CHAPTER ONE

Seeking Harmony between Determinism and Freedom

Determinism is the philosophical concept suggesting that all events including

human actions are determined by preceding causes. This idea implies a strict cause-
effect relationship where every event or state of affairs, including human choices and
actions, is the certain result of antecedent conditions. On the other hand, freedom in
the philosophical sense, refers to the capacity for individuals to make choices and act
in accordance with their will. The debate between determinism and freedom has been
a central issue in philosophy, psychology, ethics, and various other fields for
centuries, engendering discussions about personal responsibility, morality, and
societal organization.

1.1. History and Definition of Determinism

Determinism is general philosophical thesis that states that for every thing
that ever happens there are conditions such that, given them, nothing else could
happen.1 This view implies that human decisions and behaviors are outcomes of past
causes and which is rooted in ancient ideas. In ancient times, renowned thinkers like
the Epicureans and Stoics held beliefs regarding determinism. The several versions of
this determinism rest upon various alleged connections and interdependencies of
things and events, asserting that this hold without exception.2

We can see in the writings of theologians like St. Augustine and Thomas
Aquinas that during the middle ages, determinism was a subject of religious
discussions about divine providence and human free will. Determinism is the family
of theories that takes some class of events to be effects of certain causal sequences or

1
Cf. DONALD M BORCHERT, “Determinism A Historical Survey” in Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2,
eds. Richard Taylor, et al., New York, Thomson Gale, 2006, 4.
2
Cf. RICHARD TAYLOR, “Determinism A Historical Survey”, 5.
chains, more particularly certain sequences of causal circumstances or causally
sufficient conditions.3

In modern times, determinism was a significant topic in philosophy, physics,

psychology, and ethics. Philosophically, determinism is categorized into hard
determinism, claiming all events including human actions which are predetermined,
and soft determinism which suggesting that while events have causes
and human free will can coexist with determined events. Hard determinism are those
who affirm what their theory entails mainly that no man can help being what he is and
doing what he does.4

Determinism makes us wonder if people can be responsible for what they do

if their actions are shaped by earlier causes, even if we believe in free will. The
concept of determinism has developed over time and continues to be a central topic
in philosophical discussions, influencing perspectives on free will and the nature of
reality. Its implications extend into scientific, ethical, and metaphysical inquiries,
leading to a rich history of discourse and debate across various disciplines.5

1.2. Determinism and the Greek Myth

A powerful example of the deterministic viewpoint found in Greek
mythology and tragic literature is provided by the tragedy of Oedipus. Because of
circumstances beyond his control, Oedipus’s sad end highlights the idea that
everything, including human behavior, is predestined by antecedent causes.

A sequence of events that eventually come to pass are put into action by the
vision that predicts Oedipus’s fate, which is that he would kill his father and marry
his mother. When Oedipus discovers the prophecy, he makes an effort to escape it,
but his actions ultimately bring about the exact outcome he hoped to avoid. The
concept that fate is predetermined and that trying to change or oppose it would

3
Cf. DONALD M BORCHERT, “Determinism and Freedom” in Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 2, eds. Ted
Honderich, et al, New York, Thomson Gale, 2006, 7.
4
Cf. RICHARD TAYLOR, “Determinism A Historical Survey”, 16.
5
SHAFTTESBURY ZUBIRI “Determinism in History”, November 2006,
https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/determinism-history [accessed on December 5, 2023].
2
ultimately be ineffective is reinforced by the myth of Oedipus. Since Oedipus does
not know who his real parents are, and his tragic shortcoming is not what he does,
instead his inability to change the sequence of events that was already set into
movement.

This story of Oedipus highlights the concept that people are subject to
circumstances beyond their control, which is consistent with the deterministic
worldview that was common in ancient Greek thinking. This highlights the limitations
of free choice in the face of predestined results as it examines the conflict between
human activity and fate’s inevitable course thus, his mother could not live with the
truth, and so she took her own life and Oedipus decided to cause punishment on
himself to protect the people and he gouged his own eyes out.6

The belief that fate and predestination ultimately control the course of human
existence, even in the face of an individual’s attempts to ignore or change it, can be
seen by the story of Oedipus, which represents the deterministic viewpoint by based
on a tragic hero whose life and actions are shaped by an impossible destiny.

1.3. Debate: Determinism versus Freedom

The debate between determinism and freedom is an old conversation
exploring how much control people have over what they do. Determinism says
everything including human actions which come from earlier causes or laws, which
means free will might not be real. On the other hand, freedom is especially concerning
free will, says people can make choices not entirely controlled by earlier causes. 7 It
suggests that humans have the ability to make genuine choices that are not said by
natural laws or environmental influences8.Are we free? On the one hand most of us
have the clear sense that we are, we feel free like we make ourselves decisions that
lead both believes and action that are only our own choosing like I or we could do

6
BETHANY WILLIAMS, “Oedipus Rex: A Detailed Breakdown of the Myth”, November 2022,
https://www.thecollector.com/oedipus-rex-story-breakdown/ [accessed on January 17, 2024].
7
Cf. PEREBOOM DERK, Living Without Free Will, U.K, Cambridge University Press, 2001, 23.
8
MADDOX ERIN, “Determinism in Depth: The Clash of Philosophical Titan, Mental Health Centre”,
July, 2023, https://www.mentalhealthcenter.org/free-will-versus-determinism/ [accessed on December
5, 2023].
3
that.9 This view that humans are capable of entirely free actions which is known as
the freewill. On the religious view, everything that everyone does is predestined and
predetermined by God’s prior knowledge and prior decisions.10

1.4. Scientific Determinism Influences Existential, Psychological,

and Theological Philosophy
The notion of explaining historical trends in terms of the operation of
scientific laws brings us to a third common start of necessity in history of the
“scientific” sense.11 To put it most simply, an event might be said to be determined in
this sense if there is some other event or condition or group of them, sometimes called
its cause that is sufficient condition for its occurrence. Even though universal
causation would seem to be a valid theory, there is no conclusive proof that every
event that has ever occurred has a cause. 12 The scientific determinism had influenced
on the various like existential, psychological and on the theological philosophy.

1.4.1. Existential Philosophy:

In Existential philosophy, scientific determinism clashes with existential
philosophy’s importance on individual freedom and responsibility. Recognizing that
there is no pre-given essence that determines existence, the existentialist makes it clear
that it is up to the individual to make his, her, or their own identity through choices
and actions.13 Hence the scientific determinism holds that, events are determined by
prior causes.

1.4.2. Psychological Philosophy

Most philosophers since Socrates, and even those before him, have
distinguished between men’s minds and bodies, assuming that men are not simply

9
KANE R, The Oxford Handbook of Free Will, Oxford University Press, New York, 2002, 56.
10
A. V. KELLY, Philosophy Made Simple, Butler & Tanner Ltd, Britain, 1969, 107.
11
RICHARD TAYLOR, “Psychological Determinism”, in Encyclopaedia of Philosophy, 3, ed. Donald
Borchert, et al., USA, 2006, 36.
12
JACQUES P THIROUX, Philosophy: Theory and Practice, Macmilliam Publishing Company, New
York, 1985, 153.
13
KEVIN AHO, “Existentialism”, January 2023, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism/#Free
[accessed on January 17, 2024].
4
collections of material particles. In Psychological philosophy, scientific determinism
has encouraged debates about free will, consciousness and the nature of human
behavior. This has led to discussions about whether free will exists, the nature of
personal autonomy, and the implications for our understanding of moral responsibility
and individual agency.

In contemporary philosophy minds and bodies are not often described as

distinct substances, but an absolute distinction in nevertheless often drawn between
“psychological” predicates and verbs, on the other hand, and “physical” ones, on
the other, and this amounts to much the same thing, because of this most modern
theories of determinism, as applied to human behavior, can be suitably called
theories of psychological determinism.14
Philosophers and psychologists engage in ongoing debates about the potential tension
between our subjective experience of free will and the deterministic foundations of
human behavior as suggested by scientific research.15

1.4.3. Theological Philosophy

In theological philosophy, scientific determinism challenges traditional
religious notions of human agency and divine providence. The deterministic view of
the physical world, raised questions about the role of a personal divinity in the world’s
events and human lives. This pressure has encouraged theological reflection on topics
such as fate, divine feeling, and the compatibility of scientific determinism with
religious beliefs in a loving God.

Theological determinism is the view that God determines every event that
occurs in the history of the world.16 With the development of Christian theology there
arose the concept of a God who is, among other things, perfectly good, and omnipotent
and upon whom, moreover, the entire world and everything in it, down to the minutest
detail, are dependent for existence and character.17

14
Cf. TAYLOR, “Psychological Determinism”, 11.
15
Cf. TAYLOR, “Psychological Determinism”, 12.
16
Cf. LEIGH VICENS, “Theological Determinism”, 2001, https://iep.utm.edu/theological-
determinism/#H1 [accessed on January 17, 2024].
17
Cf. TAYLOR, “Theological Determinism”, 7.
5
 Deterministic theories can be made from this basic idea, and several
theologians and philosophers have expanded it into complex systems, some of which
have served as the foundation for religious ideas with a very broad and lasting effect.18
The influence of scientific determinism across these philosophical domains
underscores its far-reaching impact on fundamental concepts related to human
existence, behavior, and spirituality.

This idea is loaded with possibilities for deterministic theories, and many
theologians and philosophers who have developed the theological doctrines which
have an extremely wide and abiding influence.19 The debate between scientific
determinism and philosophical perspectives is an interesting and complex subject. It
has an impact on discussions about reality, human existence, and the relationship
between cause and personal experiences. Thus everything that anyone does is
predestined and predetermined by God’s prior knowledge and prior decisions.20

1.5. Determinism in the Place of Human Being

In the context of human actions, determinism suggests that our choices,
decisions, and behaviors are not truly free or independent. Instead, they are regarded
as outcomes that are causally needed by antecedent factors, such as our education,
experiences, environment, and the preceding chain of events. According to
deterministic views, even seemingly voluntary decisions or actions are the result of
these deterministic causes acting upon an individual’s thoughts, emotions, and
motivations. According to the deterministic viewpoint, one could theoretically predict
with absolute certainty every future event, including people’s actions, if they had
perfect knowledge of the universe’s exact state at any given time and a thorough
understanding of all the causal factors governing it.21

18
Cf. TAYLOR, “Theological Determinism”, 7.
19
Cf. TAYLOR, “Theological Determinism”, 8.
20
A.V. KELLY, Philosophy Made Simple, 107.
21
ELIZEBETH L BEARDLEY, Determinism and Moral Perspectives, Humanities Press, New York,
1960, 133.
6
 In a world where things are thought to be caused by earlier events that the
ideas that determinism doesn’t stop decision making means people can still make
choices and do things. This goes against the belief that determinism takes away all
human control. Even if everything is caused by the past, individuals can still make
choices and act based on what they want and intend. However, whether or not human
beings are free or are determined is also a definite problem or issue for ethics or
morality, for how human beings be held morally responsible for their decisions and
actions if they are totally determined by causes over which they have no control.22

On the side on determinism, Spinoza insists that we are the part of a whole
where everything that happens is causally determined and every part of our life is also
determined.23 Despite everything being caused by previous events people can still
make decisions and do things according to their desires and motivations. Spinoza’s
conception on human freedom is thus a religious one: he is ready to accept whatever
happens as God’s will.24 People can still make meaningful choices and act in line with
what they want, despite everything being caused by past actions.

1.6. The Quantum Physics and Determinism

Quantum physics and determinism have been at the center of scientific
thinking in the attempt to understand the fundamental nature of our universe. Quantum
physics provides an essentially risky universe with its wave particle and mixing.
Quantum theory of wave function of the universe is a very successful deterministic
theory fully consistent with our experimental evidence.25 However, it requires
accepting that the world we experience is only part of the reality and there are
numerous parallel worlds. The more precisely we try to measure a particle’s position,
the less precisely we can know its momentum and vice versa, this not due to any
limitations in our measurement techniques, but a fundamental aspect of the nature

22
JACQUES P THIROUX, Philosophy: Theory and Practice, 142.
23
ILHAM DILMAN, Free Will: An Historical and Philosophical Introduction, Routledge, London, 1999,
259.
24
ILHAM DILMAN, Free Will: An Historical and Philosophical Introduction, 262.
25
LEV VAIDMAN, Quantum Theory and Determinism, Chapman University, New York, 2014, 3.
7
itself.26 The deterministic theory of the universe appeared to be challenged by the
development of quantum physics. It appeared that, majority are divided over the exact
wording to be chosen, but agrees that quantum information is fundamentally different
from classical information.27

Hence quantum mechanics are wider than we think and we understand that
the quantum mechanics is completely a deterministic theory. We could understand it
when we give it some initial conditions its behavior for the entire future is well
determined. So the explanations of quantum physics and determinism will take us
towards the journey of most thoughtful concepts in science.

1.7. Determinism and Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy is rich with diverse schools of thought that address various
aspects of human thoughts and also about our topic determinism and free will. While
not all Indian philosophical traditions clearly address determinism in the same way,
certain concepts and perspectives can be related to the deterministic viewpoints:

1.7.1. Karma and Determinisms

The concept of karma, found in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, often
interconnects with deterministic ideas. Karma is the law of cause and effect,
suggesting that actions have consequences that influence future experiences.28 The so-
called theory of karma, or law of karma, is one of the distinguishing aspects of
Hinduism and other non-Hindu south-Asian traditions.29 While karma implies a cause
and effect relationship, whether it make even with strict determinism remains a topic
of debate.

26
WILHELM SCHULTZ, “Quantum Physics and Determinism: Unravelling the Uncertainties”, May
2023,https://medium.com/@pelicanlabs/quantum-physics-and-determinism-unraveling-the-
uncertainties8fd886a015f0#:~:text=The%20Quantum%20Challenge%20to%20Determinism&text=In
%20other%20itself [accessed on January 19, 2024].
27
GERARD’T HOOFT, The Cellular Automation Interpretation of Quantum Mechanics, Springer, New
York, 2006, 16.
28
PHILIP NOVAK, The World’s Wisdom: Sacred Texts of the World’s Religions, Harper Publications,
San Francisco, 1994, 75.
29
Cf. RICARDO SOUSA SILVESTRE, Karma Theory, Determinism, Fatalism and Freedom of Will,
Springer International Publishing, New York, 2016, 12.
8
1.7.2. Nyaya and Vaisheshika Schools
The Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools are part of Hindu philosophy. They look
at causation and atomic theories. These schools study how everything has causes
before it. Vaisheshika emphasizes the types of entities that exist; Nyaya emphasizes
the types of entities involved in cognizing and proving the existence of those
entities.30 They think about different causes that make events happen. Their ideas
connect a bit with determinism. Indian philosophy has many schools. They all talk
about determinism in different ways. They have different views on causation, free
will, and life’s nature.

Karma, found in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, connects with

determinism by linking actions to their consequences. Karma shows a cause and effect
relationship between actions and results. People interpret karma differently. Some
think it ties people to a set path, while others see it as a moral rule without removing
free will. Schools like Nyaya and Vaisheshika look into connection and how past
causes shape events. They agree somewhat with determinism. However, Vedanta
schools like Advaita Vedanta challenge strict determinism. They believe in individual
souls and unique identities which doesn’t fit with determinism’s strict ideas. Buddhist
philosophies, dependent origination explains how things are caused but also shows
impermanence and how everything depends on each other. 31 Indian philosophy offers
various views on determinism, mixing ideas from causation-based beliefs to deeper
thoughts about reality and human life.

Conclusion
The chapter explores the philosophical debate between determinism and
freedom, tracing its historical roots and examining its impact on various fields.
Determinism asserts that all events, including human actions, are determined by

30
Cf. DR. ALEXANDER BERZIN, “Basic Tenets of Nyaya and Vaisheshika Schools”, March 2003,
https://studybuddhism.com/en/advanced-studies/abhidharma-tenet-systems/non-buddhist-asian-
traditions/basic-tenets-of-the-nyaya-and-vaisheshika-schools [accessed on January 18, 2024].
31
Cf. S. COLVIN, Philosophical Perspectives on Determinism and Individual Identity, Fontana Books,
London, 2001, 156.
9
preceding causes, leading to a strict cause and effect relationship and Freedom refers
to individuals’ capacity to make choices and act in accordance with their will. It also
deals with the determinism and freedom which come from and how they affect
different areas. It uses examples from history to show how people questioned whether
man can choose their actions or is it already decided and towards the next chapter how
determinism and freedom are interconnected. It also helps to make a critical mind.

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