Writing Chapter 2: Methods

Introduction
A common notion about methods is “replicability is the hallmark of a good methods”.
It is then a must that as a research, you will write the methods clearly and succinctly. This is
in order for the readers and other researchers to easiliy follow the methods you will use in
your study. And if in case other researcher will use your methods, they can easiliy follow
them even without asking you for the details. In others words, the way methods are written is
enough for other researchers to follow. If the methods can be easily understood and followed,
there will be many researchers who will use the methods. And the more researchers uses your
methods, the greater the credibility of your methods and your study in general.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students will be able to:
a. Demonstrate understanding of the different parts of the methods of the study;
b. Discuss the functions and/or purpose of the methods of the study;
c. Determine the tips and guidelines in writing methods of the study;
d. Write the methods of the research proposal.

Essential Questions
Why do carefully written methods very important?
How to write the methods of the study?

Exploration

1.1 Methodology/Research Designs.

In this section you are expected to describe the research design selected for the study.
You also need to explain the rationale of the selection of the design over other designs
(descriptive, correlational, experimental, quasi-experimental, historical, case study,
ethnography, phenomenology, content analysis, exploratory, explanatory, embedded,
triangulation, etc.). Your arguments of the selection of the design must be supported by
citations. The citations must support your arguments on its appropriateness in answering the
research problem. You should also explain exactly how the selected design will be used to
collect data for each and every variable (for a quantitative study), or how the selected design
will be used to collect data to describe the nature of the phenomena in detail (for a qualitative
study). It identifies the specific instruments and data sources to be used to collect all of the
different data required for the study.

Points to remember in writing research design.

 Elaborates what is the selected research design all about.
 Provides the rationale for selecting the particular research design supported by
empirical references.
  Justifies why the design was selected as the best approach to collect the needed
data, as opposed to alternative designs.
 Describes how the specific, selected research design will be used to collect the
type of data needed to answer the research questions and the specific instruments
or data sources that will be used to collect this data.
 Uses authoritative source(s) (Published Researches) to justify the design as much
as possible.

1.2 Research Site or Research Locale.

This section is only optional to some unless specifically asked by the requiring body
or institution. In this section, you are expected to describe the site or locale where the study is
to be conducted. You need to describe the significant characterisitics (e.g. tradition, people’s
way of living/practices, customs, livelihood, terrain, distance from the nearest urban centers,
mode of transportation, etc.) of the research locale particularly if the the locale has an
important bearing to answer the research problem. Include locator map as necessary.

1.3 Participants of the study

In this section, you are expected to describe the particiapnts of the study. You can
describe the participants in terms of the selection criteria (demographic, clinical or
geographical characteristics). You discuss the sampling technique you employ in selecting
the participants and the reason why you are using that technique. If it is a quantitative study,
you also include how you are going to select each participants from the target population. If
it is a qualitative study, you include the list of the selection criteria as well as the tentative
number of sample (if quantitative: the computed sample, no data saturation is needed) as you
will conduct the study but emphasize that data sutaration will determine the actual number of
participants.

1.4 Instrument (Quantitative Research Only)

In this section, you are expected to write/discuss your research intruments. You
discuss what instruments/tools you are going to use in order to measure the variables of the
study. You include the discuss how the instruments/tools will be developed, whether that is
researcher-made or adopted directly or adopted with modification from other researcher, or
collated from different sources. If adopted and will be modified to suit to the current study,
you discuss the modification to be made. You discuss the different parts of the instrument
and what variable in the study is measured by each part. If the instruments/tools are
researcher-made, or adopted but modified, you discuss how the instruments will be validated
and who will validate them. If they are adopted without modification, you make sure that the
instrument went through the validation process and you cite the owner of the instrument
(inform the owner through writing (electronic or snail amil) that you will be using his/her
instrument). If the instruments/tools are researcher-made, or adopted but modified, you
include the process of pilot testing as well as how you are going to ensure the realibility of
the instrument (acceptable reliability coefficient is 0.70 and above).
1.5 Data Gathering Procedure/Data Collection
In this section, you are expected to discuss the details in its entirety the process you
will take in order to gather information-rich and reliable data. You make sure to
comprehensively and succinctly discuss each phases (asking permission from authorities,
sending invitation to participants, instrument administration, interviewing of the participants,
observation, etc.) of the data gathering procedure as well the specific steps you are going to
take. The details is very important for other researchers to be able to replicate the methods.
You take this section like a recipe of your favorite dish, you need to carefully follow the step-
by-step procedure in order to produce the best results.

Principles of Data Collection

a. Keeping things simple
b. Planning the whole process
c. Ensuring reliability, credibility and validity
d. Addressing the ethics of data collection.
e. Use the 5-Right Principle
 Get the right data
 Get the data right:
 Get the data right away
 Get the data the right way
 Get the right data management

Some basic questions to ask before collecting any information:

 What information do you intend to gather?
 Where will you get this information, and how will it be collected?
 Why is the information needed, and what questions is the information going to
answer?
 Who will use the information once collected?
 How will the information be analysed?
 How will any analyses be used?

1.6 Data Analysis

In this section, you are expected to provides the detailed discussion of the step-by-
step procedures on how the data will analyze. You need to include the process by which you
will prepare raw data for analysis and then will subsequently analyze them. If the study is
quantitative, discuss the the statistical tools that you are going to use to analyze the data to
answer each research question. If it is qualitative, you make a sophisticated discussion of the
process of analyzing the data. It is also important to cite the literature from which you will
base you qualitative data analysis.
1.7 Role of the Researcher (Qualitative Research Only)
In this section, you are expected to discuss clearly your role in the study since the
researcher is the key to research integrity in qualitative research. Unlike in quantitative
research, qualitative researcher lack many of the protections against errors that the statistical
methods, standardized measures, and classical designs afford have thus, researcher must rely
on their own competence, openness, and honesty. For this reason that the researcher needs to
emphasize his/her competence to carry out the steps that ensure the rigour and
trustworthiness of the study. Just like with the quantitative study, there is need to ensure the
validity of the instrument before data gathering, in qualitative research wherein you, the
researcher, are considered as the instrument need also to describe the relevant aspects of
yourself. These include your expertise, experiences, trainings, expectations and abilities to
conduct the study. You also include how you are going to manage your biases as well as how
you are going to manage the data the participants. You also discuss your role whether emic,
etic or both.

1.8 Methods and Validations (Qualitative Research Only)

In this section, you are expected to discuss how you as a researcher ensure
trustworthiness of the study. Trustworthiness, we mean, the rigour of the study or the degree
of confidence in data, interpretation, and methods used to ensure the quality of a study. You
need to discuss how you will establish sophisticated protocols and procedures necessary for
the study to be considered worthy of consideration and the findings are trustworthy that they
are anchored on data.

Trustworthiness Criteria
1. Credibility. The confidence in the truth of the study. This concept is analogous to internal
validity in quantitative research. The question a reader might ask is, “Was the study
conducted using standard procedures typically used in the indicated qualitative
approach, or was an adequate justification provided for variations?” Techniques used to
establish credibility include prolonged engagement with participants, persistent
observation if appropriate to the study, peer-debriefing, member-checking, and reflective
journaling. Evidence also should be presented of iterative questioning of the data,
returning to examine it several times. Part of the ensuring credibility is triangulation (the
use of multiple methods or data sources in qualitative research to develop a
comprehensive understanding of phenomena).
Triangulation involves using at least two related data sources, data collection methods
or researchers with the aim of reducing inherent bias associated with a single source,
method or researcher. Triangulation should not be seen as a tool to check the validity of
data and labeling data as ‘‘true’’ or false’’ but to ascertain the validity of the inferences
derived from multiple data sources.
Types of Triangulation
a. Data Triangulation.
b. Investigator Triangulation
 c. Theory Triangulation
d. Methodological Triangulation
e. Environmental Triangulation
2. Dependability. This refers the consistency and reliability of the research findings
and the degree to which research procedures are documented, allowing someone
outside the research to follow, audit, and critique the research process observe. It
is also considered as the stability of the data over time and over the conditions of
the study. Procedures for dependability include maintenance of an audit trail of
process logs and peer-debriefings with a colleague. Process logs are researcher
notes of all activities that happen during the study and decisions about aspects of
the study, such as whom to interview and what to

Audit Trail is a detailed description of sources and techniques of data collection

and analysis (interview/observation), interpretations made, decisions taken, and
influences on the researcher with the aim of demonstrating truthfulness within the
findings.

Peer Debriefing is a method in which the researcher discusses the research

methodology, data analysis and interpretations continuously throughout the
research process with his/her peer who is not directly involved in the research
project.

3. Confirmability. This refers the level of confidence that the research study’s
findings are based on the participants’ narratives and words rather than potential
researcher biases. Confirmability is there to verify that the findings are shaped by
participants more so than they are shaped by a qualitative researcher. Sometimes
it is also called the degree the degree findings are consistent and could be
repeated. Researchers keep detailed notes of all their decisions and their analysis
as it progresses. Some methods are by asking colleagues to review the notes, peer-
debriefing sessions with co-researchers (if the study is a team research) and/or
member cheking (asking participants on the accuracy of the data).

4. Transferability. This refers to the degree to which the results of qualitative

research can be useful to other persons in other setting or transferred to other
contexts or settings. The qualitative researcher can enhance transferability by
doing a thorough job of describing the research context and the assumptions that
were central to the research. The person who wishes to “transfer” the results to a
different context is then responsible for making the judgment of how sensible the
transfer is. It invites readers of research to make connections between elements of
a study and their own experience.

1.9 Potential Ethical Issues

In this section, you are expected to discuss in details how you are going to address the
potential ethical issues in the conduct of the study. These issues may emanate from rights of
the participants (privacy, respect, justice and beneficence), potential harm to
participants(psychological, emotional, financial, social, etc), as well the ethical standards of
 conducting research. Your discuss may include but not limited to the: Informed consent,
voluntary participation, do no harm, confidentiality, anonymity, data management and assess
only relevant components.
Ten most important principles related to ethical considerations

1. Research participants should not be subjected to harm in any ways whatsoever.

2. Respect for the dignity of research participants should be prioritised.
3. Full consent should be obtained from the participants prior to the study.
4. The protection of the privacy of research participants has to be ensured.
5. Adequate level of confidentiality of the research data should be ensured.
6. Anonymity of individuals and organisations participating in the research has to be
ensured.
7. Any deception or exaggeration about the aims and objectives of the research must be
avoided.
8. Affiliations in any forms, sources of funding, as well as any possible conflicts of interests
have to be declared.
9. Any type of communication in relation to the research should be done with honesty and
transparency.
10. Any type of misleading information, as well as representation of primary data findings in
a biased way must be avoided.
Learning Activities
Activity 1: Writing Chapter 2 of the Proposal
After determining the research topic and defining the research problem and conducting
review of the related literature, you are now ready to write the Chapter 2 of the proposal.
Following the different suggestions, tips and guidelines, write the Chapter 2 of your proposal
using the format given in this module. Take note of the parts for quantitative and qualitative
studies.
Summary
Chapter 2 of the study contain the methods of the study. Among the parts of the
methods are: research design/methodlogy, research locale/setting/are/site, participants of the
study (sampling and selection criteria), instrument (quantative study only), data gathering
procedures, data analysis, role of the researcher (qualitative study only), methods of
validation (qualitative study only) and poteial ethical issues. As a researcher, you need to
discuss each part of the methods comprehensively and succinctly.

Checkpoint
Discuss your answers to the following questions
1. Discuss how to write each section of the Chapter 2 of the study. What are
expected to be found in each part?
Extension
1. Why is it important to discuss the role of the research in the qualitative research
but not on quantitative research?