Science Physics

Physics

Sound:

Sounds are made when an object vibrates. Sound travels because the vibrating object makes
nearby particles vibrate. Sound needs a medium to travel through, it can not pass through a
vaccum as a vaccum has no medium.

Frequency is the number of waves shown in an oscilloscope. When the pitch is high, the
frequency is high.

Amplitude is how big the waves are in an oscilloscope. When the loudness is greater, the
amplitude is greater.

Sound propagates in a medium as a series of compressions and rarefactions. In these waves,

the particles move back and forth parallel to the direction of propagation of the
disturbance. These waves are called longitudinal waves.

What is propagation of sound?

- Propagation of sound is when a vibrating object moves forward, it pushes and compresses
the air in front of it creating a region of high pressure. This region is called compression.
When the vibrating object moves backwards, it creates a region of low pressure called
rarefaction.

When an object moves back and forth rapidly, it creates a region of compressions and
rarefactions. These make the sound waves that propagates through the medium.
Propagates meaning passes.
- Propagation of sound can be visualized as propagation of density variations or pressure
variations in the medium.

Characteristics of a sound wave.

- The distance between two consecutive compressions OR two consecutive rarefactions is
called wavelength which is represented by the greek letter lambda.
- The SI unit is meter (m)
- The change in density from one maximum value to the minimum value and again to the
maximum value makes one complete oscillation.
- The magnitude of disturbance in a medium on either side of the mean value is called an
amplitude. Amplitude is the distance between the mean position and the crest.
- The time taken by the wave for one complete oscillation of the density of the medium is
called time period which is represented by the letter T.
- SI unit is seconds (s)
- The number of complete oscillations per unit time is called a frequency (v)
- SI unit is hertz (Hz) or 1/s
- Frequency = 1/timeperiod OR v=1/T

Speed of sound:

- The speed of sound is defined as the distance which a point on a wave travels per unit
time.
- λ is the wavelength, which is the distance travelled in one time period.
Hence Speed=distance/time OR v=λ/T
The speed (v), frequency (v/nu) and wavelength (λ) of sound are related by the equation:
v=λ/T or v=λv
- Speed = wavelength x frequency.

Sound travels fastest through solids because the particles of solids are closer than of liquids
and gases resulting to the vibrations easily passing/vibrating from one particle to another.

Formula:

For finding the x, it'll be:

2d/v (v being speed =330) then subtract by the difference between two distances. After
doing so, the answer, d1 = t1(distance after subtraction) x v( speed = 330) / 2
ANSWER = x (distance)

Speed = 2d/T

Speed = 2d/T (then after getting the answer for BOTH distances, you subtract them both
and you'll get the difference)

Speed of light = 300 million m/s

- Sound waves are characterized by the motion of particles in the medium and are called
mechanical waves.

- In any medium as we increase the temperature the speed of sound increases.

Sound follows the laws of reflection,

i) The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.
ii) The incident ray, the reflected ray, and normal at the point of incidence all lie in the same
plane.

For hearing a distinct sound, the time interval between the original and the reflected sound
must be at least 0.1 seconds.
The minimum distance of the obstacle from the source of sound must be 17.2m.

The amount of sound energy passing each second through unit are called the intensity of
sound.
SONAR:

- If the time taken for the transmission and reception of ultra sound is t and the distance
travelled is 2d by the ultra sound then, 2d=v x t OR d= v x t/2

Range of hearing:

Infrasound sound with frequency lower than 20Hz

Ultrasound sound with frequency higher than 20kHZ

Echo is when sound waves are reflected back from the surface when met with a hard flat
surface.

We humans can only hear sounds of certain frequencies. A hearing range is the range of
frequencies a person can hear.

The hearing range of a healthy young person is:

20 - 20k Hz

The human ear.

The human ear consists of 3 sections. The outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.
The outer ear is called the pinna. The pinna collects the sound waves and these waves then
travel to the auditory canal/ear canal. These waves then meet up with the ear drum, which
starts to vibrate. The sound that's making the ear drum vibrate is then transferred into the
middle ear, where we meet our 3 smallest bones in the human body, the ossicles. The
ossicles consist of the malleus, incus and stapes. These ossicles amplify the vibration by x20.
The amplified sound then meets up with the inner ear, our cochlea. The cochlea consists of
a liquid which takes these amplified vibrations and turns it into electrical signals. After the
vibrations have been turned into electrical signals, the auditory nerve takes these signals
and sends it to the brain, making us hear sound.

Echolocation:

As well as using ultrasound as a form of communication, animals can also use it to find theri
prey in the dark or simply to navigate. This is known as "echolocation." Echolocation helps
bats to determine the size and shape of their prey/obstacle and their location. Some
animals use echolocation to find food, using high frequency clicks over short distances. The
echolocation for bottlenose dolphins tells them the position of their fish and even their
internal structure.
Science Bio
Biology

Cells:

What is a cell?
- A cell is the basic structural, functional and biological building block/unit of all known living
organisms.

Our bodies produce cells for Repair Reproduction Growth (RRG)

Cells are made up of organelles. Organelles are specialized parts of a cell. Each organelle has
a different job.

Cell Organelles include:

- Cell membrane
- Cytoplasm
- Nucleus
- Mitochondria
- Ribosomes
- Cell wall
- Chloroplast

Cell membrane:
- Cell membrane controls what goes in and out of the cell. It's a very thing layer of protein
fat.

Cytoplasm:
- Cytoplasm is a clear jelly like fluid inside the cell. All chemical reactions take place

Nucleus:
- The brain of a cell. Largest organelle.

Mitochondria:
- Powerhouse of the cell. Production of energy molecules occurs there.

Vacuole:
- Stores food. Filled with sap.

Cell wall:
- Gives the plan cell a fixed shape.

Chloroplast:
- Contains a pigment called chlorophyll. Absorbs sunlight. Is required in photosynthesis.
Unicellular organisms: made up of one single cell.
Ex: Bacteria
Multicellular organisms: made up of multiple cells.
Ex: Humans

There are many types of cells:

- RBC (red blood cell)
- Neuron cell
- muscle cell
- sperm cell
- ovum cell

Hierarchy of life
Cell -> Tissue -> Organ -> Organ system -> Organism

Mitosis
Genetic Material:
When cells divide, it is important that genes are copied into the new cells. Genes are the
basic unit of inheritance, and are responsible for the characteristics of an organism. Genes
are located on chromosomes, each of which is made of DNA.

Mitosis:
In mitosis, the parent cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
All the genes and chromosomes from the parent cell bust be copied and passed on to the
daughter cells.

Stages of mitosis:
- Once the chromosomes have duplicated, mitosis takes place.
- Each chromosome replicates so it contains two identical chromatids.
- The chromosomes align in the middle of the parent cell
- The two chromotids in each chromosome are pulled apart into seperate halves of the cell.
- The cell splits in two to produce TWO daughter cells, each containing the same
chromosomes.

[PMAT]
- Prophase
- Metaphase
- Anaphase
- Telophase
Science Rocks (Geo Chem)
Rocks:
What are rocks?
- Rocks are made up of grain that fit together. Each grain in a rock is made from a mineral,
which is a chemical compound.

Geologists classify rocks by the minerals they contain and by looking at the texture. The
properties of a rock depend on its texture and minerals.

Types of grains:

Granite has interlocking grains (Fit tightly together)

Sandstone has rounded grains. (Porous rock)

Porous Rocks:

Porous rocks have rounded grains, which are more likely to absorb water.
Rocks with rounded grains are usually softer and more crumbly.

Types of rocks:

We have 3 times of rocks:

- Igneous
- Sedimentary
- Metamorphic

Igneous rocks:

Igneous rocks are formed from molten rock (Magma) that has cooled and solidified. They do
not contain any fossils.

Igneous rocks contain interlocking crystals. The size of the crystals depend on how quickly
the molten magma solidifies (cools). Magma that cools slowly has large crystals. Magma
that cools quickly, on the other hand, will have small crystals.

Types of igneous rocks:

We have 2 types, intrusive and extrusive. Extrusive rocks form from magma that erupted
onto the SURFACE as lava, where it cools quickly, forming small crystals. Intrusive, on the
other hand, are formed from magma that cools slowly, deep underground, forming large
crystals. Examples of both are:
Intrusive
- Granite and gabbro
Extrusive
- Obsidian and basalt

Properties of Igneous rocks:

- They have interlocking grains
- The crystals are disorderly arranged
- The size of the crystals depends on how quickly it cools.
- They never contain fossils.

Sedimentary rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are formed from the broken remains of other rocks that become joined
together. They also have fossils. Sedimentary rocks contain rounded grains in layers.

Examples:
- Chalk
- Limestone
- Shale
- Sandstone

Properties of sedimentary rocks:

- Sedimentary rocks have layers showing the deposition of the sediments at different time
periods.
- Sedimentary rocks usually have fossils within them.
- Sedimentary rocks have rounded grains.

Process:

Rivers carry pieces of broken rocks and they settle to the bottom of a sea or lake. They are
deposited. They're then build up in layers called sediments. This process is called
sedimentation.
The weight of the sediments on top squash the sediments on the bottom. This process is
called compaction.
The water is squeezed out from between the pieces of rocks and crystals. The crystals join
the rock together. This process is called cementation.

In order:

Transport->deposition->sedimentation->compaction->cementation.

Metamorphic rocks:

Metamorphic rocks are formed from other rocks that are changed by heat or pressure. They
are not made from molten rock, like igneous.
Earth movements can cause rocks to be deeply buried or squeezed. The rocks are heated by
nearby magma and put under great pressure. They do not melt, but the minerals chemically
change.

Examples:

- Limestone -> Marble

shale -> slate

Properties of metamorphic rocks:

- Metamorphic rocks usually have layers of crystals caused by heat and pressure.
- Metamorphic rocks are usually denser and harder than sedimentary.
- Metamorphic rocks show distortions caused by the movements that led to theri formation.
This may give rise to wavy or zig-zag patterns within the rocks.

What is weathering?
- The breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments is called weathering. Eventually the
fragments become soil.
Can you think of anything that can cause weathering?
- Temperature change, water, frost and plants and animals.

Physical causes of weathering:

- Freeze- thaw
- Expansion - contraction

Different types of weathering:

- Physical weathering: Temperature change
- Chemical weathering - acid rain
- Biological weathering: plants and animals.

Chemicals responsible for chemical weathering

- Carbon dioxide
- Nitrogen oxides
- Sulphur oxides

Erosion:
- The weathered rock is broken down even further by the action of wind, rain or ice. These
small broken-down pieces of rock are then moved away by the weather and gravity into
rivers where they are transported to the sea.
Another, easier explanation:
- Erosion is when the rocks that have been broken down by weathering get moved away
from the place, they were originally in.

Process:
Rock
Weathering
Erosion
Transportation
Sedimentation

Rock cycle

Igneous rocks and sedimentary -> Heat and pressure = metamorphic rocks
Metamorphic, igneous and sedimentary rocks -> weathering and erosion = sediments.
Igneous rocks -> melting= magma
magma -> cooling = igneous rocks
sediments -> compaction and cementation = sedimentary rocks.

How is acid rain formed?

- Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins with sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides released into the air. They mix and react with water, oxygen and other chemical to
form acidic pollutants, acid rain.
Science Chem
Chemistry

Periodic Table:

The periodic table's arrangement of the elements is in order of their atomic numbers so that
elements with similar properties fall in the same column or group.
The vertical line in the periodic table is called a group. There are 8 groups in the periodic
table

The horizontal line in the periodic table is called a period. There are 7 periods in the periodic
table.

The periodic table is divided into 2 groups:

Non-metals.
Metals
Metalloids (semi metals)

The periodic table has families.

- Alkali metals (group 1)
- Alkaline Earth metals (group 2)
- Transition metals (groups 3-12)
Inner transition metals
- Boron family (group 13)
- Carbon family (group 14)
- Nitrogen family (group 15)
- Oxygen family (group 16)
- Halogens (group 17)
- Noble gases (group 18)

Metallic character decreases across the periodic table (Left to right)

Sonorous – Make ringing sound

Lustrous – have shiny appearance
Malleability- can be hammered into thin sheets
Ductility – Can be pulled into thin wires
Conductors – Can pass heat and electricity through them easily.
Insulators – Cannot pass heat and electricity through them.
Brittle – easy to break
Dull – Not shiny in appearance
Metals
Lustrous (shiny appearance)
Sonorous
Good conductors of heat and electricity
Malleable
Ductile
Usually Hard
Solids at room temperature
(Except Mercury- a liquid metal).

Non-metals
Dull
Non sonorous
Insulators (except graphite- a form of carbon)
Non malleable
Non ductile
Brittle
Solids and gases at room temperature
(Except bromine- a liquid)

Chemical reactions:

A chemical reaction is a change that takes place when one or more substances called
reactants react together to form more substances which are called products.

How can we spot a chemical reaction?

Chemical reactions occur when there's:

- A change in color
- A change in smell (odour)
- A change in temperature
- Burning/fire occuring or the substance is fizzing
- Any blasts that occur

What happens to the total mass in a chemical reaction?

- During a reaction, the chemical mass of both substances will remain constant.

What is a word equation?

- A word equation uses the names given for the reactants and products to show what
happens in a chemical reaction without using symbols.
Example:
- Sulfur+Oxygen -> Sulfur dioxide

What is a symbol equation?

- A symbol equation uses the formulae of the reactants and products to show what happens
in a chemical reaction. They always have to be balanced.
Example:
- S+O2 -> SO2

What do state symbols show?

- State symbols show the state of matter of the reactants or products. It shows whether
they're:
- Solid (s)
- Liquid (l)
- gas (g)
- Dissolved in water (sq)
Example:
- S (s) + O2 (g) -> SO2 (g)
This example shows that sulfur is a solid, oxygen is a gas, and the product of both, sulfur
dioxide, is also a gas.

Reaction with metals:

Many metals react with acids to form a salt and hydrogen gas.

The general word equation for this is:

metal+acid -> a salt+hydrogen

The salt will depend upon the metal and acid used.
- Hydrochloric acid (HCl) gives metal chlorides
- Sulphuric acid (H2SO4) gives metal sulphates
- Nitric acid (HNO3) gives metal nitrates.

Using the activity series of metals, we can predict how vigorously (if at all) a metal will react.
The reactive the metal, the more vigorous the reaction. The least reactive metals do not
react at all

The activity series of metals:

Potassium
Sodium
Calcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
Zinc
Iron
Lead
(Hydrogen)
Copper
Silver
Gold

Potassium being the most reactive and gold being the least reactive.
Metal oxid + acid -> A salt + water

Metal carbonate + acid -> a salt + water + carbon dioxide

When metal carbonates react with acids they fizz giving off carbon dioxide gas.

Reactions:

Types of reactions:

- Synthesis reaction
- Decomposition reaction
- Single displacement reaction
- Double displacement reaction
- Combustion reaction