clay changes into

slate and limestone into marble.

The crust forms only

1 per cent of the
volume of the earth,
84 per cent consists
of the mantle and
15 per cent makes
the core

The radius of the

earth is 6371 km.

temperate evergreen forests are located in the midlatitudinal coastal region. They
are commonly
found along the eastern margin of the continents, e.g., In
south east USA, South China and in South East Brazil.
They comprise both hard and soft wood trees like oak,
pine, eucalyptus, etc

Temperate Deciduous Forests

found
in the north eastern part of USA, China, New Zealand,
Chile and also found in the coastal regions of Western
Europe.

Mediterranean
also found outside the actual Mediterranean region in
California in the USA, south west Africa, south western
South America and South west Australia. There isn’t much wildlife here.

Tropical deciduous are the monsoon forests found in

the large part of India,northern Australia and in central
America

. Indian railway network

is well developed. It is the largest in Asia.

Trans-Siberian Railway is the longest railway system

connecting St. Petersburg in Western Russia to Vladivostok on the
Pacific coast

Amazon basin. The

river basin drains portions of Brazil, parts of Peru, Bolivia,
Ecuador, Columbia and a small part of Venezuela.Amazon Basin is
the largest river basin
in the world. Birds such as toucans (Fig. 8.4),
humming birds, bird of paradise with
their brilliantly coloured plumage.Animals like
monkeys, sloth and ant-eating tapirs. Crocodiles, snakes,
pythons abound. Anaconda and boa.Several species of
fishes including the flesheating Piranha fish is also
found in the river.

GANGA-BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN
basin lies in the sub-tropical region
that is situated between 10°N to 30°N
latitudes.
grasslands of
Prairies were the
home of native
Americans often
called “Red Indians”.
They were the actual
habitant of the
continent. Chinook is a hot wind
that blows in winter
and therefore raises
the temperature
within a short time.
This increase in
temperature results
in the melting of
snow, making pasture
land available for
grazing of animals
major crop of this
area is maize, other crops including potatoes,
soybean, cotton and alfa-alfa
Bison or the
American buffalo is the most
important animal. It nearly got extinct
due to its indiscriminate hunting
and is now a protected species.Prairies are also
known as the “Granaries of the world,” due to the huge
surplus of wheat production

temperate grasslands of South Africa are called the

velds.It is bound by
the Drakensburg Mountains on the east. To its west lies
the Kalahari desert. The tributaries
of rivers Orange and Limpopo drain the region. Velds are rolling plateaus with
varying
heights ranging from 600 m to 1100 m. velds receive rainfall mainly in the summer
months
from November to February. This is mainly because of
the warm ocean currents . velds have a mild climate due to the influence of the
Indian Ocean. Winters are cold and dry. Temperatures
vary between 5°C and 10°C and July is the coldest
month. main crops
are maize, wheat, barley, oats and potato. Cash crops
like tobacco, sugarcane and cotton are also grown.
Sheep rearing is the most important
occupation of the people. Sheep is bred
mainly for wool.Merino sheep is a popular species .Dairy farming is the next
important
occupation. Velds are known for cattle rearing and mining. The soils
are not very fertile in the velds due to the presence of
discontinuous grasses exposing barren surface.Johannesburg is known for being
the gold capital of the world. Kimberley is
famous for its diamond mines

Sahara
desert touches eleven countries. area of around 8.54 million
sq. km. Do you recall that India has an
area of 3.2 million sq. km.present
day Sahara once used
to be a lush green
plain. Cave paintings
in Sahara desert show
that there used to be
rivers with crocodiles.
Elephants, lions,
giraffes, ostriches,
sheep, cattle and
goats were common
animals. But the
change in climate has
changed it to a very
hot and dry region.
temperatures during the day may soar as high as
50°C,The nights may be freezing cold with temperatures
nearing zero degrees.Bedouins and
Tuaregs. These groups are nomadic tribes rearing
livestock such as goats, sheep, camels and horses.
Crops such as rice, wheat, barley
and beans are also grown. Egyptian cotton, famous
worldwide is grown in Egypt.

Ladakh is a cold desert lying in the Great Himalayas,

on the eastern side of Jammu and Kashmir (Fig. 10.4).
The Karakoram Range in the north and the Zanskar
mountains in the south enclose it. Indus being the most important.Several glaciers
are found in Ladakh, for example the
Gangri glacier.altitude in Ladakh varies from about 3000m
in Kargil to more than 8,000m in the Karakoram.area
experiences freezing winds and burning hot sunlight.
You will be surprised to know that if you sit in the
sun with your feet in the shade, you may suffer from
both sunstroke and frost bite at the same time. people here are either Muslims or
Buddhists. In
fact several Buddhists monasteries dot the Ladakhi
landscape with their traditional ‘gompas’. Some
famous monasteries are Hemis, Thiksey, Shey and
Lamayuru. Leh, the capital
of Ladakh. National Highway
1A connects Leh to Kashmir
Valley through the Zoji la Pass.

Ninety per cent

of the world
population
occupies only
thirty per cent of
land area. The
remaining seventy
per cent of the
land is either
sparsely populated
or uninhabited

FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION

Parent Rock
Determines colour,
texture, chemical
properties
mineral, content,
permeability

Climate
Temperature,
Rainfall influence
rate of weathering
and humus

Relief
Altitude and
slope, determine
accumulation
of soil

Flora, Fauna and

Micro-organism
Affect the rate of humus
formation

Time
Determines thickness
of soil profile

Some methods of soil conservation are

Mulching: The bare ground between plants is covered

with a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to
retain soil moisture.
Contour barriers: Stones, grass, soil are used to build
barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of
the barriers to collect water.
Rock dam: Rocks are piled up to slow down the flow of
water. This prevents gullies and further soil loss
Terrace farming: These are made on the steep
slopes so that flat surfaces are available to grow
crops. They can reduce surface run-off and soil
erosion
Intercropping: Different crops are grown in alternate
rows and are sown at different times to protect the
soil from rain wash.
Contour ploughing: Ploughing parallel to the
contours of a hill slope to form a natural barrier
for water to flow down the slope
Shelter belts: In the coastal and dry regions, rows
of trees are planted to check the wind movement to
protect soil cover

Fresh water accounts for only about 2.7 per cent. Nearly
70 per cent of this occurs as ice sheets and glaciers in
Antarctica, Greenland and mountain regions. Due to
their location they are inaccessible. Only 1 per cent of
freshwater is available and fit for human use. It is found
as ground water, as surface water in rivers and lakes
and as water vapour in the atmosphere

CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between
governments. It aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of
wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. Roughly 5,000
species of animals and 28,000 species of plants are protected. Bears,
dolphins, cacti, corals, orchids and aloes are some examples.lists several species
of animals
and birds in
which trade
is prohibited.

Ferrous minerals like

iron ore, manganese and chromites contain iron. A
non-ferrous mineral does not contain iron but may contain
some other metal such as gold, silver, copper or lead.

Minerals that
lie at shallow depths are taken out by removing the surface
layer; this is known as open-cast mining. Deep bores, called
shafts, have to be made to reach mineral deposits that lie
at great depths. This is called shaft mining. Petroleum
and natural gas occur far below the earth’s surface. Deep
wells are bored to take them out, this is called drilling
. Minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug
out, by the process known as quarrying.

Switzerland has
no known mineral
deposit in it.

Petroleum and its derivatives

are called Black Gold

The coal which

we are using today was formed millions of years ago
when giant ferns and swamps got buried under
the layers of earth. Coal is therefore referred to as
Buried Sunshine.

In India Rajasthan and

Jharkhand have large
deposits of Uranium.
Thorium is found in
large quantities in
the Monozite sands of
Kerala.

Shifting cultivation
is known by
different names in
different parts of
the world
Jhumming -
North-East India
Milpa -Mexico
Roca - Brazil.
Ladang - Malaysia

In mixed farming the land is used for growing

food and fodder crops and rearing livestock.
Plantations are a type of commercial farming
where single crop of tea, coffee, sugarcane, cashew,
rubber, banana or cotton are grown. Large amount
of labour and capital are required.

Rice is the major food crop of the world. It

is the staple diet of the tropical and sub-tropical
regions. Rice needs high temperature, high
humidity and rainfall. It grows best in alluvial
clayey soil,

Wheat: Wheat requires moderate temperature and

rainfall during growing season and bright sunshine
at the time of harvest. It thrives best in well drained
loamy soil.

Millets: They are also known as coarse grains and

can be grown on less fertile and sandy soils. It is
a hardy crop that needs low rainfall and high to
moderate temperature and adequate rainfall. Jowar,
bajra and ragi are grown in India.

Maize requires
moderate temperature,
rainfall and lots of
sunshine. It needs
well-drained fertile soils.

Cotton: Cotton requires

high temperature, light
rainfall, two hundred
and ten frost-free days
and bright sunshine for
its growth. It grows best
on black and alluvial
soils.

Jute was also known as the ‘Golden Fibre’. It grows

well on alluvial soil and requires high temperature,
heavy rainfall and humid climate. This crop is grown in
the tropical areas. India and
Bangladesh are the leading
producers of jute.

Coffee: Coffee requires warm

and wet climate and welldrained loamy soil. Hill slopes
are more suitable

Tea: Tea is a beverage crop grown on plantations. This

requires cool climate and well distributed high rainfall
throughout the year for the growth of its tender leaves.
It needs well-drained loamy soils and gentle
slopes. Labour in large number is required to
pick the leaves.

Before 1800 A.D. iron and steel industry was

located where raw materials, power supply and
running water were easily
available. Later the ideal
location for the industry was
near coal fields and close to
canals and railways. After
1950, iron and steel industry
began to be located on large
areas of flat land near sea
ports. This is because by this
time steel works had become
very large and iron ore had
to be imported from overseas

Great
or Inner Himalayas or the ‘Himadri

Himachal or lesser Himalaya

longitudinal valley lying

between lesser Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are
known as Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and
Patli Dun are some of the well-known Duns.

between
Indus and Satluj has been traditionally
known as Punjab Himalaya but it is also
known regionally as Kashmir and Himachal
Himalaya from west to east respectively. The
part of the Himalayas lying between Satluj
and Kali rivers is known as Kumaon
Himalayas.

Northern Plain spreads over an area of 7

lakh sq. km. The plain being about 2400 Km
long and 240 to 320 Km broad,

Ganga plain extends between Ghaggar

and Teesta rivers

The largest part of the northern plain is

formed of older alluvium

The height of the Western

Ghats progressively increases from north to
south. The highest peaks include the Anai
Mudi (2,695metres) and the Doda Betta (2,637
metres). Mahendragiri (1,501 metres) is the
highest peak in the Eastern Ghats

western coast, sandwiched

between the Western Ghats and the Arabian
Sea, is a narrow plain. It consists of three
sections. The northern part of the coast is called
the Konkan (Mumbai – Goa), the central stretch
is called the Kannad Plain while the southern
stretch is referred to as the Malabar coast

The plains along the Bay of Bengal are wide

and level. In the northern part, it is referred to
as the Northern Circar, while the southern part
is known as the Coromandel Coast

Godavari tributaries such as the Purna, the Wardha,

the Pranhita, the Manjra, the Wainganga and
the Penganga

Mahanadi drainage basin is shared by

Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
and Odisha.

Krishna - The Tungabhadra, the

Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi and the
Bhima are some of its tributaries

Kaveri tributaries are Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati

and Kabini.

The river Kaveri makes the

second biggest waterfall in India, known as
Sivasamudram. The hydroelectric power
generated from the falls is supplied to Mysore,
Bangalore and the Kolar Gold Field.

Wular lake in Jammu and

Kashmir, in contrast, is the result of the
tectonic activity. It is the largest freshwater
lake in India.

The Arabian Sea branch reaches

Mumbai about ten days later on
approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly
rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also
advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the
first week of June. By mid-June the
Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives
over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part
of the country. The Arabian Sea and the Bay
of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over
the northwestern part of the Ganga plains.
Delhi generally receives the monsoon showers
from the Bay of Bengal branch by the end of
June (tentative date is 29th of June). By the first
week of July, western Uttar Pradesh, Punjab,
Haryana and eastern Rajasthan experience the
monsoon. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches
Himachal Pradesh and the rest of the country

withdrawal of the monsoon begins in

northwestern states of India by early
September. By mid-October, it withdraws
completely from the northern half of the
peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern
half of the peninsula is fairly rapid. By early
December, the monsoon has withdrawn from
the rest of the country.

islands receive the very first monsoon

showers, progressively from south to north,
from the last week of April to the first week of
May. The withdrawal, takes place progressively
from north to south from the first week of
December to the first week of January.

When the axis of the monsoon trough lies over

the plains, rainfall is good in these parts. On
the other hand, whenever the axis shifts closer
to the Himalayas, there are longer dry spells
in the plains, and widespread rain occur in
the mountainous catchment areas of the
Himalayan rivers. These heavy rains bring in
their wake, devastating floods causing
damage to life and property in the plains.

Tropical Above 24°C Above 18° No Frost

Sub-tropical 17°C to 24°C 10°C to 18°C Frost is rare
Temperate 7°C to 17°C -1°C to (-10 ) °C Frost some snow
Alpine Below 7°C Below–1°C Snow

According to India State of

Forest Report 2011, the forest cover in India is
21.05 per cent.

On the basis of the availability of water,

these forests are further divided into moist and
dry deciduous. The former is found in areas
receiving rainfall between 200 and 100 cm. mostly in the
eastern part of the country – northeastern
states, along the foothills of the Himalayas,
Jharkhand, West Orissa and Chhattisgarh, and
on the eastern slopes of the Western Ghats.
Teak is the most dominant species of this forest.
Bamboos, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair,
kusum, arjun, mulberry. dry deciduous forests are found in areas
having rainfall between 100 cm and 70 cm.
These forests are found in the rainier parts of
the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar
and Uttar Pradesh. There are open stretches
in which Teak, Sal, Peepal, Neem

Sarpagandha : Used to treat blood pressure; it is found only in India.

Jamun : The juice from ripe fruit is used to prepare vinegar which is carminative
and diuretic, and
has digestive properties. The powder of the seed is used for controlling diabetes.
Arjun : The fresh juice of leaves is a cure for earache. It is also used to
regulate blood pressure.
Babool : Leaves are used as a cure for eye sores. Its gum is used as a tonic.
Neem : Has high antibiotic and antibacterial properties.
Tulsi Plant : Is used to cure cough and cold.
Kachnar : Is used to cure asthma and ulcers. The buds and roots are good for
digestive problems

Ladakh’s freezing high altitudes are a home to

yak, the shaggy horned wild ox weighing
around one tonne, the Tibetan antelope, the
bharal (blue sheep), wild sheep, and the kiang
(Tibetan wild ass). Furhtermore, the ibex, bear,
snow-leopard and very rare red panda are
found in certain pockets.

Fourteen biosphere reserves have been set

up in the country to protect flora and fauna.
Four out of these, the Sunderbans in the
West Bengal, Nanda Devi in Uttarakhand,
the Gulf of Mannar in Tamil Nadu and the
Nilgiris (Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil
Nadu) have been included in the world
network of Biosphese reserves.

Fourteen Bio-reserves
• Sunderbans • Simlipal
• Gulf of Mannar • Dihang-Dibang
• The Nilgiris • Dibru Saikhowa
• Nanda Devi • Agasthyamalai
• Nokrek • Kanchenjunga
• Great Nicobar • Pachmari
• Manas • Achanakmar-Amarkantak

In India the first census was held in the year

1872. The first complete census, however was taken in the year 1881.

Primary activities include agriculture,

animal husbandry, forestry, fishing, mining
and quarrying etc.Secondary activities include
manufacturing industry, building and
construction work etc.

Kerala has a sex ratio of 1058

females per 1000 males, Pondicherry has 1001
females for every 1000 males, while Delhi has
only 821 females per 1000 males and Haryana
has just 861. According to the Census of 2001

Renewable Resources: solar and wind

energy, water, forests and wildlife, etc

Individual Resources:. Urban people own

plots, houses and other property. Plantation,
pasture lands, ponds, water in wells etc.

Community Owned Resources:Village commons

(grazing grounds, burial grounds, village
ponds, etc.) public parks, picnic spots,playgrounds in urban areas

oceanic area upto

12 nautical miles (22.2 km) from the coast
termed as territorial water and resources
therein belong to the nation

Potential Resources: Resources which are

found in a region, but have not been utilised.
For example, the western parts of India
particularly Rajasthan and Gujarat have
enormous potential for the development of wind
and solar energy, but so far these have not been
developed properly.

Developed Resources: Resources which are

surveyed and their quality and quantity have
been determined for utilisation.

Stock: Materials in the environment which

have the potential to satisfy human needs but
human beings do not have the appropriate
technology to access these,For example, water is a compound of
two inflammable gases; hydrogen and oxygen,
which can be used as a rich source of energy.
But we do not have the required technical
‘know-how’ to use them

Reserves are the subset of the stock, which

can be put into use with the help of existing
technical ‘know-how’ but their use has not
been started. These can be used for meeting
future requirements. River water can be used
for generating hydroelectric power but
presently, it is being utilised only to a limited
extent. Thus, the water in the dams, forests etc.
is a reserve which can be used in the future.

Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit, 1992

In June 1992, more than 100 heads of states
met in Rio de Janeiro in Brazil, for the first
International Earth Summit. The Summit was
convened for addressing urgent problems of
environmental protection and socioeconomic development at the global level.
The assembled leaders signed the
Declaration on Global Climatic Change and
Biological Diversity. The Rio Convention
endorsed the global Forest Principles and
adopted Agenda 21 for achieving
Sustainable Development in the 21st century.

Agenda 21
It is the declaration signed by world leaders
in 1992 at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (UNCED),
which took place at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It
aims at achieving global sustainable
development. It is an agenda to combat
environmental damage, poverty, disease
through global co-operation on common
interests, mutual needs and shared
responsibilities. One major objective of the
Agenda 21 is that every local government
should draw its own local Agenda 21.

At the international level, the Club of Rome

advocated resource conservation for the first
time in a more systematic way in 1968.
Subsequently, in 1974, Gandhian philosophy
was once again presented by Schumacher
in his book Small is Beautiful. The seminal
contribution with respect to resource
conservation at the global level was made
by the Brundtland Commission Report, 1987.
This report introduced the concept of
‘Sustainable Development’ and advocated
it as a means for resource conservation,
which was subsequently published in a book
entitled Our Common Future.

India
About 43 per cent of the land area
is plain. Mountains account for 30 per
cent of the total surface area of the country.About 27 per cent of the area of the
country is
the plateau region

Land resources are used for the following

purposes:
1. Forests
2. Land not available for cultivation
(a) Barren and waste land
(b) Land put to non-agricultural uses, e.g.
buildings, roads, factories, etc.
3. Other uncultivated land (excluding
fallow land)
(a) Permanent pastures and grazing land,
(b) Land under miscellaneous tree crops
groves (not included in net sown area),
(c) Cultruable waste land (left uncultivated
for more than 5 agricultural years).
4. Fallow lands
(a) Current fallow-(left without cultivation for
one or less than one agricultural year),
(b) Other than current fallow-(left
uncultivated for the past 1 to 5
agricultural years).
5. Net sown area

Area sown more than once in an

agricultural year plus net sown area is
known as gross cropped area.

Total geographical area of India is 3.28

million sq km. Land use data, however, is
available only for 93 per cent of the total
geographical area because the land use
reporting for most of the north-east states
except Assam has not been done fully.
Moreover, some areas of Jammu and Kashmir
occupied by Pakistan and China have also not
been surveyed.

In states like Jharkhand,

Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha
deforestation due to mining have caused severe
land degradation. In states like Gujarat,
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra
overgrazing is one of the main reasons for land
degradation. In the states of Punjab, Haryana,
western Uttar Pradesh, over irrigation is
responsible for land degradation due to water
logging leading to increase in salinity

Alluvial soils contain adequate proportion

of potash, phosphoric acid and lime

black soils are rich in soil nutrients, such as calcium

carbonate, magnesium, potash and lime. These
soils are generally poor in phosphoric contents.

The forest and tree cover in the

country is estimated at 78.92 million hectare,
which is 24.01 per cent of the total
geographical area (dense forest 12.24 per
cent; open forest 8.99 per cent; and
mangrove 0.14 per cent). According to the
State of Forest Report (2013), the dense forest
cover has increased by 10,098 sq km since
1997. However, this apparent increase in the
forest cover is due to plantation by different
agencies.

Extinct Species: Asiatic

cheetah, pink head duck.

teak monoculture has damaged the natural

forest in South India and Chir Pine (Pinus
roxburghii) plantations in the Himalayas
have replaced the Himalayan oak (Quercius
spp.) and Rhododendron forests

The Himalayan Yew (Taxus wallachiana) is a

medicinal plant found in various parts of
Himachal Pradesh and Arunachal Pradesh.
A chemical compound called ‘taxol’ is
extracted from the bark, needles, twigs and
roots of this tree, and it has been successfully
used to treat some cancers – the drug is now
the biggest selling anti-cancer drug in the
world. The species is under great threat due
to over-exploitation.

Corbett
National Park in Uttarakhand, Sunderbans
National Park in West Bengal, Bandhavgarh
National Park in Madhya Pradesh, Sariska
Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, Manas
Tiger Reserve in Assam and Periyar Tiger
Reserve in Kerala are some of the tiger
reserves of India.

even insects are beginning to find

a place in conservation planning. In the
notification under Wildlife Act of 1980 and
1986, several hundred butterflies, moths,
beetles, and one dragonfly have been added to
the list of protected species. In 1991, for the
first time plants were also added to the list,
starting with six species.

(i) Reserved Forests: More than half of the

total forest land has been declared
reserved forests. Reserved forests are
regarded as the most valuable as far as the
conservation of forest and wildlife resources
are concerned.
(ii) Protected Forests: Almost one-third of the
total forest area is protected forest, as declared
by the Forest Department. This forest land are
protected from any further depletion.
(iii) Unclassed Forests: These are other
forests and wastelands belonging to
both government and private individuals
and communities.

Reserved and protected forests are also

referred to as permanent forest estates
maintained for the purpose of producing
timber and other forest produce, and for
protective reasons. Madhya Pradesh has the
largest area under permanent forests,
constituting 75 per cent of its total forest area.

Jammu and Kashmir, Andhra Pradesh,

Uttarakhand, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, and Maharashtra have large
percentages of reserved forests of its total forest
area whereas Bihar, Haryana, Punjab,
Himachal Pradesh, Odisha and Rajasthan have
a bulk of it under protected forests. All Northeastern states and parts of Gujarat
have a very
high percentage of their forests as unclassed
forests managed by local communities.

Mundas and the Santhal of

Chota Nagpur region worship mahua (Bassia
latifolia) and kadamba (Anthocaphalus
cadamba) trees, and the tribals of Odisha and
Bihar worship the tamarind (Tamarindus
indica) and mango (Mangifera indica) trees
during weddings.

India receives nearly 4 per cent of the

global precipitation and ranks 133 in the
world in terms of water availability per
person per annum.

Jawaharlal Nehru proudly proclaimed the

dams as the ‘temples of modern India’;

Jhumming: The ‘slash and burn’ agriculture

is known as ‘Milpa’ in Mexico and Central
America, ‘Conuco’ in Venzuela, ‘Roca’ in
Brazil, ‘Masole’ in Central Africa, ‘Ladang’
in Indonesia, ‘Ray’ in Vietnam.‘Bewar’ or ‘Dahiya’ in Madhya
Pradesh, ‘Podu’ or ‘Penda’ in Andhra Pradesh,
‘Pama Dabi’ or ‘Koman’ or Bringa’ in Odisha,
‘Kumari’ in Western Ghats, ‘Valre’ or ‘Waltre’
in South-eastern Rajasthan, ‘Khil’ in the
Himalayan belt, ‘Kuruwa’ in Jharkhand, and
‘Jhumming’ in the North-eastern region