systems. These systems are widely employed for incoming inspection, quality assurance, and production testing of electronic devices and subassemblies. Industry-standard communication interfaces link signal sources with measurement instruments in rack-and-stack or chassis-/mainframebased systems, often under the control of a custom software application running on an external PC. [edit] GPIB/IEEE-488 The General Purpose Interface Bus (GPIB) is an IEEE-488 (a standard created by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standard parallel interface used for attaching sensors and programmable instruments to a computer. GPIB is a digital 8-bit parallel communications interface capable of achieving data transfers of more than 8 Mbytes/s. It allows daisy-chaining up to 14 instruments to a system controller using a 24pin connector. It is one of the most common I/O interfaces present in instruments and is designed specifically for instrument control applications. The IEEE-488 specifications standardized this bus and defined its electrical, mechanical, and functional specifications, while also defining its basic software communication rules. GPIB works best for applications in industrial settings that require a rugged connection for instrument control. The original GPIB standard was developed in the late 1960s by Hewlett-Packard to connect and control the programmable instruments the company manufactured. The introduction of digital controllers and programmable test equipment created a need for a standard, high-speed interface for communication between instruments and controllers from various vendors. In 1975, the IEEE published ANSI/IEEE Standard 488-1975, IEEE Standard Digital Interface for Programmable Instrumentation, which contained the

electrical, mechanical, and functional specifications of an interfacing system. This standard was subsequently revised in 1978 (IEEE-488.1) and 1990 (IEEE-488.2). The IEEE 488.2 specification includes the Standard Commands for Programmable Instrumentation (SCPI), which define specific commands that each instrument class must obey. SCPI ensures compatibility and configurability among these instruments. The IEEE-488 bus has long been popular because it is simple to use and takes advantage of a large selection of programmable instruments and stimuli. Large systems, however, have the following limitations:

Driver fanout capacity limits the system to 14 devices plus a controller. Cable length limits the controller-device distance to two meters per device or 20 meters total, whichever is less. This imposes transmission problems on systems spread out in a room or on systems that require remote measurements. Primary addresses limit the system to 30 devices with primary addresses. Modern instruments rarely use secondary addresses so this puts a 30-device limit on system size.[1]

[edit] LAN eXtensions for Instrumentation (LXI) The LXI Standard defines the communication protocols for instrumentation and data acquisition systems using Ethernet. These systems are based on small, modular instruments, using low-cost, open-standard LAN (Ethernet). LXI-compliant instruments offer the size and integration advantages of modular instruments without the cost and form factor constraints of card-cage architectures. Through the use of Ethernet communications, the LXI Standard allows for flexible packaging, high-speed I/O, and standardized use of LAN connectivity in a broad range of commercial, industrial, aerospace, and military applications. Every LXI-compliant instrument includes an Interchangeable Virtual Instrument (IVI) driver to simplify communication with non-LXI instruments, so LXI-compliant devices can communicate with devices that are not themselves LXI compliant (i.e., instruments that employ GPIB, VXI, PXI, etc.). This simplifies building and operating hybrid configurations of instruments. LXI instruments sometimes employ scripting using embedded test script processors for configuring test and measurement applications. Script-based instruments provide architectural flexibility, improved performance, and lower cost for many applications. Scripting enhances the benefits of LXI instruments, and LXI offers features that both enable and enhance scripting. Although the current LXI standards for instrumentation do not require that instruments be programmable or implement scripting, several features in the LXI specification anticipate programmable instruments and provide useful functionality that enhances scriptings capabilities on LXI-compliant instruments.[2] [edit] VME eXtensions for Instrumentation (VXI) The VXI bus architecture is an open standard platform for automated test based on the VMEbus. Introduced in 1987, VXI uses all Eurocard form factors and adds trigger lines,

a local bus, and other functions suited for measurement applications. VXI systems are based on a mainframe or chassis with up to 13 slots into which various VXI instrument modules can be installed.[3] The chassis also provides all the power supply and cooling requirements for the chassis and the instruments it contains. VXI bus modules are typically 6U in height. [edit] PCI eXtensions for Instrumentation (PXI) PXI is a peripheral bus specialized for data acquisition and real-time control systems. Introduced in 1997, PXI uses the CompactPCI 3U and 6U form factors and adds trigger lines, a local bus, and other functions suited for measurement applications. PXI hardware and software specifications are developed and maintained by the PXI Systems Alliance.[4] More than 50 manufacturers around the world produce PXI hardware.[5] [edit] Universal Serial Bus (USB) The USB connects peripheral devices, such as keyboards and mice, to PCs. The USB is a Plug and Play bus that can handle up to 127 devices on one port, and has a theoretical maximum throughput of 480 Mbit/s (high-speed USB defined by the USB 2.0 specification). Because USB ports are standard features of PCs, they are a natural evolution of conventional serial port technology. However, it is not widely used in building industrial test and measurement systems for a number of reasons; for example, USB cables are not industrial grade, are noise sensitive, can accidentally become detached, and the maximum distance between the controller and the device is 30 m. Like RS-232, USB is useful for applications in a laboratory setting that do not require a rugged bus connection. [edit] RS-232 RS-232 is a specification for serial communication that is popular in analytical and scientific instruments, as well for controlling peripherals such as printers. Unlike GPIB, with the RS-232 interface, it is possible to connect and control only one device at a time. RS-232 is also a relatively slow interface with typical data rates of less than 20 kbytes/s. RS-232 is best suited for laboratory applications compatible with a slower, less rugged connection. [edit] Test Script Processors and a Channel Expansion Bus One of the most recently developed test system platforms employs instrumentation equipped with onboard test script processors combined with a high-speed bus. In this approach, one master instrument runs a test script (a small program) that controls the operation of the various slave instruments in the test system, to which it is linked via a high-speed LAN-based trigger synchronization and inter-unit communication bus. Scripting is writing programs in a scripting language to coordinate a sequence of actions.

This approach is optimized for small message transfers that are characteristic of test and measurement applications. With very little network overhead and a 100 Mbit/s data rate, it is significantly faster than GPIB and 100BaseT Ethernet in real applications. The advantage of this platform is that all connected instruments behave as one tightly integrated multi-channel system, so users can scale their test system to fit their required channel counts cost-effectively. A system configured on this type of platform can stand alone as a complete measurement and automation solution, with the master unit controlling sourcing, measuring, pass/fail decisions, test sequence flow control, binning, and the component handler or prober. Support for dedicated trigger lines means that synchronous operations between multiple instruments equipped with onboard Test Script Processors that are linked by this high speed bus can be achieved without the need for additional trigger connections.[6] Thit b kim tra in t (i khi c gi l "testgear" hoc "trn bng gh d b") c s dng to ra cc tn hiu v chp phn ng trc cc thit b in t Theo Test (DUTs). Bng cch ny, cc hot ng thch hp ca DUT c th c chng minh li trong thit b c th c truy tm v sa cha. S dng cc thit b th nghim in t l iu cn thit cho bt k cng vic nghim trng n h thng in t. Thc t in t k thut v lp rp i hi phi s dng nhiu loi khc nhau ca thit b kim tra in t khc nhau, t rt n gin v khng tn km (chng hn nh mt nh sng kim tra bao gm bng n ch l mt nh sng v dn u mt th nghim) thit b v cng phc tp v tinh vi chng hn nh kim tra t ng . ATE thng bao gm nhiu cc cng c ny trong cc hnh thc thc t v m phng. Ni chung, thit b kim tra tin tin hn l cn thit khi pht trin mch v h thng hn l cn thit khi thc hin th nghim sn xut, khi x l s c n v sn xut hin c trong lnh vc ny. Ni dung [n] * 1 th nghim thit b chuyn mch * 2 loi thit b kim tra o 2,1 thit b c bn o 2,2 nng cao hoc thit b t c s dng + 2.2.1 Cc u d + 2.2.2 Phn tch + 2.2.3 thit b to tn hiu o 2,3 Miscellaneous thit b * 3 nn tng thit b th nghim o 3,1 GPIB/IEEE-488 o 3,2 phn m rng mng LAN cho Instrumentation (LXI) o 3,3 VME phn m rng cho Instrumentation (VXI) o 3,4 PCI m rng cho Instrumentation (PXI) o 3.5 Universal Serial Bus (USB)

o 3,6 RS-232 o 3,7 Script Kim tra x l v m rng knh mt xe but * 4 Xem thm * 5 Lin kt ngoi * 6 Ti liu tham kho [Sa] Kim tra thit b chuyn mch Vic b sung ca mt h thng chuyn mch tc cao cu hnh mt h thng th nghim cho php nhanh hn, kim tra chi ph-hiu qu hn nhiu thit b, v c thit k gim thiu cc li th nghim c hai v chi ph. Thit k cu hnh chuyn i mt h thng kim tra i hi mt s hiu bit ca cc tn hiu c chuyn v xt nghim c thc hin, cng nh cc yu t hnh thc chuyn i phn cng c sn. [Sa] Cc loi thit b kim tra [Sa] thit b c bn Agilent thng mi k thut s vn k kim tra mt mu th nghim Cc mt hng sau y c s dng cho o lng c bn ca in p, dng, v cc thnh phn trong mch c th nghim. * Vn k (Cc bin php in p) * m k (bin php khng) * Ampe k, v d: in k hoc Milliameter (Cc bin php hin ti) * Vn nng v d nh, VOM (Volt-Ohm-Milliameter) hoc DMM (k thut s vn nng) (bin php tt c cc bn trn) Sau y c s dng kch thch kinh t ca cc mch c th nghim: * B cp ngun * Tn hiu my pht in * My pht in m hnh k thut s * Xung my pht in Howard Pia k thut s vn nng Sau y phn tch phn ng ca mch theo th nghim: * My hin sng (Cc bin php trn khi h thay i theo thi gian) Tn s truy cp (Cc bin php tn s) V kt ni tt c li vi nhau: * Kim tra cc u d [Sa] Nng cao hoc thit b t c s dng

Mt * Solenoid vn k (Wiggy) * Kp mt (hin ti b chuyn i) * Wheatstone cu (Chnh cc bin php khng) * in dung mt (Cc bin php in dung) * LCR mt (Cc bin php t cm, in dung, sc khng v s kt hp ca chng) * EMF Meter (Cc bin php in trng v t) * in k (Cc bin php ph trch) [Sa] u d Mt vn nng vi mt xy dng trong clampfacility. y nt ln pha di s m ra hm di ca kp, kp c t xung quanh mt dy dn (dy). * RF thm d * Tn hiu nh du [Sa] Phn tch * Logic phn tch (th nghim k thut s mch) * Spectrum phn tch (SA) (Cc bin php nng lng quang ph ca tn hiu) * Ngh nh th phn tch (th nghim chc nng, hiu sut v s ph hp ca giao thc) * Vector tn hiu phn tch (VSA) (Ging nh SA nhng n cng c th thc hin nhiu chc nng gii iu ch k thut s hu dng hn) * Thi gian-min reflectometer (th nghim tnh ton vn ca cc loi cp di) * Semiconductor ng cong nh du Chnh sa] cc thit b to tn hiu Lnh o c LSG-15 my pht tn hiu. * Tn hiu my pht in * Tn s tng hp * Chc nng my pht in * My pht in m hnh k thut s * Xung my pht in * Tn hiu phun [Sa] cc thit b khc * Lin tc th * Cable th * Hipot th * Mng li phn tch (c s dng m t cc thnh phn hoc mng my tnh hon chnh) * Kim tra nh sng

* Transistor th * ng th * Bt th in * ng th [Sa] Nn tng thit b th nghim Keithley c dng 4200-CVU Keithley Instruments Series 4200 CVU Mt s m-un nn tng thit b in t hin ang c s dng ph bin cu hnh t ng kim tra in t v h thng o lng. Cc h thng ny c s dng rng ri kim tra n, m bo cht lng v th nghim sn xut cc thit b in t v cc on lp rp nh. Cng nghip-tiu chun giao din truyn thng cc ngun tn hiu lin kt vi cc cng c o lng trong "rack-stack-v" h thng chassis-/mainframe-based, thng di s kim sot ca mt ng dng phn mm ty chnh ang chy trn mt my tnh bn ngoi. [Sa] GPIB/IEEE-488 Mc ch giao din Bus chung (GPIB) l mt IEEE-488 (mt tiu chun c to ra bi Vin K s in v in t) giao din song song tiu chun c s dng gn cc cm bin v cc cng c lp trnh my tnh. GPIB l mt thng tin lin lc k thut s song song 8-bit giao din c kh nng t c truyn d liu ca hn 8 MB / s. N cho php daisy-chaining ln n 14 cng c mt b iu khin h thng bng cch s dng mt kt ni 24-pin. N l mt trong nhng ph bin nht I / O giao din xut hin trong cc vn bn v c thit k c bit cho cc ng dng iu khin thit b. IEEE488 thng s k thut tiu chun ha xe but v xc nh thng s k thut in, c kh, v chc nng ca n, trong khi cng xc nh cc quy tc c bn phn mm truyn thng ca n. GPIB hot ng tt nht cho cc ng dng trong cc mi trng cng nghip i hi mt kt ni chc chn cho iu khin thit b. GPIB tiu chun ban u c pht trin vo cui nhng nm 1960 ca Hewlett-Packard kt ni v kim sot cc cng c lp trnh cng ty sn xut. Vic gii thiu b iu khin k thut s v thit b kim tra lp trnh to ra mt nhu cu cho mt giao din tiu chun, tc cao, thng tin lin lc gia cc dng c v b iu khin t cc nh cung cp khc nhau. Nm 1975, IEEE cng b tiu chun ANSI / IEEE 488-1975, IEEE tiu chun k thut s giao din Instrumentation lp trnh, trong c cc thng s k thut in, c kh, v chc nng ca mt h thng giao tip. Tiu chun ny sau c sa i, b sung nm 1978 (IEEE 488,1) v 1990 (IEEE 488,2). IEEE 488,2 c im k thut bao gm cc lnh tiu chun cho Instrumentation lp trnh (SCPI), trong xc nh cc lnh c th tng loi nhc c phi tun theo. SCPI m bo kh nng tng thch v cu hnh trong s nhng thit b ny. IEEE-488 xe but t lu c ph bin bi v n l n gin s dng v li dng mt la chn ln ca cc cng c lp trnh v kch thch. Cc h thng ln, tuy nhin, c nhng hn ch sau y:

* Kh nng iu khin fanout hn ch h thng n 14 thit b cng vi mt b iu khin. * Chiu di cp gii hn khong cch iu khin thit b hai mt cho mi thit b hoc 20 mt tng s, mc t hn. iu ny p t cc vn truyn trn h thng ly lan ra trong mt phng hoc trn cc h thng yu cu cc php o t xa. * a ch tiu hn ch cc h thng 30 thit b vi a ch chnh. Dng c hin i t khi s dng a ch th cp t mt gii hn 30 thit b vo kch thc ca h thng. [1] [Sa] LAN m rng cho Instrumentation (LXI) Tiu chun LXI nh ngha cc giao thc truyn thng i vi thit b v h thng thu thp d liu s dng Ethernet. Cc h thng ny c da trn cng c nh, m-un, s dng chi ph thp, tiu chun m mng LAN (Ethernet). LXI tun th cc cng c cung cp nhng li th kch thc v tch hp cc cng c m-un m khng c nhng hn ch yu t chi ph v hnh thc kin trc lng th. Thng qua vic s dng cc thng tin lin lc Ethernet, LXI tiu chun cho php ng gi linh hot, tc cao I / O, v s dng tiu chun ha ca kt ni mng LAN trong mt phm vi rng ca thng mi, cng nghip, hng khng v tr, v cc ng dng qun s. Mi cng c LXI-tun th bao gm mt c o c th thay i (IVI) iu khin n gin ha giao tip vi cc dng c khng LXI, v vy cc thit b LXI tun th c th giao tip vi cc thit b m khng phi l bn thn LXI tun th (v d, dng c s dng GPIB, VXI, PXI, vv). iu ny gip n gin ho vic xy dng v vn hnh cu hnh lai cc cng c. LXI c i khi s dng kch bn s dng b vi x l kim tra kch bn nhng cu hnh th nghim v ng dng o lng. Cng c da vo kch bn cung cp kin trc linh hot, ci thin hiu sut v chi ph thp hn cho nhiu ng dng. Kch bn tng cng li ch ca cc cng c LXI, v LXI cung cp cc tnh nng m c hai cho php v nng cao kch bn. Mc d LXI tiu chun hin hnh i vi thit b khng yu cu rng cng c c lp trnh hoc thc hin kch bn, mt s tnh nng trong c t LXI d on c lp trnh v cung cp chc nng hu ch gip nng cao kh nng kch bn trn cc cng c tun th LXI. [2 [Sa] phn m rng VME cho Instrumentation (VXI) Kin trc xe but VXI l mt nn tng tiu chun m cho th nghim t ng da trn kiu VMEbus. c gii thiu vo nm 1987, VXI s dng tt c cc yu t hnh thc Eurocard v thm dng kch hot, mt chic xe but a phng, v cc chc nng khc ph hp cho cc ng dng o lng. Cc h thng VXI c da trn mt my tnh ln hoc khung xe ln n 13 khe cm vo cc module c VXI khc nhau c th c ci t [3]. Khung gm cng cung cp tt c cc ngun cung cp in v yu cu lm mt cho khung xe v cc cng c n c cha. VXI module xe but thng 6U chiu cao. [Sa] PCI m rng cho Instrumentation (PXI) PXI l mt chic xe but ngoi vi chuyn thu thp d liu v h thng iu khin thi gian thc. c gii thiu vo nm 1997, PXI s dng 3U CompactPCI v cc yu t hnh thc 6U v thm dng kch hot, mt chic xe but a phng, v cc chc nng

khc ph hp cho cc ng dng o lng. PXI chi tit k thut phn cng v phn mm c pht trin v duy tr bi h thng PXI Lin minh [4]. Hn 50 nh sn xut trn th gii sn xut phn cng PXI [5]. Universal Serial Bus (USB) USB kt ni thit b ngoi vi, chng hn nh bn phm v chut, my tnh c nhn. USB l mt chic xe but Plug and Play c th x l ln n 127 thit b trn mt cng, v c mt thng lng ti a l thuyt l 480 Mbit / s (USB tc cao c xc nh bi cc c im k thut USB 2.0). Bi v cng USB l cc tnh nng tiu chun ca my tnh, h l mt s tin ha t nhin ca cng ngh thng thng cng ni tip. Tuy nhin, n khng phi l s dng rng ri trong vic xy dng th nghim cng nghip v h thng o lng i vi mt s l do, v d, dy cp USB khng phi l cng nghip cp, ting n nhy cm, v tnh c th tr thnh tch ra, v khong cch ti a gia b iu khin v cc thit b 30 m. Ging nh RS-232, USB rt hu ch cho cc ng dng trong mt thit lp phng th nghim khng i hi mt kt ni xe but g gh. [Sa] RS-232 RS-232 l mt c im k thut cho giao tip ni tip l ph bin trong cc cng c phn tch v khoa hc, kim sot thit b ngoi vi nh my in. Khng ging nh GPIB, vi giao din RS-232, n c th kt ni v kim sot ch c mt thit b ti mt thi im. RS-232 cng l mt giao din tng i chm vi tc d liu in hnh t hn 20 Kbytes / s. RS-232 l tt nht ph hp cho cc ng dng phng th nghim tng thch vi mt kt ni chm hn t g gh,. [Sa] Script x l th nghim v m rng knh mt xe but Mt trong nhng nn tng h thng pht trin gn y nht l th nghim s dng thit b c trang b vi b x l kch bn trn my bay th nghim kt hp vi mt chic xe but tc cao. Trong phng php ny, mt cng c "ch" chy mt kch bn th nghim (mt chng trnh nh) iu khin hot ng ca cc "n l" cng c khc nhau trong h thng th nghim, m n c lin kt thng qua mt ng b ha kch hot da trn mng LAN tc cao v gia cc n v truyn thng xe but. Kch bn l vit chng trnh trong mt ngn ng kch bn phi hp mt chui cc hnh ng. Cch tip cn ny c ti u ha chuyn tin nhn nh l c trng ca cc ng dng th nghim v o lng. Vi mng li chi ph rt t v 100 Mbit / s tc d liu, n nhanh hn ng k so vi GPIB v 100BaseT Ethernet trong cc ng dng thc t. Li th ca nn tng ny l tt c cc cng c kt ni hot ng nh mt h thng a knh tch hp cht ch, v vy ngi dng c th quy m h thng th nghim ca h ph hp vi s lng knh c yu cu ca h hiu qu. Mt h thng c cu hnh trn loi nn tng c th ng mt mnh nh l mt o lng y v gii php t ng ha, tm ngun cung ng vi cc n v ch kim sot, o lng, t / khng t cc quyt nh, trnh t kim tra kim sot dng chy, binning, v x l prober Thnh phn thnh phn. H tr cho cc ng dy kch hot chuyn dng c ngha l hot ng ng b gia cc nhiu cng c c trang b vi b x l Script th nghim trn tu c lin

kt bng xe but tc cao ny c th t c m khng cn phi cho cc kt ni kch hot b sung. [6]