LECTURE 4

PATTERNS OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

1.1 Introduction
After the formulation of the educational goals or objectives for an educational system,
and after selecting the learning experiences that should bring about the realization of
these objectives, the next task is to organize these experiences for effective presentation
and learning. The most basic and probably the simplest way to understand it is by
isolating from the whole process, the organizing structures. These are the main
structured elements in which the learning experiences are to be organized.
Structural elements exist at various levels. At the broader level, the structural elements
may be referred to as patterns of curriculum design. These are two main patterns of
curriculum design;
Subject-centered designs and
Learner-centered designs

1.2 Lecture Objectives

1.2.1 Discuss the various patterns of subject centered curriculum designs
1.2.2 Discuss the various patterns of learner centered curriculum designs

4.2.1 SUBJECT-CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGNS

4.2.1.1 The traditional subject design
The traditional subject design is the oldest and probably the most popular form of curriculum
organization, among both the educators and the lay public.

The subject design organizes the curriculum in different and specific subjects each of which
represents a specialized and homogenous body of knowledge-content. Emphasis is placed on
separate academic areas. The basis of organization is usually the traditional subject matter
such as Geography, History and English. The scope of the subject -centered curriculum in a
school system is determined by the range of subjects worthy of inclusion in the curriculum
and by the substance included in each subject. The subject design as we know it today finds
its origin in western education, in the seven literal Arts of Classical Greece and Rome. The
arts are divided into two categories:
1. The trivium comprises Grammar (Latin, the highest of all knowledge), Rhetoric (readings
from various segments of orthodox Christian literature) and Dialectic (rigorous exercise
in the principles of orthodox theology, meant only for the privileged class).
2. The quadravium, which is the second category includes Arithmetic, Geometry,
Astronomy and Music.
The subject curriculum in its traditional form was based on certain assumptions. First is the
theory of mental discipline, widely accepted in the 19th century. It held that the mind is made up
of faculties which like the muscles can be trained through mental exercise, and the more rigorous
the exercises, the better the training. The second idea or theory was that of transfer of learning.
It held that minds trained by the study of one subject carried that training to the other areas.

The design based on these principles is very examination-oriented and encourages excessive
competition in both teaching and learning. Certainly, a design so popular has both advantages
and limitations. Taba (1962) points out various arguments in favour of the subject design.
i. It is the most systematic and effective organization for acquainting youth with the
essentials of cultural heritage.
ii. The subjects constitute a logical and effective method of organizing and interpreting
learning, and by studying the organized bodies of subject matter, students can learn most
economically and efficiently.
iii. The approach is based on tradition. through long established tradition, teachers and
parents tend to support what they are familiar with.
iv. Most teachers have been trained in subject curriculum and, therefore, understand it better.
v. Curriculum planning, implementation and evaluation is easier in the subject-centered
curriculum.
vi. The full intellectual powers can be best developed through the study of logically
organized subject matter.
vii. Text books and other curriculum packages on the education market tend to be organized
to fit the established subject categories. They are generally organized according to
subjects.

As indicated earlier, this design has deficiencies also. Perhaps the greatest disadvantage of this
easily administered design is the lack of integration of curriculum content. It also has excessive
compartmentalization and atomization of knowledge. This also leads to fragmentation in the
students understanding thus making them unable to see the relationship between subjects.
There are other problems associated with subject-centered designs:
i. Subjects tend to be detached from the reality of students, that is, life experiences are de-
emphasized in the design and hence not based on a functional use of knowledge.
ii. From the point of view of the progressivists, the greatest limitation of the subject design
is its excessive stress on content, ignoring the students’ needs, interests and experiences.
It focuses on the intellectual performance at the expense of other aspects of human
development.
iii. Regarding methodology, it has been observed that the subject-centered design presents a
narrow concept of knowledge and skills. It tends to relegate teaching to knowledge and
recall of subject matter.
 iv. Furthermore, the subject curriculum leans heavily on verbal activities and is too much
oriented towards examinations which test memorization rather than understanding.

In response to the limitations of the traditional subject-centered design, particularly the growing
proliferation of academic subjects and the failure of students to relate one subject to another,
various modifications of the traditional subject curriculum have been made.

4.2.1.2 Correlation
Reducing fragmentation of the curricula content is the thrust of organizing content by
correlation. In an effort to relate proximate bodies of subject matter, curriculum planners have
attempted to provide a simple correlation of content leaving the subjects intact and side by side,
retaining their separate identities. The idea is to integrate two or more subjects without
destroying their traditional boundaries, but at the same time, coordinating their common
relationships.

The common approach is to draw from various subjects or disciplines in learning a selected
theme. For example content can be drawn from:
i. Economics, History and Religion to teach the theme of ‘war and peace’.
ii. Geography, History, Economics, Agriculture and Civics to teach ‘patterns of settlement in
independent Kenya’/
iii. History, Geography, and Literature in English in the study of ‘westward movement in
America’.
Despite the correlation, subjects still remain separate. This modification does not do much in
solving the problem of fragmentation. It, however, tries to show the learners the relationship
between the various subjects.

4.2.1.3 Broad-fields
This design, commonly called a ‘fused design’ is an advanced stage of correlation in the
modification of subject matter curriculum. It involves a merger of different but related subjects
into a new course. Subjects that are logically related are fused together into a single broad field,
to overcome fragmentation and compartmentalization. The common example is the broad field
of ‘social studies’ resulting from the merger of Civics, History, Geography and Religious
Education. In other words, social studies is employed as an organizer drawing data from social
sciences. Below are two examples of the broad field curriculum suggested for Kenya by the
Gachathi Commission (1976) with five broad areas:
1. Languages: English and Kiswahili.
2. Mathematics: Arithmetic, Algebra and Geometry.
3. Sciences: Biology, Agriculture, Health Education, Physical and Chemistry.
4. Culture Studies: History, Civics, Music, Art and Craft, Physical Education, Religious
Education and Social Ethics.
 5. Pre-Vocational Studies: Woodwork, Masonry, Business Education, Metal Work etc.

Philip Phoenix’ combination gives us six different clusters of knowledge.

1. Symbolics: Ordinary language, Mathematics.
2. Empirics: Physical Sciences, Biology, Psychology, Social Sciences
3. Aesthetics: Music, the Visual Arts, Arts of Movements, Literature.
4. Synnoetics: Personal knowledge and inter-personal relationships.
5. Ethics: Moral knowledge.
6. Synoptics: History, Religion, Philosophy.

This design is most evident in primary schools. It is also becoming increasingly common in
secondary schools and even in higher education in response to the demand that learning should
be made relevant to the current and the anticipated needs of the learners. One of the merits of
this approach is that it provides for an orderly and systematic exposure to the essentials of the
culture. Moreover, it allows for a meaningful integration of related content. It can meet
students’ interest and furnish them with diverse experiences.

The broad-field design also has its shortcomings. Content so organized can be superficial, and
lack depth of treatment. Also, such content structuring can still be fragmented and fail to relate
to the actual world of the learner. Despite these shortcomings, the design tries to show a broader
view of knowledge and the universe.

4.2.1.4 Core-curriculum
The concept of a core-curriculum design originated at the turn of the century and was a reaction
against the fragmentation and ‘piecemeal learning accumulated from separate subjects’ (Smith,
et, al,. 1957, pp. 311, 312). //the term ‘core’ has been sued in a variety of ways and terms like
‘common learning’, ‘unified studies’, and ‘basic education’ are usually regarded as synonyms for
core-curriculum. However, the term ‘core’ is commonly used in curriculum studies to mean that
part of the school curriculum that is essential and, therefore, a common requirement for all
students. This then implies that there is another category of subjects in the curriculum from
which students can freely choose what to study in addition to the compulsory case. So, the
‘core’ comprises required subjects as opposed to electives.

According to Urevbu (1985), the core-curriculum practice is widespread and is held in most
countries to be a legitimate part of government policy. In selecting the core subjects the
curriculum developers pay keen attention to the national philosophy and the goals of education.
For example in the USA, the core curriculum is designed to develop values and rules essential to
social living in a democracy (Zais, 1976). The approach is meant to study problems of a broad
society and to acquire information from any source to aid in seeking solutions. The curriculum
attempts to integrate materials from various disciplines to accomplish the goals of a well
integrated personality and society. It is organized around broad problem areas such as
developing a healthy society. Otherwise, the advocates of this design have deduced four types of
core-curriculum each from a different understanding.
i. Unified-studies core.
ii. Culture-epoch core
iii. Contemporary-problems core.
iv. Adolescent-needs core.

In general, the core-curriculum draws on social issues, moral content and values and helps to:
i. Develop integration of knowledge to serve the needs of the student.
ii. Promote active learning and a relationship between life and learning.
iii. Serve the needs of the society.
iv. Give students the opportunity to make choices for the subject areas of study through
electives.
We can summarize the main advantages of the core-curriculum design as follows:
i. It emphasizes a core of social values.
ii. It combines subject matter with the realities and challenges of the day.
iii. It aims to integrate learning by unifying subject matter for studying social issues and
problem areas related to individuals as well as society.
iv. It takes core of the needs and interests of the learner.
v. It is socially rather than cognitively oriented,

A great number of curriculum specialists view the core-curriculum as a compromise design for
general contemporary society. They see in it a culmination of all he designs from both subject
and learn-centered designs and a compromise between the two extremes. However, the design
presents a number of problems:
i. It fails to offer significant and systematic knowledge. It also poses organizational
problems in schools.
ii. It calls for variations which modern teachers cannot cope with because they lack the
broad competence and training required to arrange content around focuses or issues.
iii. It requires many teachers of varied specialties, an adequate curriculum guide and
materials. In most cases such facilities are not easy to come by, especially in less
developed countries.

e-tivity 4.2. 1 SUBJECT CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGNS

Title Subject centered curriculum designs

Purpose To help you identify the types of subject centered curriculum
designs
Brief summary of Read the articles below and summarize the types of subject
the overall task centered curriculum designs
1. https://wwf.panda.org/get_involved/partner_with_wwf/
public_sector_partnerships/
2. Chapter excerpts on stakeholder involvement
Individual Task Using bullets outline types of subject centered curriculum
designs. Do this on the discussion forum 3.2.3
Interactions begin 1. Post your analysis here in discussion forum 3.2.3
2. Provide a constructive feedback on the students’
finding on types of subject centered curriculum designs
with respect to the curriculum development process in
Kenya. Do this on the discussion forum 3.2.3

E –moderator 1. Ensure the students are focused on the contents and the
interventions context of discussion
2. Stimulate further learning and generation of new ideas
3. Provide feedback on the learning process
4. Close the activity
Schedule and Time This task should take 20 mins
Next Learner centered curriculum designs

4.2.2 LEARNER-CENTERED CURRICULUM DESIGN

Learner-centered designs are not content free, but they do emphasize the learner. Attention is
given to the individual’s development, needs, and interests. This design draws on what we know
about human growth and development and on the theories of learning. All through, the child or
learner is the centre of the curriculum process and his active participation in the learning process
is the main focus of these designs.
This approach coincides with the reforms of those who tried to implement the philosophy of Jean
Jacques Rousseau in its undiluted form. The progressivist movement in the United States
attributed mainly to the works of John Dewey was a great promoter of this design. In general the
proponents of child-centered designs view the society in extremely democratic terms and in it
perceive the individual human being as a ‘naturally good’ and sacred entity. the individual child
should be allowed to develop the capacity for individual self-expression. This is possible only
when the curriculum is developed around the needs, interests and experiences of the child. the
traditional domination by the teacher is greatly minimized by learner-centered designs which
allow for freedom, active involvement in the learning process and creativity, both of which are
important for human growth.

The general characteristics of learner-centered designs can be summarized thus:

i. They take their organizational cues from individual students rather than from content.
The learner is the starting point, the centre and the end of school activities.
ii. They focus on the learners’ needs, interests and experiences.
iii. They are highly flexible, with many options available for learners.
iv. Ideally the learners are supposed to plan their own curriculum, usually with various
degrees of teacher input.
v. Learners instructed individually at appropriate points.

The main argument for learner-centered curriculum is essentially an ethical one. How do we
justify making children attend school even when they do not want to? How do we go about
teaching them subjects when we are not sure whether they attach any value to them? The value
of the curriculum that is offered in schools must partly lie in its possibility to provide satisfaction
and pleasure and for sustaining interest and being found valuable or relevant to the child.
Despite the sound ethical basis for learner-centered designs and much positive talk about them,
this rarely happens in practice. Cultural values still hinder this kind of practice, especially in the
traditional societies in which the relationship of child to adult is that of subordination. There is
also the common objection to the design based on the argument that a curriculum centered on the
interests of the child will make learning piecemeal and arbitrary thus limiting the learner to his
own personal world.

On the other hand, the emphasis on the child-centered approach has given rise to ‘free’ or
‘alternative’ schools, especially in western countries. George Dennison’s alternative school’ in
New York City and Kozols ‘free school’ in Boston are good examples of modern child-centered
schools in the United States. Neil’s Summerhill School in Suffolk, England, was begun in 1939
and still exists as perhaps the most prominent of all the contemporary child-centered and
unstructured schools.
Critical curriculum analysts have attempted to make a presentation of various types of learner-
centered curriculum. Two such popular types are the activity curriculum and the social process
and life designs.

4.2.2.1 Activity curriculum

Although this design has its origins in 18th century Europe and in the work of Rousseau and
Pestalozzi, it did not become a factor in modern public schools curriculum design until the
flowering of the Progressive Movement in the 1920s and 1930s.
The activity Movement grew out of the main child-centered movement and particularly changed
the elementary school curriculum. It was led by William Kilpatrick, who was John Dewey’s
student at Columbia University. the basic features of this design are summarized in the famous
Project Method which is a synthesis of Thorndike’s and Dewey’s child-centered approach to
learning.

Kilpatrick emphasized purposeful activity based on the child’s experiences, needs and interests.
He extended Dewey’s concept of the child’s social and physical environment and claimed that
desirable learning would be produced by active participation of the individual in his
environment. Contrary to Dewey’s view, Kilpatrick believes that the child’s interests and needs
can be anticipated and, therefore, there is a possibility of developing a preplanned curriculum
framework in a child-centered approach to learning. He advocated purposeful activities which
are as life-like as possible.

From the Activity Movement, there emerged a host of pedagogical concepts that are associated
with activity learning including life experience units, projects, social enterprises, field trips and
centres of interest. All the activities involve a section of problem solving, active participation by
students, socialization of the students in the world around him and greater school-community
linkages.

4.2.2.2 Social and life designs

The design is based on social processes and life functions. It is specifically concerned with
promoting life that is needed in the society and providing solutions to prevailing social problems.
It represents an attempt to provide a relationship between the content of the curriculum and life.
It attempts to overcome situations in which some of the academic disciplines were felt to be
divorced from reality and were thus of little use in solving everyday life problems.

Stratemeyer, Forkner and Mckim (1957) suggested a design organized around persistent life
situations. This is given in a reduced version below:

1. Situations calling for growth and individual capabilities.

  Health
 Intellectual capacity
 Moral choices
 Aesthetic expression and appreciation

2. Situations calling for growth in social participation

3. Situations calling for growth in capabilities for processing environmental factors and
forces such as:
i. Natural phenomena.
ii. Technological phenomena
iii. Economic-social, political structures and dynamics.

Also similar, is the State of Virginia, USA model which outlines nine areas of life, namely:
i. Protecting life and health.
ii. Earning a living.
iii. Making a home.
iv. Expressing religious impulses.
v. Satisfying the desire for beauty.
vi. Securing education.
vii. Co-operating in social and civil action.
viii. Engaging in recreation.
ix. Improving material conditions.
These areas of life are not limited to the State of Virginia in the United States. They are general
areas which can be identified in any society in the world, except for differences in the details of
how various societies go about the business of living.

Summary
In this lecture we have discussed the different models and patterns of curriculum design.

1.3 Further Activity – Assignment

1. Discuss some of the reasons why the Broad field curriculum by Gachathi(1976) was
applied in the 8-4-4 education system in Kenya.
2. Visit any two curriculum journals in the website and discuss any two patterns of
curriculum design used in Ghana

4,4 Self-Test Questions

1. Discuss why the Competency Based curriculum in Kenya is moving away from the
subject to the child –centered approaches
2. Discuss the main differences between the two approaches
3. Discuss the main curriculum patterns in the two major designs
1.5 Further Reading
Visit the Machakos University library repository and do further reading of the current
modifications of the models of curriculum