The Research Approach

Introduction

Research plays a vital role in nation-building. The research-informed decision is crucial

to have sustainable answers to prevailing societal issues. Research is considered as one of the
main ingredients of society’s progress and development (Calderon & Gonzales, 2007). All
aspects of human endeavors, government, education, environment, business, industries, and even
peace and order that research and research data can’t be of great help. As such, research is what
thrust society forward. As the saying goes, “curiosity is the beginning of knowledge, research is
powered by curiosity. When we are curious we ask questions, then we engage ourselves to find
answers to our questions. By answering these questions, we are also learning something and
forming knowledge. With this knowledge, we also ought to share with others by which we are
thriving.

It is then necessary that students must be taught of the basic research processes and
techniques.

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:

a. discuss the nature and importance of research in society;

b. describe the different approaches in research and the world views associated with
them;

c. discuss the different designs and methods associated with the different research
approaches

d. identify the factors that affect the selection of the research approach

Essential Questions

Why do we conduct research?

When can we say that research is good research?

What influence the researcher’s choice of research approach?

Exploration

1.1 What is research?

Research is defined in many ways and many perspectives. Looking and exploring to
their definition one may found out that they share common elements. Some definitions from
different authors are presented below.

Research is a purposive, systematic, and scientific process of gathering, analyzing,

classifying, organizing, presenting, and interpreting data for the solution of a problem for
prediction, for invention, for the discovery of truth, or the expansion or verification of
existing knowledge, all for the preservation and improvement of the quality of human life
(Calderon & Gonzales, 2007).

Research is a scientific investigation of phenomena that includes the collection,

presentation, analysis, and interpretation of facts that align an individual’s speculation with
reality (Abadiano, 2016).

Research is a process of steps (pose questions, collection of data to address the

questions, and answer the questions) used to collect and analyze information to increase our
understanding of a topic or issue. (Creswell, 2018)

Research is a systematic, organized, objective, critical, exhaustive, and

comprehensive process to solve a problem or add the body of the knowledge to the existing
ones (Garcia, 2003).

Research is a systematic study of a problem attacked by a deliberately chosen strategy

which starts with choosing an approach to preparing blueprint (design) acting upon it in
terms of designing research hypotheses, choosing methods and techniques, selecting or
developing data collection tools, processing the data, interpretation and ends with presenting
solution/s of the problem (Grover, 2015).

The research experts emphasized that research is a systematic process with the end in
mind of arriving particular solutions and answers to problems and questions. This quest for
knowledge is the focal point of man’s existence as emphasized by Socrates. The Great Greek
Philosopher said, “Life without inquiry is not living for a human being”. He reasoned that
people are not wise when they think that they know something which in reality they do not.
Being wise is the awareness of one’s ignorance which will lead us to the need to know or
being curious. With this need, the act to inquire be it deductive or inductive will then follow
and thus generation of new knowledge happens.

This act of inquiry is a manifestation of man’s existence as argued by Rene Descartes.

Cogito, ergo sum (I think; therefore I am). Following this line of logic, the research experts
 clearly emphasized a common theme that answering questions, solving problems, or
gathering information is not research per se. The manner, methods, or ways of how questions
are answered, how solutions are developed, and how data are gathered is the crucial element
for one’s action to be called research. This is the activity of the mind that gives essence to
our existence and the progress of our society.

1.2 What are the Purposes of Research?

The definitions of research made by the experts lead to common elements that
research is a purposive scientific process of investigation. From the definition also, the
purpose of the research must vary across disciplines, fields, and interests. However, all of
them lead to the general or common purpose which is then be described as the main purpose
of research based on the definition from the previous section is the improvement and
sustainability of human lives and society. Thus research is for the good life. Proof to it is the
product of research such as machinery, internet, vehicles that are ever-improving that
revolutionized our transportation system, discoveries, and creation of potent drugs to cure
different illnesses, the environment-friendly lighting technology in our society, and the fast-
changing communication means which are impossible two decades ago to name few.

Specific purposes of research as outlined by research experts are as follows:

1. To solve the problem. (COVID 19 is a viral disease which is now being studied to
determine its cure)

2. To discover new facts about known phenomena. (Nurses as front-liners is a known

phenomenon and research may give us a detailed description of their lived experiences as
COVID 19 frontliners.)

3. Improve existing techniques and technology. (Common today are fossil fuel-powered
cars but e-cars are now on the market and no driver cars are also on the testing stage)

4. Develop new instruments. (Bionics are now available to help people particularly PWDs)

5. Discover pathways of action of known substances and elements (Research findings that
the intake of antibiotics without a prescription from the doctors may pose more danger
than good, it is now being regulated by the government)

6. To provide the concrete and empirical basis for decision-making particularly in

industries, in government, and many undertakings (The course of action taken by a
company to increase revenue is based on market research, the legislation of new laws is
also based on research.)
 7. To acquire a better understanding of a phenomenon. (We can understand early age
pregnancy phenomenon better when we can explore the different perspectives in looking
at the phenomenon one of which is the perspective of the early age pregnant women)

8. To expand or verify existing knowledge. (Lopinavir and ritonavir, the drugs for human
immunodeficiency virus are now being tested against COVID 19).

9. To improve practices thus raising the quality of products (In the early 2000s, most of the
cellphones if not all do not have a camera and cannot be used for internet surfing. After a
few years, the camera is a significant feature of the cellphone; internet surfing is also
added)

10. To promote health and prolong life. (A few decades ago, cancer even at an early stage is
not treatable or curable or controllable. However, in the advent of the new development
and innovation of technology, it has been found out and commonly practiced
chemotherapy. This method is a way to treat or control the cancer cells from developing
or spreading and it can also give relief to the cancer patient from pain)

11. To provide humans with their basic needs. (One of the effects of population explosion is
the increasing need for basic needs particularly food. Through research, genetic
engineering has been developed which greatly helps address the increasing need for food.
Through it, food production is efficiently done in a short period such as chicken, fruits
and vegetables and rice)

12. To make work, travel, and communication faster, easier, and more comfortable. (Video
calls are made possible, the airplane and ships are now built for faster and more
comfortable travel, machines are also invented)

1.3 What are the Characteristics of Research?

As pointed out that the manner on how we find solutions, look for answers and devise
our methods in data gathering is an important element for an action to be called research,
then we must know the characteristics of research to distinguish it from other methods of
data gathering, gaining knowledge or finding solutions. The following are the general
characteristics:

1. Systematic. Research should follow an orderly and sequential procedure that leads to a
solution or answer to a problem.

2. Objective – Research findings and conclusions are drawn from logically based empirical
data which are free from biases of the researcher as well as alteration of data or results.
 3. Comprehensive. Research is directed to understand the phenomenon and as such
interpretation should be based on careful examination and analysis of the phenomenon at
all angles before giving a conclusion or generalization.

4. Critical. Research should exhibit precise judgment based on careful analysis and
interpretation of the data so that it can withstand scrutiny from other researchers.

5. Rigorous. Research must observe strict adherence to the “rules” that is, it follows
relevant, appropriate, credible, transferable, and transparent methods.

6. Validity. In general research findings and conclusions must address what they are
supposed to address. As such methods must be carefully thought of and instruments
should measure consistently what is supposed to measure.

7. Replicability. Research must be verifiable which means it should obtain consistent results
across studies aimed at answering the same scientific question using or following the
same methods or procedure.

8. Empirical. The conclusion must be rooted or grounded from systematically or

scientifically obtain data.

9. Relevance. Research must be predicated on content and contextual importance.

10. Ethical framework. Finally, research must have beneficence, non-maleficence, and
respect for the autonomy of the participant and utmost due consideration must be given to
participants for the potential harm.

1.4 What are the Research Approaches?

As emphasized by research experts, research is a systematic search for knowledge or

truth. When we say “systematic search”, we imply process and by implying process we are
also emphasizing “approach”. The approach is an important element and the beginning of
finding answers to the research problem. Research Approaches are plans and procedures that
span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and
interpretation.

The plan necessitates the choice of which approach to select and use to conduct the
study. The decision which approaches to use is influenced by the philosophical assumptions
of the researcher (philosophical stance); the procedures on how to go about the study
(research designs); the process at which data are collected, analyzed, and interpreted
(research methods). Other factors that must be taken into consideration is the nature of the
focus of the study (research problem); the researcher’s personal experiences and the
audiences of which the research intended to address.
 Creswell & Creswell (2018) promoted three research approaches. These are the
quantitative research approach; qualitative research approach; and mixed methods approach.
Quantitative and qualitative approaches should be viewed as a continuum rather than rigid
and opposites. Thus, neither of the two are considered better over the other. These two
approaches must be considered complementary that gives a broad and detailed perspective of
a phenomenon and located at both ends of the continuum. Quantitative gets us the numbers
that give the broad general perspective of the phenomenon while qualitative brings us an in-
depth understanding of the phenomenon. In short quantitative gives as “what happens” while
qualitative provides us “why it happens”. There are studies located in the middle of the
continuum studies that are neither quantitative nor qualitative. The approach is called mixed
methods.

Creswell & Creswell (2018) defines these three approaches as follow:

Qualitative research is an approach for exploring and understanding the meaning of

individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem. The process of research involves
emerging questions and procedures, data typically collected in the participant’s setting, data
analysis inductively building from particulars to general themes, and the researcher making
interpretations of the meaning of the data. The final written report has a flexible structure.
Those who engage in this form of inquiry support a way of looking at research that honors an
inductive style, a focus on individual meaning, and the importance of reporting the
complexity of a situation.

Quantitative research is an approach for testing objective theories by examining the

relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured, typically on
instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures. The final
written report has a set structure consisting of introduction, literature, and theory, methods,
results, and discussion. Like qualitative researchers, those who engage in this form of inquiry
have assumptions about testing theories deductively, building in protections against bias,
controlling for alternative or counterfactual explanations, and being able to generalize and
replicate the findings.

Mixed methods research is an approach to an inquiry involving collecting both

quantitative and qualitative data, integrating the two forms of data, and using distinct designs
that may involve philosophical assumptions and theoretical frameworks. The core
assumption of this form of inquiry is that the integration of qualitative and quantitative data
yields additional insight beyond the information provided by either the quantitative or
qualitative data alone.
1.5 What are the components of a Research Approach?

The research Approach as defined in the plan and procedures to conduct research.
There are three basic components of a research approach. These are philosophical world
view, research design, and methods of research. The philosophical world view originates
from epistemology considerations or the philosophical orientation of the researchers that they
bring to the study. The research design refers to the overall strategy that the researcher
chooses to efficiently attack and solve the problem under study. Research methods are the
specific steps; ways or procedures the researcher will follow to translate the approach into
practice. Figure 1 shows the interaction of these components. When the researcher chooses a
quantitative research approach, he must select also from among different quantitative
research designs and uses methods that suit the design.

For instance, the researcher wants to know the readiness of the students to undergo
online learning. The researcher views that for online learning to be successful factors that
may influence it should be given attention. The researcher wants to know the general norms
or characteristics of the students to make a comprehensive plan of action for online learning
to be successful. With this view, the researcher opted to have a quantitative approach and
chooses a descriptive survey research design. With this design, the researcher may develop a
survey instrument in a form of a questionnaire (it may be a yes or no; 5-point Likert scale;
multiple-choice; or closed-ended questions) and can be administered through the personal
distribution of the questionnaire; or through mails. It could also be emails, phone calls, or
online surveys using an online survey platform.

From the example, the choice of a particular research approach is guided by the world
views of the researcher which will then translate on what type of design which specifies the
what, when, where, how much or what measures to take. The design then will guide the
researcher on the ways of how to collect and analyze the needed data (research method).

1.6 How do worldviews influence research?

Try to imagine that you driving a car traveling at top speed which loses its break. You
realize that not far ahead is a group of 5 people. There is no way to stop the car because of
the broken brakes. If the car will continue on its track, 5 people will die in front of you. You
also realize that on the left side of the track is a child and at the right side is an old woman. If
you steer to left, you sacrifice the child to save 5 people. If you steer to the right, you
sacrifice to the old woman to save 5 people. What would you do?

Our answers to the question in the situation would depend on our worldview of
Philosophical orientation. Whatever our action be, we can always give a justifiable reason.
Same with research, worldview is also very important. This worldview is also Worldviews
are the philosophical stance about the nature of knowledge and how we perceive the world. It
is the intellectual perspective on the world or universe or our conception of the world. It is
also being described as the picture of reality coupled with the essence we associate with this
picture which influences how we think and act. From the research perspective, worldview is
described as our philosophical orientation develop from our experiences, disciplines or
specialization, research orientation, and communities where we belong, our interaction with
other professionals, advisers and mentors as well as through readings.

Our system of beliefs or worldviews which are shaped by the different influences will
have a great impact on how we perceive research. Thus, worldview is a factor in our
selection of what research approach we want to use, whether, quantitative, qualitative, or
mixed methods. Though there are so many beliefs or worldviews researchers are bringing to
their investigation, we are going to narrow them down into four philosophical stance. These
are posted positivism, constructivism, transformative, and pragmatism.

Postpositivism

Postpositivism is an offshoot of positivism. Before going to what postpositivism is,

let us first consider positivism. Positivism is what we normally called the scientific method.
Positivism is the worldview that posits that the goal of knowledge is simply to describe the
phenomena that we experience. The purpose is simply to stick to what we can observe and
measure. Knowledge of anything beyond that, a positivist would hold, is impossible. Thus, it
is a worldview that holds that science is the way to get the truth, to understand the world well
enough so that it can be predicted and controlled. The positivist advocates empiricism – the
idea that observation and measurement was the core of the scientific endeavor. The key
approach of the scientific method is the experiment, the attempt to discern natural laws
through direct manipulation and observation. Thus, positivism only suits physical sciences
where one deals with matter only which has no possibility of changing with time and context
if physical parameters remain the same.

Post positivism is an appeal to probability and variation of results in terms of the

difference in context, situation, and environment. Post positivism challenges the notion of
absolute truth. Postpositivism recognizes that the way scientists think and work and the way
we think in our everyday life are not distinctly different. Scientific reasoning and common
sense reasoning are essentially the same processes. There is no difference in kind between
the two, only a difference in degree. Postpositivism recognizes that all observation is fallible
and has an error and that all theory is revisable. Where the positivist believed that the goal of
science was to uncover the truth, the post-positivist believes that the goal of science is to hold
steadily to the goal of getting it right about reality, even though we can never achieve that
goal. Thus, it can be used for both physical sciences as well as social sciences. Its effect
guides us to write “hypothesis could not be rejected” rather than “hypothesis accepted” or
“hypothesis could not be accepted” rather than “hypothesis rejected”. Postpositivism is the
worldview of those who will select a quantitative approach.

Features Postpositivism Worldviews

a. Deterministic philosophy: it says causes determine effects i.e. the external behavior of
matter (physical science) as well as human beings (behavioral science) is not without
cause. Research should be able to answer this cause and effect relationship based on a
theory which we need to prove, modify, or disprove.

b. Assess causes that influence the outcome: the assessment of the relationship between the
influence of the independent and dependent variable is the soul of post-positivism. The
relation between independent and dependent variables is to be described in terms of a
numerical number as relatedness or differences thus makes this approach a predictive
approach.

c. Reduce ideas to a small set of ideas to test out as variables: reductionism is another
beauty of this approach. Data collected could be reduced to an interpretable number
which expresses the relation between independent and dependent variables.

d. Research is governed by research questions or hypotheses: this approach is strictly formal

which is guided by research questions or hypotheses. Research questions or hypotheses
are nothing but conjectural statements which are to be tested for approval or disapproval.

e. Careful observation and measurement of observations: this is an objective approach that

requires exact instruments and measurements. This introduces the issue of validity and
reliability in the post-positivist approach.

f. Testing a theory: the post-positivist approach is guided by a theory to find the relation
between variables. It aims at testing the guiding theory in terms of the relationship
between variables.

Five Assumptions of post-positivism worldview

a. Knowledge is conjectural: knowledge is never perfect; it has always a scope for

improvement. In other words, it is never a crystal and remains in fluid form, which can be
arranged and rearranged for occlusions at the moment. Unless it works it is assumed to be
hypothetical.

b. Research is the process of making claim: research starts with testing a theory we may call
it deductive logic. The testing of a theory is aimed at confirming its validity and
reliability for application. In case a theory fails to be proved in the application it needs to
be modified or revised or rejected as a final say.
c. Data, evidence, and rational considerations shape knowledge: valid and reliable
instruments are used to obtain information that can bring out valid and reliable
generalizations. Ultimately it is the human rationale that will distinguish between true
and untrue knowledge.

d. The research seeks to develop relevant, true statements: one piece of research cannot be
attributed to the creation of knowledge.

e. Being objective is essential: objectivity is the soul of this approach. Data obtaining
instruments, statistical methods, and the researcher’s intervention need to be objective. If
we ensure objectivity there is likely hood that conclusions will be objective.

Constructivism

Constructivism or social constructivism (often combined with interpretivism) is

typically seen as a philosophical stance for qualitative research. Constructivism accepts
reality as a construct of the human mind, therefore reality is perceived to be subjective.
Constructivism recognizes that reality is a product of human intelligence interacting with
experience in the real world.

Constructivism holds the belief that that knowledge cannot be separated from the
knower and that reality cannot be 'studied in pieces' by identifying variables but must be
analyzed holistically. It also argues that individuals seek understanding of the world in which
they live and work and develop subjective meanings of their experiences or the essence of
the experiences. The meaning or essence of the experiences vary from individual to
individual as the construction of knowledge is influenced by past experiences. For instance, a
glass containing water of half of its actual capacity can be viewed differently by two
individuals. One may perceive it as “half full” and the other may perceive it as “half empty”.
This perception is shaped by the interaction of an individual’s experience of the phenomenon
and his prior experiences.

The perception of reality for constructivists is created by the mind, and different
social realms, organizations, cultures, and experiences can create multiple social realities.
Although the reality is unique to every individual similarity may exist among multiple
individuals who experience the phenomenon and have similar experiences in life. For this,
there are no predefine dependent or independent variables (as would usually be the case in
quantitative, positivist research), but rather an exploration of an account of how people make
sense of the phenomenon makes sense. It is also noteworthy to point out that reality is
subjective, and relativistic rather than fixed, objective, or immutable.
Features Constructivist Worldview

a. The belief that individuals seek understanding of the world: every individual has their
notion or reality of objects and subjects. The researcher needs to understand the concept
from the perspective of the participant which will help in ensuring his well-being and
resolving conflict among people.

b. A belief that people develop subjective meanings of their experiences: this approach
gives full weightage to individual differences which makes them unique in a sense of
identity and personality. This helps us to understand different dimensions and facets of a
single phenomenon.

c. Researchers look for the complexity of views: like post-positivism, this approach does
not look for a reduction of variance. Rather it does reverse i.e. variety of perceptions
make things easier to understand in its real nature.

d. Tools needed to be subjective and open: the data collecting tool must give a lot of
freedom for responding so that participants could construct their meanings of reality. The
questions needed to be open-ended against closed-ended in post-positivism.

e. Researchers focus on the processes and interactions: processes and interactions are
instruments of data collection. The way participants express the words he uses and the
examples he chooses to stress the point are all important features of the constructivist
approach.

f. Recognition that the researcher’s background shapes interpretation and meaning

(interpretivism): researcher is very important in this form of the research approach. His
keen observation, unbiased interpretation, and experience in assessing the meaning of
gestures, words, and images play a vital role in creating knowledge.

g. Develops inductively a theory: it is a grounded approach where theory is built from the
data rather than tested by using the data. Frequency, intensity, pattern, exceptions,
absences all have meaning in this form of research.

Principal Assumptions of constructivism world view

a. Construct meaning through interacting with the world we interpret: this approach
believes people create their own meanings of the social and psychological phenomena.
Data collection instruments should use open-ended questions rather than looking for
objective responses.
b. Make sense of the world based on personal historical and societal perspectives: the
meanings are contextual and lack the intention of generalization. In a way, we can say
that interpretation is also tied to the researcher.

c. The generation of meaning is social from and within the community: as explained,
different people have different meanings of the same concept, meaning thereby the
researcher is interested to generate theory from the available perceptions.

Transformative Worldview

The transformative worldview arises from the critique of the postpositivism and
constructivism. The proponent of the transformative worldview argues that postpositivist
post rigid structural laws and theories which detach from marginalized sectors (persons with
disabilities; indigenous and postcolonial peoples; and members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual,
transsexual, and queer communities) in our society as well as issues on social justice,
oppression, discrimination, and inequalities. For constructivism, it only centers on the
meaning-making of the experiences and did not extend for an action agenda to improve the
lives of marginalized people.

The transformative worldview focuses on the needs of the marginalized sector of

society and any actions should be linked to the social reformation that improves the lives of
the marginalized. This worldview centers on specific and important social issues such as
empowerment, inequality, and oppression. It holds the position that actions for the
transformation of the society should be given attention based on the life experiences of
individuals living in a situation of inequalities, discrimination, oppression, and poverty.

Researches based on these views inclined to qualitative research approach. Thus,

researchers and research inquiry that holds this worldview advocate and contain action
agenda that aims to improve or change the lives of the research participants be it an
individual, institution, or community. The researchers work collaboratively with the
participants. As such both, the researcher and the participants help work together in the
design of the questions, data collection as well as analysis of the data. This way also both of
them will benefit from the research activity. The participants will have an avenue to express
their voices and advancing their plight for change.

Features Transformative Worldview

a. Developed from a belief that research methods do not fit marginalized individuals:
normal methods of research are fit for normal people. Deviant persons and groups can
only be studied on their terms and with their means. Marginalized people do not have
similar experiences to shape their feelings as normal people do.
b. Not well defined: it includes researchers from various foci and includes- feminists,
critical theorists, racial and ethnic minorities, and persons with disabilities. Methods and
techniques are varying as we progress in the project. Data collection is started with some
questions in mind which may increase or decrease as the situation unfolds and the
researcher understands the situation more closely.

c. Individuals often overlooked: in mainstream research, these groups and people are
overlooked as they don’t exist around us. But if we combine all the marginalized groups
it makes a sizable population that deserves to be studied even from a humanitarian point
of view.

d. The element of advocacy in research: the research is directed to address the cause of
marginalized groups. They need to be highlighted in respect of their needs, aspiration,
identity, and the like.

e. Research contains an action agenda: research is aimed at changing the lives of those
involved. It is an effort to bring a change in the lives of marginalized people by bringing
their problems in the public domain. Not only highlighting the problems research focuses
on possible rehabilitation process for such marginalized groups.

f. Issues address important aspects: empowerment, inequality, and oppression are the issues
this approach aims to address. It is issue-based research that tries to find out why there
are extreme classes in our society, why people are discriminated against on the basis of
gender, disability, economic status, power, etc.

Principal Assumptions of Transformative Worldview

a. Research focuses on the lives of people who have traditionally been marginalized: life
and processes are important rather than methods and generalizations. The group or person
in question is the focus of the study, which has been otherwise ignored by mainstream
research, maybe due to lack of will and potential benefit for which most people want to
work.

b. Research focuses on inequities: the basic reason for taking up research in this approach to
focus on the problem of inequality, deficit, injustice, discrimination, and the like. The
whole issue must be settled around intensity, type, and reasons for inequalities followed
by researched suggestions for possible rehabilitation.

c. Links to political and social action to inequalities: research should come out with some
possible social and political actions which can relieve the persons concerned from
inequality being studied. Once these actions are materialized there can be researched for
 the impact of such actions on reducing the problem. Thus we understand this form of
research can be termed as ‘life research’ rather than simply academic or social research.

d. Utilizing research: the research needs to be an applied one on the social front. It must be
focused more on the practical part rather than an academic one but could be transformed
into academic discipline for a better understanding of issues like oppression, domination,
and marginalization.

Pragmatism

The Postpositivism worldview is associated with a quantitative research approach and

constructivism and transformative worldviews are for the qualitative research approach.
These respective worldviews lie at opposite ends of the continuum. The worldview that links
these two ends is the pragmatism. Pragmatism as a worldview arises out of actions,
situations, and consequences rather than antecedent conditions (as in postpositivism).
Pragmatism has many forms but as a worldview, it holds that human actions are always
associated with past experiences and from the beliefs that have originated from those
experiences. Human thoughts are thus intrinsically linked to action. People take actions based
on the possible consequences of their actions, and they use the results of their actions to
predict the consequences of similar actions in the future. Human actions and beliefs are
found in their consequences. Action as a central point, pragmatists believe that reality
changes at every turn of events. Action is the way to change existence.

The pragmatism worldview accepts that there can be single or multiple realities that
are open to empirical inquiry. Pragmatists point out that objective reality exists apart from
human experience but grounded in the environment and can only be encountered through
human experience. As such, knowledge and reality are anchored on the beliefs and habits that
are socially constructed.

Researches anchored on pragmatism embraces multiple methods. It holds the position

that researchers must use approaches that work best to answer the research problem being
investigated. It emphasizes the importance of focusing the attention on the research problem
and use pluralistic approaches to answer the problem and derive knowledge from it. Thus, it
is associated with mixed-methods or multiple-methods.

Features Pragmatism Worldview

a. Arises from actions, situation, and consequences: this approach focuses on actions and
consequences rather than cause and effect as in the case of post-positivism. It is a
contextual and time-bound approach and never aims at theory building or theory testing.
b. Focus on “what works”: when theories fail pragmatism starts i.e. science is which works.
The methods and techniques may be traditional or self-invented but the information and
results these deliver should be valid and reliable.

c. Focus on problem more than methods: solving the problem at hand is the issue rather
than how we solve it. More than one approach, methods, and techniques could be merged
to reach the solution.

d. Practical more than focus on methods: it is flexible as far as the use of methods is
concerned. If we solve a problem by non-traditional method researcher should even go
for establishing the validity of the newly discovered method.

Principal Assumptions of pragmatism world view

a. No commitment to one philosophy or method: this approach is a dynamic one that avoids
sticking to one methodology or method.

b. The researcher has the freedom to choose methods, techniques, etc.: one kind of method
and technique is not sufficient for achieving the target. There can be a mix of quantitative
and qualitative methods and techniques.

c. Look at many ways of collecting data and comparing it (triangulation): data can be
collected in terms of figure, images, narratives, content analysis, and its collection
instrument may range from physical measurements, scales, observations to even
narratives, and even self-inquiry.

d. “Truth is what works at that time”: as explained above pragmatism is a practical approach
and looks for theory building in the context only.

e. There is an intended purpose for the research and an examination of consequences: it is

tied to the purpose like action research, but with valid and reliable procedures and
instruments.

f. Research is situated in context (social, historical, etc.): as already explained research is

contextual and can’t be generalized for the population in general.

g. The practical purpose for research; no need to focus on the nature of the world: in this
context, we may consider the approach as applied one and can’t be interpreted at the
molecular level and even for multistep phenomena. It is more about the external nature of
phenomena rather than its internal structure.

h. The very open approach to collecting, analyzing, and looking at data: this approach is
flexible in terms of vital elements of the research design including data collection,
 analysis, and interpretation of the data. This flexibility provides a chance for creatively
exploring the facts by mixing more than one method.

Do worldviews influence the kinds of research questions that we ask around topics
we are interested in and the research approach we are going to use? As emphasized,
worldviews are the beliefs and philosophical orientation the researcher brings in the research.
It is then very important that one must examine our sets of beliefs and orientation to have a
clear visualization of how to go about the research study and answer the research problem.

1.7 Research Designs

The researcher needs to select an appropriate research design that would serve as the
framework on how to go over or conduct the research study. Research design is the inquiry
framework within the different approaches. After the selection of what approach to use, the
research must select a particular design within that approach in answering the research
problem. The research design refers to the framework or overall strategy that a researcher
must choose to integrate the different components of the study coherently and logically,
thereby, ensuring that the researcher will effectively address the research problem; it
constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis of data. It should also
be noted that the research problem determines the type of design you should use, not the
other way around.

As emphasized, each research approach has a variety of research designs that research
can choose depending on the nature of the research problem.

Quantitative Research

Quantitative Research analyzes variable relationships in terms of numbers and

statistical strategies to review findings. Quantitative research is defined as a systematic
investigation of phenomena by gathering quantifiable data (numbers) and performing
statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques . Four general types of quantitative
design are:

Descriptive Design

Descriptive research design is a purposive process that seeks to describe the current
status of an identified variable such as prevailing conditions, practices, beliefs, processes,
trends, and cause-effect relationships and then making an adequate and accurate
interpretation of the data with the aid of statistical analysis. These research projects are
designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon. The analysis and synthesis of the
data provide the test of the hypothesis. Systematic collection of information requires careful
selection of the units studied and careful measurement of each variable.
 Examples of Descriptive Research:

 A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation

 The tobacco use habits of teenagers

 Attitudes of scientists regarding global warming

 The extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives

 Level citizen satisfaction on the services their local government unit

Correlational Design

Correlational Design attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two

or more variables using statistical data. In this type of design, relationships between and
among several facts are sought and interpreted. This type of research will recognize trends
and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to prove the causes for these
observed patterns. Cause and effect are not the basis of this type of observational research.
The data, relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. Variables are not
manipulated; they are only identified and are studied as they occur in a natural setting.

Examples of Correlational Research:

 The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

 The relationship between diet and anxiety

 The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course

 The relationship between PNUAT Test scores and the LET scores

 The covariance of smoking and lung disease

Quasi-Experimental Design

Quasi-Experimental Design attempts to establish cause-effect relationships among the

variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key
differences. An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter,
and the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured. The
researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are naturally formed or
pre-existing groups. Identified control groups exposed to the treatment variable are studied
and compared to groups who are not. When analyses and conclusions are made, determining
causes must be done carefully, as other variables, both known and unknown, could still affect
the outcome.
 Examples of Correlational Research:

 The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade

 The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism

 The effect of gender on social science achievement

 The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students

 The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude

Experimental Design

Experimental Design is called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to

establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. The
true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a
laboratory setting has nothing to do with it. A true experiment is any study where an effort is
made to identify and impose control over all other variables except one. An independent
variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables. Subjects are
randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally occurring groups

Examples of Experimental Research:

 The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

 The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school

 The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture

approach on students’ achievement

 The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were
scheduled for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation

 A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on the

computational skill

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is empirical research where the data are not in the form of
numbers. It is used to answer questions about experience, meaning, and perspective, most
often from the standpoint of the participant. These data are usually not amenable to counting
or measuring. It involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or
audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth
insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Among the types of qualitative
research are the following:

Narrative research

Narrative research is a design of inquiry from the humanities in which the researcher
studies the lives of individuals and asks one or more individuals to provide stories about their
lives. Narrative research aims to explore and conceptualize human experience as it is
represented in textual form. Aiming for an in-depth exploration of the meanings people
assign to their experiences, narrative researchers work with small samples of participants to
obtain rich and free-ranging discourse. The emphasis is on storied experience. Generally, this
takes the form of interviewing people around the topic of interest, but it might also involve
the analysis of written documents. This information is then often retold or restored by the
researcher into a narrative chronology.

Example Narrative research

 COVID 19 Patient in the Physician’s Perspective: Narrative Research

 International Interns: A Narrative Inquiry

 Stories of Aids Patient: A Narrative Inquiry

 A Narrative Inquiry on Women’s Career and Motherhood

 Everyday Lives of LGBTI in Kathmandu Valley: A Narrative Inquiry

Phenomenology

Phenomenological research is a design of inquiry coming from philosophy and

psychology in which the researcher describes the lived experiences of individuals about a
phenomenon as described by participants. The key element of this design is the research
attempts to understand that people experience a certain phenomenon. This description
culminates in the essence of the experiences for several individuals who have all experienced
the phenomenon.

Example Phenomenological Research

 Filipino Nurses-turned Teachers: A Phenomenological Study

 A Phenomenological Study on the Online Learning Among Teacher Education

Students

 Lived Experiences of the Female Students Living in a Mixed Gender Dormitories

  Lived Experiences of Gay Couples

 The Experiences of Student-Prostitute: A Phenomenological Study

Grounded theory

Grounded theory is a design of inquiry from sociology in which the researcher derives
a general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of
participants which uses inductive reasoning. It is the design which aims to generate and
develop a theory grounded from the data. This process involves using multiple stages of data
collection and the refinement and interrelationship of categories of information.

Example of Grounded theory Research

 Early Age Pregnancy Among Millennial Students

 Conceptualizing Islamic psychotherapy: A grounded theory study

 The Social Health Process of Adolescents: A Grounded Theory Study

 An Elaboration on the Causes of Plagiarism in Iran: a Grounded Theory Study

 Bridging the Gap Between Ethical Theory and Practice in Medicine: A

Constructivist Grounded Theory Study

 A grounded theory study for digital academic entrepreneurship

Ethnography

Ethnography is a design of inquiry coming from anthropology and sociology in which

the researcher studies the shared patterns of behaviors, language, and actions of an intact
cultural group in a natural setting over a prolonged period. It is the study of people in their
environment through the use of methods such as participant observation and face-to-face
interviewing. It aims to give a detailed account of a given community or society attempts to
get a comprehensive understanding of the circumstances of the people being studied. The
design is also called “writing about the people”. It requires the complete immersion of the
researcher in the culture and everyday life of the people who are the subject of his study.

Example of Grounded theory Research

 The Change: The Lumad in the Digital Era

 Social Science Learning Model: An Ethnography Study

  Agriculture as Cultural Preservation: An Ethnography Study of a Female Lenca
Agricultural Cooperative in Honduras

 Online Ethnography Studies in Computer Science: A Systematic Mapping

 Communication Culture of Sangiran World Heritage Site Society: An

Ethnography Study

Case Studies

Case studies are a design of inquiry found in many fields, especially evaluation, in
which the researcher develops an in-depth analysis of a case, often a program, event, activity,
process, or one or more individuals. It is particularly useful to employ when there is a need to
obtain an in-depth appreciation of an issue, event, or phenomenon of interest, in its natural
real-life context. Cases are bounded by time and activity, and researchers collect detailed
information using a variety of data collection procedures over a sustained period.

Example of Grounded theory Research

 The Change: The Lumad in the Digital Era

 A Pilot Case Study of a Student Learning Community

 Professional learning communities: A case study

 Effect of Multimodal Instructional Strategies on Teaching and Learning Social

Studies in Senior High Schools: A Case Study in Sagnarigu Municipality

 Case studies of adolescents and incest

 Case studies in adolescent self-harm

 Mathematics Pre-service Teachers' Anticipation of Students' Responses: a Case

Study of Lesson Study for Pre-Service Teachers

Participatory Action Research

Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a research design within the social sciences
that emphasizes the collaborative participation of trained researchers as well as local
communities in producing knowledge directly relevant to the stakeholder community.
Participatory Action Research is a design that emphasizes participation and action. It seeks to
understand the world by trying to change it, collaboratively, and following reflection. The
knowledge produced through PAR does not just intend to contribute to the theoretical corpus
of the social sciences, but it also inherently contains an agenda of social change. As such, the
ends of PAR include (a) developing and fostering a participatory model in social science
field research, (b) preferring a practical form of knowledge-in-action to an empirical form of
knowledge-as-statistic, (c) mobilizing local communities to have a concrete role in solving
their problems effectively and systematically, (d) making development policy interventions,
(e) advocating for the inclusion of local stakeholders—their experiences and forms of
understanding in socio-economic theory and policy and attempting to correct power
imbalances in knowledge and information flows.

Example of Grounded theory Research

 Hearing a Voice: Results of a Participatory Action Research Study

 Bullying in Schools: a Participatory Action Research Study

 A Participatory Action Research Study on the Vocational Experience Activities of

Immigrant Youth

 Using a Learning Community to Manage Pain: A Participatory Action Research

Study

 Human Securitability: A Participatory Action Research Study Involving Novice

Teachers and Youngsters

 Empower Students Voice Through Innovative Pedagogy: A Participatory Action

Research Study

Mixed Methods

Mixed methods research is an emergent approach to research that advances the

systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative (e.g., experiments, surveys)
and qualitative (e.g., focus groups, interviews) research within a single investigation or
sustained program of inquiry. The basic premise of this is that such integration provides a
more complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and qualitative
data collection and analysis which will give a better understanding of the research problem. It
draws on potential strengths of both qualitative and quantitative research allowing
researchers to explore diverse perspectives and uncover relationships that exist between the
intricate layers of our multifaceted research questions.

Convergent Mixed Methods

Convergent mixed methods are a form of mixed methods design in which the
researcher converges or merges quantitative and qualitative data to provide a comprehensive
analysis of the research problem. In this design, the investigator typically collects both forms
of data at roughly the same time and then integrates the information in the interpretation of
the overall results. Contradictions or incongruent findings are explained or further probed in
this design.

Example of Convergent Mixed Methods

 A Convergent Parallel Mixed-Methods Study of Controversial Issues in Social

Studies Classes: A Clash of Ideologies

 Convergent parallel mixed-methods study to understand information exchange

in pediatric critical care and inform the development of safety-enhancing
interventions: a protocol study

 Elements of Outstanding Leadership: A Convergent Parallel Mixed Methods

Study of the Development of Transformational Leadership

 Using mixed methods to understand the mechanisms and prevalence of

creative engagement in drama-based instruction

 Mixed Methods Convergent Study Designs in Health Professions Education

Research: Toward Meaningful Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative
Data

 A Convergent Mixed-Methods Exploration of the Effects of Community-

Engaged Coursework on Graduate Student Learning

Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods

Explanatory sequential mixed methods are one in which the researcher first conducts
quantitative research, analyzes the results, and then builds on the results to explain them in
more detail with qualitative research. It is considered explanatory because the initial
quantitative data results are explained further with the qualitative data. It is considered
sequential because the initial quantitative phase is followed by the qualitative phase. This
type of design is popular in fields with a strong quantitative orientation (hence the project
begins with quantitative research), but it presents challenges of identifying the quantitative
results to further explore and the unequal sample sizes for each phase of the study.

Example of Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods

 Quality of life of patients with Hirschsprung disease after Duhamel and Soave
pull-through procedures: A mixed-methods sequential explanatory cohort
study
  A mixed-methods sequential explanatory study of the psychosocial factors
that impact on midwives’ confidence to provide bereavement support to
parents who have experienced a perinatal loss

 Learner-generated materials in a flipped pronunciation class: A sequential

explanatory mixed-methods study

 Learner profiles of attitudinal learning in a MOOC: An explanatory sequential

mixed-methods study

 Factors affecting food consumption patterns and dietary practices of

adolescent girls An explanatory sequential mixed-method study

 How and Why Digital Generation Teachers Use Technology in the

Classroom: An Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Study

Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods

Exploratory sequential mixed methods are the reverse sequence from the explanatory
sequential design. In the exploratory sequential approach, the researcher first begins with a
qualitative research phase and explores the views of participants. The data are then analyzed,
and the information is used to build into a second, quantitative phase. The qualitative phase
may be used to build an instrument that best fits the sample under study, to identify
appropriate instruments to use in the follow-up quantitative phase, to develop an intervention
for an experiment, to design an app or website, or to specify variables that need to go into a
follow-up quantitative study. Particular challenges to this design reside in focusing in on the
appropriate qualitative findings to use and the sample selection for both phases of research.

Example of Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods

 Development and Testing of a Question Prompt List for Common Hand

Conditions: An Exploratory Sequential Mixed-Methods Study

 Culturally Inclusive and Responsive Curricular Learning Environments

(CIRCLEs): An exploratory sequential mixed-methods approach

 Designing and psychometric evaluation of disease-related fear scale (D-RFS)

in adults with epilepsy: A sequential exploratory mixed methods design

 An exploratory mixed-methods approach to implicit and explicit identification

with non-suicidal self-injury
  Perceived challenges of nurse educators while teaching undergraduate nursing
students in Pakistan: An exploratory mixed-methods study

1.8 Research Methods

Another important component of the research approach is the research method.

Research methods are specific procedures, strategies, and/or techniques used for collecting
and analyzing data to discover new information or create and/or develop a better
understanding of the topic, phenomenon, or problem. The research method is an integral part
of the research design. If the research design is the plan, the research method is the tools and
strategies to carry out the plan scientifically. Two questions need to be answered when
deciding what method to use. The first is how the researchers will collect the data and the
second is how the researchers will analyze the data.

Data collection involves a lot of ways and types. It depends on what type of data the
researchers will collect. Do they prefer numbers (quantitative) or words (qualitative)? If they
prefer quantitative data then they need to prepare instruments. The instrument may take the
form of a questionnaire or test or checklist. It could be an exam or a rating scale. The
questionnaire must undergo a validity and reliability test before the administration of the test.
In the administration of the instrument, the researchers may choose to personally administer
or give the questionnaire to the participants or send them through e-mails or snail mail or an
online platform like goggle forms.

If the researchers prefer qualitative data then they need to prepare themselves. In
qualitative research, the researchers themselves are considered the instruments, and all others
are tools. As such, the researcher may opt to interview the participants individually. It could
also be through a panel discussion, round table discussion, or focused group discussion.
Observation on how the participants naturally behave in their natural environment is also
another way. If it is literature or documents, they can have document analysis. The
researchers may also opt to live with the participants for several days, weeks, or months, or
even a year and experience the participants’ way of life.

Analysis of the data depends on the type of data gathered whether quantitative or
qualitative. If it is quantitative, then the researchers will use statistical analysis methods to
describe the variables and/or to test the relationship between variables. Statistical treatment
of the data depends on the research questions. Researchers may also opt to use statistical
software like SPSS and Minitab. If it is qualitative, then the researchers will use thematic
analysis to give interpret patterns and give meaning to the data. Transcribing the data,
looking for significant statements, coding, categorizing, generating, themes, reviewing
themes, and defining themes are common steps in analyzing and interpreting data. There are
also applications to analyze qualitative data like Nvivo, MaxQDA, and Datagrav.
Table 1. Methods Summary (Excerpt from Creswell & Creswell 2018)
Reseach Approach Continuum

Quantitative Methods Mixed Methods Qualitative Methods

Pre-determined methods Both pre-determined and Emerging methods

emerging methods

Instrument-based Open-ended and close-ended Open-ended questions

questions (questionnaire, questions
test, scale)

Quantitative data Multiple data (both Qualitative data (words

(numbers)-performance quantitative and qualitative) including audiovisual)
data, attitude, the Interview data, observation
achievement rate data, document, audiovisual

Statistical Analysis Both Statistical Analysis and Thematic Analysis (Word,

Thematic Analysis text, image analysis)

Statistical interpretation Both Statistical interpretation Themes and patterns

and Themes and patterns interpretation
interpretation

The worldviews, research design, and research methods are vital components that
help determine the research approach. Researchers must examine themselves and their
philosophical orientation as this will help how to approach the research problem. The
researchers then can devise a plan on how to answer and investigate the research problem
and enumerate the steps or procedures that they will follow to execute the plan. An example
is shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Interaction of the Components of Research Approach

Phenomenon: Online Learning Delivery

Quantitative Mixed Qualitative
Worldview Postpositivism Pragmatism Constructivism
(Philosophical
Stance)
Scenario The researcher will test a The researcher will The researcher will
theory that their factors explore the viewpoints seek to explore the
associated with online and experiences of the lived experiences of the
learning. Checking, teachers on online teachers who can
investigating, and learning derived from experience online
 describing these factors the qualitative phase will learning delivery. By
may help to devise a be used to develop a examining their
comprehensive approach model, framework, or experiences, feelings,
to how best online theory on online challenges, and
learning delivery be learning delivery. Then, practices, these will
implemented. The this information will shed light on how to
researcher may determine also be used to craft a prepare and help the
the level of the readiness questionnaire for a new teachers be better
of the teachers to survey to be conducted equipped in delivering
implement online learning on online learning online learning.
delivery. delivery.
Research Descriptive survey Exploratory Sequential Phenomenology
Design Mixed Method
Research A questionnaire using a 5- Phase 1: Interview Interview
Method: point Likert scale Phase 2: Questionnaire
Data Gathering
Research Statistical Analysis Phase 1: Thematic Thematic analysis
Method: ( Frequency, Mean, analysis (code, category, (code, category,
Analysis Pearson-r correlation, themes) themes)
regression analysis) Phase 2: Statistical
Analysis ( Frequency,
Mean, Pearson-r
correlation, regression
analysis)

1.9 Factors in the Selection of the Research Approach

Other factors that affect the selection of the research approach are the problem, the
researcher’s experience, and the target audience of the research. A research problem is an
issue observed by the researcher in the field, a gap found from the review of related
literature. It could also be contradicting results or findings from different studies. It could
also be a phenomenon wherein no theories can explain it. Problems will influence
researchers’ choice of approach.

Another important factor is the experiences of the researchers. Training and seminars
attended by the researchers help influence their decision as to what type of approach to
select. Orientation and exposure to a particular research approach would like to influence
their choice. If the researchers are exposed to quantitative research then most often than not
they will opt to select a quantitative approach. If the researchers expose to interview, panel
discussion, focus group discussion, and observation and incline to interpret and giving
meaning to people's experiences then they will most probably choose the qualitative
 approach. If the researchers are familiar with the two approaches and have enough resources
and time, they will most probably select mixed methods.

The target audience or recipient of the research results may also influence the choice
of approach. The target audience or recipient may be the funding agency, the institution
where the researchers are connected, the journal, or conference where it is intended to be
published or presented. All of these can influence the choice of the research approach.

Learning Activities

Activity 1: Worldview

 To check your worldview, visit https://www.culturalevolution.org/worldview-

questionnaire/ and try to answer the worldview questionnaire

 Submit your output to our google classrom

Activity 2: Research Approach

1. Download and read the following published articles:

 Doing what works: A grounded theory case study of technology use by

teachers of English at a Korean university (Thomas E. Webster, Jeong-Bae
Son, 2015,
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0360131514001857 ).

 Pre-service teachers’self-efficacy in implementing inclusive practicesand

resilience in Finland (Akie Yada, A., Bjorn, P.M., Savolainen, P., Kyttala, M., Aro,
M. & Savolainenen, H., 2021)

https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0742051X21001220?
token=6796EEC274074F9DE821A48EF94928213E5AD9E8C8ECED4105CB9B4873A5F
867C9E0FF13BA75D5445EF74C38EC435351&originRegion=us-east-
1&originCreation=20211007111051

 Teachers are works in progress”: A mixed-methods study of teaching residents’

beliefs and articulations of teaching for social justice (Reagan, Chen, Vernikoff, 2016)
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0742051X16300919

 Identify the research question in each of the journal articles and if you are to
conduct the study, discuss what approach would be best to study the question and
why.
 2. Take a topic that you would like to study, and using Table 2 as guide, create your
own table that shows the interaction of the components of the research approach.

Summary

Research, as defined by the experts, is a systematic process of investigation which

involves comprehensive and objective data gathering, analysis, and interpretation to answer a
question, solve a problem, and adding a new set of a body of knowledge. Researchers need to
decide on what approach to use whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed-methods
approach. The selection of the approach is influenced by the worldview or philosophical
stance of the researcher, the research design, and the research methods. The decision is
further influenced by three major considerations. These are the research problem, the
researcher’s experience or exposure, and the target audience.

Checkpoint

Students are encouraged to use literature (books, e-books, net, and research articles) to
answer the following questions. Every statement associated with the source material must be
properly cited and include a page for the list of references.

1. Why do we do research?

2. How do you characterize good research?

3. How do worldviews affect our choice of research approach?

4. How does research design differ from the research methods?

5. How do the different approaches differ from each other? Mention three
characteristics.

Extension

List five possible topics in your area of specialization that you are interested to study.
Give five reasons for each topic why you are interested to study the topic.