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T H I S D I S S E R T A T I O N H A S B E E N M I C R O F I L M E D E X A C T L Y AS R E C E I V E I
 DEVELOPM ENT O F ARABIC POETRY
1SY K . « i. H A D D A D »*w. i>.. m . »».

( Presented to the Faculty of the G raduate School of

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 TABLE O F CONTENTS.
PA G E
I. G en era l C o n s id e r a t io n s :—
R elation o f poetry to the n a tio n .................................................................... i
A bul-A la-M uarri and El-M utanabbi and th e free school o f poetry
founded by th em ............... 1-2
U nique origin, position and character o f A rabic p o etry . .. . . 3
T h e Arabs as a Sem itic but not a religiou s race...................... 3
T h e Arabs as a nation o f w arriors and p o e ts....................................... 3-4
A rabic poetry com pared to new spapers in E nglish-speaking
countries ............ ........................................................................................... 4
M odern conditions unfavorable to grow th o f p oetry........................ 4
II. C l a s s if ic a t io n of S u b je c t in t o S even P e r io d s or A ges.
I. The P r im a r y P e r i o d ........................................... 5~7
O rigin o f Arabs. T h e father o f the A rabic language. Kolitan
and Yareb. P oetry as a n ative in stin ct in Arabia. R egula­
tions o f Arabic m etre and rhyme. N ature o f country and
manners o f living. Seclu sion o f the Arabs in th eir desert.
II. P re -Isla m ic o r H e ro ic A g e ................................... 8-10
P rogress o f Arabic poetry in this period. Influence o f the seven
M uallakat. Poetical seasons and associations in Suk Okad.
H eroic w ars as im petus to poetry. U m ro-el-K eis and Sam a-
wal as leaders o f poetry in th e Jahilee-yah. G rowth of
philosophic ideas and d ecay o f religions in this period.
Epicurism o f the Jahilee-yah.
III. E a rly Islam ic A g e ........................................... 10-12
Influence o f the n ew religion and the K oran on A rabian mind
and life. R eligion pervades A rabic verse after Mohammed.
T h e A rabs as a w orld-pow er. G reat demand for orators.
D ecrease in number o f poets. Koran supersedes the Muallakat.
Mohammed a patron o f poetry. R ise o f great sa tir ists; the
famous triad.
IV . The G olden A g e .............................................. 12-13
R eign o f H aroon and E l-M am oon. R elation o f A rabs to subju­
gated races. A rabs as pupils o f G reece. T heir destructive
capacity. Arabic w riting. G rowth o f scientific methods.
Change o f policy tow ards o th er races and m ore appreciation
o f their works. A spiration o f A rabs to k now ledge o f their
future. Invasion o f A rabic P oetry by Grecian Philosophy
and Science. Som e quotations and translations from Arabic
verse. O ther factors affecting the developm ent o f Arabic
Poetry. Poetry in A ndalusia.
 VVa s h . S q . C o l l e o f
PA G E

V. A g e o f D e c lin e ............................ 15

.
D eclin e b egin n in g in elev en th century. N a tio n a l d egeneration
fo llo w in g w ealth and lu xu ry. C orruption o f poetry. G row th
o f the p o w er o f th e T artars. D estru ctio n o f B agd ad in
1258 A . D ., and end o f A rabian K aliphate. R a lly d u rin g th e
C rusades. P o e try in E gypt.
V I . and V I I . U n d e r O tto m a n R u le and O u r T i m e ............... 16
C ontinued decay o f A rabic life and literature. R estrictio n s under
T u rk ish rule. P resen t censorship. F ree p ress in E gypt.
R en aissan ce in S y ria and E gypt. M od ern izin g o f A rabic
V erse. G reat n eed for an A rabic A cadem y.
 DEVELOPMENT OF ARABIC ^POETRY.
B y R is q . G . H a d d a d , P h . D ., M . D .
A n A ra b ic p o e t o f w id e re p u ta tio n , w h o liv e d in th e la s t d e c a d e o f
th e te n th a n d th e f irs t h a lf o f th e e le v e n th c e n tu r y o f o u r e r a , o n ce
b e w a ile d , in v e rse , th e d e c a d e n c e o f p o e try in h is o w n tim e . F o llo w in g
th is , h e d e s c rib e d th e d e c a d e n c e o f th e n a tio n b y s a y in g , “ T h e r e is n o
n o b le so u l to p ra is e , n o re a l b e a u ty to lo v e .” T h e d e c a d e n c e o f th e
n a tio n is m a d e th e c a u se o f th e d e c a d e n c e o f its p o e try , a n d th is s ta te ­
m e n t is b o rn e o u t b y th e h is to ry o f th e A r a b ia n ra c e . I n th e p re -
I s la m ic p e rio d , c o m m o n ly k n o w n a s th e J a h ile e -y a h , A ra b ic p o e try
w a s o f a h e ro ic ty p e , c o n f o r m in g in a lm o s t e v e ry re s p e c t w ith th e life
a n d s p ir it o f th e n a tio n . I n th e e a rly Is la m ic p e rio d s , it w a s d o m in a te d
b y th o s e re lig io u s in flu en c es t h a t se ize d th e r a c e a s a w h o le. I n th e
d a y s o f d e g e n e r a tin g w e a lth , v a n ity a n d lu x u r y , it s a n k d eep in to th e
lo w e s t d e g r a d a tio n .
T h e a u th o r o f th a t v erse , A b u l- ’a la M u a r r i, w as a
m a n o f tr u e g e n iu s a n d e x c e p tio n a l a tta in m e n ts . H e w a s th e m o s t
in d e p e n d e n t th in k e r in th e Is la m ic w o rld a t t h a t tim e , a n d d id n o t
h e s ita te t o a tta c k th e m o s t s a c re d tr a d itio n s o f h is c o u n try m e n a n d
c o -re lig io n is ts , w h o , in sp ite o f h is c ritic is m a n d th e ir fa n a tic is m , h e ld
h is m e m o ry w ith p r id e a n d v e n e ra tio n .
B y m o d e rn c ritic s h e is c a lle d th e “ M ilto n o f th e A r a b s ,” b e in g
s im ila r t o th e E n g lis h p o e t in b lin d n e s s, w o n d e r fu l m e m o ry a n d im ­
a g in a tio n . B u t, u n lik e th e b lin d p o e t o f th e A n g lo - S a x o n ra c e , h e h a d
n o re s p e c t f o r re lig io n s . I n h is u n s p a r in g c ritic is m , h e w e n t so f a r a s
t o sa y , “ M a n k in d se em d iv id e d in to tw o p e rs o n s — o n e h a v in g a m in d
b u t n o re lig io n , a n d a n o th e r, a re lig io n b u t n o m in d .” 1
& J ie . V jA-
H e w a s v e ry m u c h ir r ita te d b y th e fa n a tic is m s o f sects.
T h o u g h c o n fin e d in h is h o u s e f o r m o s t o f h is life , h is g e n iu s
b ro o d e d o n all s u b je c ts a n d s o a re d a s h ig h a s th e s ta r s . H e fo re to ld
th e d e a th o f S a tu r n , M a r s a n d J u p ite r , a s th e H e b r e w p r o p h e ts f o r e ­
to ld th e d e s tru c tio n o f B a b y lo n , N in e v e h o r T y re . H e to u c h e d o n
th e p r im a r y c o n c e p tio n s o f E v o lu tio n o r D a r w in is m , a n d d e c la re d in
o n e o f h is fa m o u s v e rs e s th a t “ th e g r e a te s t p u z z le o f a ll m a n k in d is
th e e v o lu tio n o f a n a n im a l, o r o r g a n ic lif e f r o m th e m in e ra l.”2
ty ^
H is p e c u lia r id e a s a b o u t m a trim o n y sh o w th e in d e p e n d e n t a n d
o r ig in a l c h a r a c te r o f h is g e n iu s , a n d a r e n o t u n r e lis h e d b y o ld b a c h ­
e lo rs o f to - d a y a n d th o s e w h o p o s s e s s a n a v e rs io n to p a r e n th o o d . O n

N E W Y O R K U N IV E R S IT Y
WASHINGTON SQUARE COLLEGE
L IB R A R Y
h is g r a v e h e c a u s e d to b e in s c rib e d th e fo llo w in g w o rd s in v e r s e :
>

“ T h is is w h a t m y f a th e r fo rc e d u p o n m e, b u t I fo rc e d o n n o n e ."
( T h e w o rd “ th is " s ta n d s f o r g r a v e ) .
T h e ep ic p o e t o f E n g la n d w a s u n lu c k y in h is m a rr ia g e , b u t o u r
A r a b ia n M ilto n c o u ld n e v e r b e c o a x e d in to t h a t tr a p .
A b u l- ’a la w a s th e z e a lo u s c h ie f o f th a t sc h o o l o f A r a b ic p o e try
f o u n d e d b y A h m e d E l- M u ta n a b b i in th e e a rly h a lf o f th e
te n th c e n tu r y . B o th th e s e m e n s tr iv e d to u n ite p o e try w ith p h ilo s ­
o p h y a n d to e m a n c ip a te th e ir m in d s f ro m th e f e tte r s a n d r e s tr a in ts o f
Is la m . B o th w e re fre e th in k e rs , p r o f o u n d in v e s tig a to r s a n d p o w e rfu l
c ritic s . E l- M u ta n a b b i, ca lle d b y so m e m o d e m c ritic s th e S h a k e s p e a re
o f th e A r a b ia n L a n g u a g e , is th e m o s t o r ig in a l a n d p e r h a p s th e g r e a t­
e s t o f A r a b ia n p o e ts. L ik e th e g r e a t d r a m a tis t, h e p o sse sse d a v e ry
k e e n in s ig h t in to h u m a n n a tu r e , a n d e x c e p tio n a l c a p a c ity f o r c o m p re ­
h e n d in g a n d d e s c rib in g c h a ra c te rs . H i s n a m e M u ta n a b b i ( o r p r e ­
te n d e r to p r o p h e c y ) , g iv e n h im in h is y o u th , s h o w s h is g r e a t confi­
d e n c e in h im s e lf a n d h is little b e lie f in th e a u th o r ity a n d s u p e r io r ity
o f th e K o ra n . H is c a r e e r a s a p r o p h e t w a s so o n a b o rte d , b u t h is s u c ­
cess a s a p o e t w a s m a rv e lo u s , a n d a s so m e o n e Jfe rrta rk e d , h is m ira c le s
w e re in th e field s o f e lo q u en ce .
I h a v e m a d e a sp e c ia l r e f e r e n c e t o th e s e tw o p o ets, b e c a u s e th e y
a r e th e m o s t e n lig h te n e d a n d in d e p e n d e n t o f A ra b ia n p o e ts. T h e y
r e p r e s e n t A ra b ic p o e tr y in its h ig h e s t d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d w e c a n tra c e
th e d if f e r e n t s ta g e s o f th is d e v e lo p m e n t, in th e ir w o rk s in w h ic h
a r e c o m b in e d th e fre s h b e a u ty a n d b o ld n e ss o f th e J a h ile e -Y a h , th e
fiery elo q u e n c e o f I s la m , th e s u b lim ity o f G re c ia n th o u g h t a n d th a t
lo v e o f t r u t h a n d in d e p e n d e n c e o f r e s e a r c h w h ic h W e s te r n c ritic s a r e
a p t to d e n y to th e d is tin g u is h e d a u th o r s o f th e E a s t. I t is in te r e s tin g
t o n o te th e te n d e n c y o f p o ets, in th e la te p e rio d r e p re s e n te d b y th e s e
tw o p o e ts , to b r e a k a w a y fro m th e r e s tr a in ts o f I s la m a n d to r e v e r t to
th e lib e ra l id e a s o f th e J a h ile e - Y a h o r p r e - Is la m ic p e rio d . T h is re a c tio n
c o u ld o n ly ta k e p la c e w h e n th e fie ry zeal o f M o h a m m e d a n is m h a d s u b ­
sid e d in th e te n th a n d e le v e n th c e n tu rie s , a n d c o r r u p tio n p re v a ile d
e v e ry w h e re to s u c h a n e x te n t t h a t m e n b e g a n to w ish f o r th e “ g o o d
o ld tim e s ." I t w a s o n ly w h e n th e C ru s a d e s in fla m e d t h a t zeal a g a in
a n d re s to r e d u n io n t o th e s h a tte r e d r a n k s o f Is la m , t h a t th e ra d ic a l
sc h o o l o f p o e try fo u n d e d b y th o s e tw o m e n c a m e to a p r e m a tu r e d e a th .
B e fo re p r o c e e d in g to a c lo s e r s tu d y o f t h a t d e v e lo p m e n t w h ic h
is th e c h ie f a im o f th is th e sis, w e w ill b rie fly c o n s id e r so m e im p o r ta n t
p o in ts in re la tio n to th e u n iq u e o r ig in , p o s itio n a n d c h a r a c te r o f
 — 3—
A r a b ic p o e try .
T h e a u th o r o f T a th k e r e t- E l- H ik a m 3 te lls u s th a t th e A ra b s p o s te d
th e p o e m s k n o w n b y th e te r m “ M u a lla k a t” o v e r th e G r e a t G a te s o f
th e S a c re d C a a b a a n d c o n tin u e d to w o rs h ip th e m f o r 1 50 y e a rs , u n til
th e y w e re ec lip se d b y th e e lo q u e n c e o f th e K o r a n . T h e K o ra n , h o w ­
e v e r, d id n o t th r o w t h a t a n c ie n t p o e try in to d is re p u te , b u t it g a v e a
n e w s tim u lu s to its g r o w th a n d f u r th e r e d its d e v e lo p m e n t o n n e w
lin e s, a lth o u g h it n e v e r c e a se d to e x e rc is e a r e s tr a in in g in flu e n c e o n
th e A r a b ia n m in d . W h a te v e r re s e rv e w e m a y ta k e t o t h a t s ta te m e n t
f ro m su c h a n a u th o rity , it b r in g s o u t th e f a c t t h a t elo q u e n c e w a s lik e a
re lig io n to th e a n c ie n t A ra b s , a n d re lig io n , in a n c ie n t tim e s , p e rv a d e d
e v e ry s p h e re o f life.
U n lik e o th e r S e m itic ra c e s, th e a n c ie n t A ra b s w e re n o t p o sse sse d
w ith d e e p a n d tr u e re lig io u s s e n tim e n ts , a n d A ra b ic p o e try b e fo re
I s la m sh o w s h o w little in te r e s t th e y to o k in th e “ W o r s h ip o f G o d s ”
o r in th e q u e s tio n o f a f te r- lif e . T h e ir m in d s c o u ld n o t b e d e e p ly im ­
p r e s s e d w ith th e b en eficen ce o f a S u p re m e B e in g w h ile th e ir ey e s
s c a n n e d th e b o u n d le ss w a s te s o f th e d e s e rt, o r w h e n th e y s o u g h t in
v a in th e d e c e itfu l m ira g e . T h e re lig io n o f M o h a m m e d w as re lis h e d
b y th e m in a s m u c h a s it p ro m is e d th e m a r e w a r d o f g re e n g a r d e n s
w ith coo l s tre a m s a n d d e lic io u s f r u its , a n d p u t th e m in to a c tu a l p o s ­
se ssio n o f su c h , in th e ric h p la in s o f S y r ia o r th e v a lle y o f th e N ile .
B u t b e fo re th a t, th e y tu r n e d to th e ir p o e ts f o r th e sw e e t s o n g s th a t
m itig a te d th e so litu d e o f th e w ild e rn e s s a n d s m o o th e d th e h a r d s h ip s
o f th e ir d r e a r y life. M a te ria l p r o g r e s s w a s o u t o f q u e s tio n in a la n d
w h o se c h ie f y ie ld is s a n d , a n d th e h a r d - p r e s s e d A r a b tu r n e d to e x ­
p lo re th e d e e p re g io n s o f h u m a n n a tu r e a n d to d e liv e r th e tr e a s u r e s
o f th o u g h t a n d im a g in a tio n in th e m o s t a ttr a c tiv e fo rm s o f sp e ech .
T h is w a s th e o r ig in o f th a t p a s s io n f o r e lo q u e n c e w h ic h p o sse sse d th e
A r a b ia n ra c e , a n d w h ic h w a s tr a n s m itte d fro m g e n e ra tio n to g e n e r a ­
tio n th r o u g h o u t th e v ic is s itu d e s o f its f o r tu n e a n d th e v a rie d sc e n e s
o f its d r a m a tic h is to ry .
T h e A ra b s w e re n o t o n ly a n a tio n o f w a r r io r s , b u t a ls o a n a tio n o f
p o e ts. T h e ir p o e m s, in th e Is la m ic a n d p r e - Is la m ic e ra s , p r e s e n t to
u s a s in g u la r c o m b in a tio n o f th e h a r s h m u sic o f w a r w ith th e sw e e t
m e lo d ie s o f lo v e. T h e y g lo r ie d in m e e tin g th e “ lio n s o f th e b a ttle ­
fie ld ” a s w ell a s in w o o in g t h e “ g a z e lle o f th e te n t.” T h e y h a d n o
m o r e re s p e c t f o r a m a n w h o c o u ld n o t co m p o se a v e rs e th a n f o r a m a n
w h o k n e w n o t h o w to h a n d le a s w o rd o r a s p e a r . T h u s w e re a d a b o u t
I b n N a y ila ,4 * y \ th a t h e w a s le d to m e e t h is d e a th b e c a u se h e
fa ile d to m a k e ev e n a sin g le v e rs e , w h e n s u d d e n ly a p p e a re d a b e a u tif u l
m a id e n , w ith “ p e a rls o f te a r s in h e r ey e s a n d th e ro se f a d in g o n h e r
 — 4—
c h e e k ,” a n d s h e m o v e d h im s o d e e p ly a s to a r o u s e h is d o r m a n t g e n iu s
a n d c a ll f o r th o n e o f th e s w e e te s t s o n g s , w h ic h n o t o n ly sa v e d h is fa c e
a n d life , b u t im m o rta liz e d h is n a m e .
N o o th e r n a tio n p a id so m u c h h o n o r to its p o e ts, a n d n o o th e r
p o e tr y h a d s u c h a n im m e n se in flu e n c e o n th e so c ial, p o litic a l a n d
s p ir itu a l life o f th e n a tio n . A ra b ic p o e try in th o s e d a y s o c c u p ie d a
p o s itio n s o m e w h a t s im ila r to th a t o c c u p ie d b y n e w s p a p e rs in E n g lis h -
s p e a k in g c o u n trie s , a n d , lik e th e s e m o d e rn o r g a n s o f p u b lic o p in io n ,
i t e n jo y e d g r e a t fre e d o m o f sp e e c h a n d e x e rc is e d u n lim ite d p o w e r
a n d in flu e n c e . L ik e th e s e o r g a n s , it w a s o f te n s u b je c t to a b u s e a n d
to b e b o u g h t f o r th e p ro m o tio n o f a m b itio u s sc h e m e s. T h e g r o w th
o f th e n e w s p a p e r in m o d e rn tim e s h a s d o n e , p e rh a p s , m o r e th a n a n y ­
t h in g else to th r o w p o e try in to th e b a c k g ro u n d . A b u l- ’a la , in th e
v e r s e t h a t w e h a v e q u o te d , g a v e th e d e c a d e n c e o f th e n a tio n a s th e
c a u s e o f th e d e c a d e n c e o f p o e try . T h is w a s tr u e o f h is tim e , a s w e
s h a ll see la te r o n , b u t w e c a n n o t a p p ly it to o u r tim e w h e n o th e r
f a c to r s h a v e a p p e a re d to d o a w a y w ith t h a t fine a r t. A m o n g th o s e
f a c to r s w e m a y m e n tio n th e a d v a n c e o f sc ien tific r e s e a r c h a n d a p p lie d
sc ie n c e , th e te n d e n c y to w a r d s m a te ria lis m , th e h u r r y o f c ity life , th e
fierce c o m p e titio n a n d th e a rtific ia l w a y s o f liv in g — all th e s e a r e m o re
o r le ss re s p o n s ib le f o r th e d e c a d e n c e o f p o e try . T h e s e c o n d itio n s
o b ta in to so m e e x te n t in th e c h ie f c e n tre s o f th e A ra b ic - s p e a k in g
w o rld , w h ic h h a v e b ee n in v a d e d b y W e s te r n c iv iliz a tio n . T h e c o n ­
d itio n s o f c ity life a r e n o t, o n th e w h o le , fa v o ra b le t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f t r u e p o e tic a l ta s te . P o e tr y th r iv e s b e tte r b y th e r ip p lin g b ro o k ,
u n d e r th e f o r e s t tr e e , a m o n g th e m o u n ta in p e a k s , o r in th e lo n e so m e
w ild . N a tu r e is its tr u e n u r s e , a n d it b ec o m es u n h e a lth y b y a rtific ia l
m e a n s o f fe e d in g . H e n c e , th e p u r e s t A ra b ic p o e tr y is t h a t w h ic h w as
b o r n in th e w ild e rn e s s in th e re m o te a g e o f th e J a h ile e -Y a h . W e m ay
to u c h a g a in o n th is p o in t, b u t n o w let u s p ro c e e d to a c la ssific a tio n o f
o u r th e s is .
H a v i n g in v ie w th e d if fe re n t f a c to rs c o n c e rn e d in th e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f t h a t g r e a t p o e try , I p r e f e r to d iv id e m y s u b je c t in to th e fo llo w in g
p e rio d s o r a g e s , a lw a y s b e a r in g in m in d t h a t s u c h a d iv is io n is m o re o r
le ss c o n v e n tio n a l, a n d th a t it is p r im a r ily b a s e d o n th e g e n e r a l c o n d itio n
o f th e A r a b ia n p o e try a n d n o t o n th e g e n e r a l c o n d itio n o f th e A r a b ia n
n a tio n .
G E N E R A L C L A S S IF IC A T IO N .
I. P r im a r y A g e , e x te n d in g f ro m u n k n o w n d a te to a b o u t 4 5 0
'A. D . , o r a c e n tu r y a n d h a lf b e f o r e I s la m . I n th is a g e w e re la id th e
f o u n d a tio n s o f A r a b ic v e rs e . P o e tr y in f r a g m e n ts , in fo rm a tio n
s c a n ty , d a te s o b s c u re .
 II. P r e -Is la tn ic p e rio d , or H e r o ic A ge, r e p r e s e n te d by th e
M u a lla k a t cA il*U T h is in c lu d e s th e c e n tu r y a n d h a l f p r e c e d in g
I s la m , o r f ro m 4 5 0 a . d . t o 6 2 2 a . d . , th e firs t y e a r o f th e H a j i r a . T h i9
£
a g e a n d th e p r e c e d in g a r e in c lu d e d u n d e r th e te r m J a h ile e y a h .
I I I - P a r ly Is la m ic o r R e lig io u s A g e . T h is is th e p e rio d o f I s ­
la m ic c o n q u e s t a n d it e x te n d s o v e r th e firs t a n d se c o n d c e n tu rie s o f
th e H a j i r a , o r fro m 6 2 2 to 8 0 0 a . d .
I V . G o ld en A g e , c o v e rin g th e th ir d a n d f o u r th c e n tu rie s o f
I s la m , o r th e n in th oar te n th o f th e C h r is tia n E r a . I n th is a g e fo re ig n
id e a s, e s p e c ia lly G re c ia n , m a d e th e ir w a y in to A r a b ia n life a n d lite r a ­
tu r e . A ra b ic p o e try flo u rish e d in A n d a lu s ia o r S p a in .
V . T h e p e r io d o f D ec lin e , b e g in n in g fro m th e e le v e n th c e n tu ry ,
A . d . , a n d e n d in g in th e to ta l d e s tru c tio n o f th e A ra b ia n K a lip h a te , in
B a g d a d , in 1258 a . d ., o r 6 5 6 H a jir a .
V I. U n d e r th e T u r k s .
V I I . O u r tim e . T h e in v a sio n o f W e s te r n id e a s— R e n a is s a n c e in
S y r ia a n d E g y p t. O b s tr u c tio n s to p ro g re s s .
I. T H E P R I M A R Y P E R I O D .
F o r th e p u rp o s e s o f th is a rtic le , th e p o e try o f th is e a rly p e rio d is
o f sp ecial s ig n ific a n c e ; first, b e c a u se it w a s p u r e ly A r a b ia n in c h a ra c ­
te r , a n d , se c o n d ly , b e c a u se it fo rm e d th e fo u n d a tio n o f A ra b ic p o e try
f o r a ll g e n e ra tio n s . T h e m e n w h o la id th a t fo u n d a tio n w e re illite ra te
n o m a d s w h o re c e iv e d th e ir in s p ira tio n ch iefly fro m th e w ild e rn e ss.
A ra b ic w r itin g s a f t e r H a j i r a th r o w v e ry little lig h t o n th is p e rio d ,
a n d w e w e re o b lig e d to g le a n th e little k n o w le d g e w e p o sse ss, fro m
th o s e s c a tte re d v e rs e s p re s e rv e d b y tr a d itio n u n til th e ris e o f Isla m .
F r o m th o s e v e rs e s w e in f e r th a t th e o r ig in a l A r a b s w e re n o t Is h m a e l-
ite s, a n d th a t A ra b ic , th o u g h a s is te r la n g u a g e to H e b re w , w a s n o t
d e riv e d fro m it. T h e r e w a s a n A ra b ic - s p e a k in g ra c e in A r a b ia lo n g
b e f o r e I s h m a e l w as b o rn . S o m e A ra b ic h is to r ia n s h o ld th e v ie w th a t
th e Is h m a e lite s o r H a g e r ite s ( f r o m H a g e r , m o th e r o f I s h m a e l) em i­
g r a te d to th e p e n in s u la a n d b ec am e n a tu r a liz e d A ra b s . T h e y also
s ta te t h a t K u re is h , th e trib e o f M o h a m m e d , w e re th e d e s c e n d a n ts o f
A dnan ^ b e tw e e n w h o m a n d M o h a m m e d th e re w e re se v e ra l
g e n e ra tio n s . M a n y o f th e m r e f e r to J o k ta n o r K o h ta n (m e n tio n e d
in G e n e sis x : 3 5 ) a s f a th e r o f th e A r a b ia n ra c e a n d th e A ra b ia n
la n g u a g e . O th e r s s a y th a t it w a s n o t K o h ta n , b u t h is so n “ Y a r e b ”
( f r o m w h o s e n a m e th e w o rd A ra b is d e r iv e d ) , “ w h o w a s th e f irs t to
s p e a k A ra b ic a n d to b u ild citie s in Y a m e n o r S o u th e r n A r a b ia .” Ib n -
K h a ld o o n , th e m o s t p h ilo s o p h ic o f A r a b ia n h is to ria n s , is in c lin e d to
th in k t h a t K o h ta n c o u ld n o t b e th e f irs t th a t u tte r e d th e “ n o b le A r a b ic
sp e e c h ,” b u t h e w a s p re c e d e d b y m o re th a n o n e A ra b ic - s p e a k in g g e n ­
e r a tio n .5
A n a n c ie n t v e r s e r u n s t h u s :
vL»J Vj * <_£ J\ ZjUajL Vj9
“ T h e r e is n o m a n lik e K o h ta n , th e f a th e r o f H o s p ita lity ,
N o r lik e h is so n Y a re b , th e m a s te r o f E lo q u e n c e .”
W ith s u c h b its o f in f o rm a tio n a n d c o m p lic a te d v iew s, w e c a n n o t
g e t a t th e p r im a r y s te p s in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f A ra b ic v e rs e , n o r c a n
w e f o rm a s a tis f a c to r y p ic tu r e o f th e in n a te p rin c ip le s th a t d e te r ­
m in e d th e f irs t m a n ife s ta tio n s o f A ra b ia n g e n iu s .
M o h a m m e d a n w r ite r s te ll u s t h a t p o e try a m o n g th e a n c ie n t A r a b s
w a s a “ p a r t o f th e ir n a tu r e o r a n a tiv e in s tin c t.” W e h a v e a m p le
r e a s o n to b e lie v e th a t A ra b ic p o e try h a d m a d e a c o n s id e ra b le p r o g re s s
b e f o r e th e tim e o f th e M u a lla k a t. A n te r a , o n e o f th e p o e ts o f th e
M u a lla k a t, b e g in s h is fa m o u s s o n g b y in q u ir in g w h e th e r “ h is p r e d e ­
c e sso rs le f t a n y th in g f o r h im .” ^ f a c t> th o s e
M u a lla k a t re s e m b le e a c h o th e r so clo sely as to s u g g e s t th e p ro b a b ility
o f a c o m m o n s o u rc e f ro m w h ic h th e a u th o r s d re w . T h is s o u rc e w a s
th e o r a l lite r a tu r e , ch iefly in v e rs e , w h ic h w a s tr a n s m itte d f ro m o n e
g e n e ra tio n to a n o th e r, a n d w h ic h fo rm e d th e m o s t v a lu a b le p o sse ssio n
o f th e A r a b , a f t e r h is ca m el a n d h o rs e . I t w a s, b y b e c o m in g th o r ­
o u g h ly v e rs e d in it, th a t p o e tr y b e c a m e “ a p a r t o f h is n a tu r e , o r a
n a tiv e in s tin c t.” T h e r e g u la tio n s o f th e A r a b ic m e tre a n d rh y m e ,
th o u g h f irs t la id d o w n in w r itte n fo rm , in th e th ir d c e n tu r y o f th e M o ­
h a m m e d a n E r a , n e v e rth e le s s o r ig in a te d d u r in g th is a n c ie n t p e rio d .
W ith o u r lim ite d in f o rm a tio n w e c a n n o t g iv e a v e ry s a tis f a c to ry e x ­
p la n a tio n o f th e p e c u lia ritie s o f th e A ra b ic v e r s e ; b u t so m e e x p la n a ­
tio n m a y b e s o u g h t in th e n a tu r e o f th e c o u n try a n d th e m o d e s o f liv ­
in g . I a m in c lin e d to th in k th a t v e rs e s w e re m a d e to h a rm o n iz e w ith
c e rta in n o m a d ic tu n e s , b y w h ic h th e A r a b tr ie d to s h o rte n h is lo n e ­
so m e n ig h ts a n d w e a ris o m e jo u r n e y s , o r to c h e e r u p th e w a n in g s p irits
o f h is ca m e l o r h o rs e . I o f te n h e a r d th e B e d o u in s o n g s o f to -d a y a n d
w a s p a r tic u la r ly im p re s s e d w ith th e fitn ess o f th e m e tre a n d rh y m e
to th e tu n e . I e x a m in e d so m e o f th e s e s o n g s a n d fo u n d o u t th a t th e y
a g re e , in g e n e ra l, w ith th e re c o g n iz e d fo rm s a n d r e g u la tio n s o f A ra b ic
v e rse .
T h e im p re s s io n s re c e iv e d in a lo n g jo u r n e y th r o u g h th e c o u n try
w o u ld be n u m e ro u s a n d v a rie d , a n d th is m ig h t a c c o u n t f o r th e v a rie ty
o f s u b je c ts in a n y o f th o s e a n c ie n t p o e m s, a n d th e f re e tr a n s itio n
f ro m o n e to a n o th e r . T h e m in d o f a tr a v e llin g m a n is tr a v e llin g , to o ,
 — 7—
a n d w o u ld n a tu r a lly d w e ll o n th e in te r e s tin g th in g s o n th e w a y th a t
a ro u s e d its im a g in a tio n o r e m o tio n . T h e le n g th y c h a r a c te r o f th e
p o e m s, w ith o n e r h y m e th r o u g h o u t, m ig h t h a v e h a d its o r ig in in th e
in te n s e r iv a lr y a m o n g p o e ts a n d th e d e s ire o f e a c h to s h o w s u p e rio r
c a p a c ity in f u r n is h in g a lo n g s e rie s o f rh y m e s a s w e ll a s in th e ir
p r o p e r a d ju s tm e n t, a n d in e x p a n d in g th e p o e m , in s p ite o f th e m a n y
r e s tr ic tio n s th a t w e re , p e r h a p s , c o n s id e re d n e c e s s a ry f o r a tr u e d e m ­
o n s tr a tio n o f p o e tic a l g e n iu s .
I n th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f A ra b ic p o e try w e h a v e to c o n s id e r, n o t o n ly
th o s e in flu e n c e s p e c u lia r to th e A ra b ia n P e n in s u la o r to th e ra c e in g e n ­
e r a l, b u t a ls o th e fo re ig n in flu e n c e s th a t h a d to d o w ith th a t d e v e lo p ­
m e n t. I n th is p r im a r y p e rio d , h o w e v e r, th e re w a s v e r y little o f f o r ­
e ig n in flu e n c e , b e c a u se th e A r a b s w e re se c lu d e d w ith in th e ir n a tiv e
la n d . S o m e fo rm s o f re lig io n w e re in tro d u c e d in to A ra b ia fro m
n e ig h b o r in g c o u n trie s , a s J u d a is m a n d C h r is tia n ity fro m S y ria , a n d
S o la r w o rs h ip fro m C h a ld e a o r P e r s ia , b u t n o n e o f th e m h a d ta k e n a
firm h o ld o f th e A r a b ia n m in d , o r a c q u ire d a n a tio n a l c h a ra c te r.
H e n c e , it is ch iefly th e n a tiv e in flu e n c e th a t w e h a v e to ta k e in to c o n ­
s id e ra tio n in c o n n e c tio n w ith th is p e rio d . I n a f o r m e r a rtic le , p r e ­
s e n te d b e fo re th e F a c u lty o f th e G ra d u a te S c h o o l o f th e N e w Y o r k
U n iv e r s ity , I d w e lt a t le n g th o n n a tiv e c o n d itio n s in A r a b ia a n d th e ir
e ffe c t o n A ra b ia n g e n iu s b e fo re th e r is e o f Is la m . I w ill n o t d w e ll
a g a in o n t h a t to p ic , b u t I m a y b e a llo w e d to q u o te fro m th a t a rtic le
th e fo llo w in g l i n e s :
“ A r a b ia is th e la n d o f th e c a m e l a n d th e h o r s e ; h en c e, w e d o n o t
w o n d e r w h y a c o n s id e ra b le p o rtio n o f th o s e e a r ly p o e m s w a s d e v o te d
to th e p ra is e s o f th e c a m e l th a t h a d h e lp e d its m a s te r to w re n c h h is
liv in g o u t o f th e h e a r t o f th e w ild e rn e s s , o r o f th e n o b le h o rs e th a t
h a d c a r r ie d h im s a fe th r o u g h m a n y a b a ttle fie ld .”
“ A r a b ia is in te n s e ly h o t, d r y a n d b a r r e n , a n d w e c a n im a g in e th e
th ir s t o f its p eo p le f o r r a in , s p r in g s a n d v e g e ta tio n . H e n c e , w e d o
n o t w o n d e r w h e n o n e o f th o se p o e ts w o u ld s to p h is c a m e l o r h is h o rs e
o n th e s p o t w h e re h is lo v e d o n e s h a d s to p p e d b e fo re , a n d w ith d e e p
e m o tio n in v o k e th e “ H e a v e n s ” t o v isit t h a t p la c e w ith r a in a n d g r e e n ;
a n d th e A ra b ic p o e t o f to -d a y w o u ld u tte r th e sa m e p r a y e r u n d e r
s im ila r c irc u m s ta n c e s .”
“ A r a b ia is n o t a la n d o f c h a r m in g s c e n e ry . T h e r e is g r a n d e u r in
th e w ild e rn e s s , b u t n o g r a c e o r b e a u ty — n o la n d s c a p e o f g a y flo w e rs,
n o s tre a m s o f s p a r k lin g w a te rs , n o g ro v e s o f e v e r la s tin g g re e n . H e n c e ,
th e re is n o w o n d e r w h y th e p o e ts o f A r a b ia d id n o t d e v o te m u c h o f
th e ir p o e try to th e b e a u ty o f n a t u r e as p o e ts o f o th e r n a tio n s . A ra b ic
p o e ts th a t liv e d in th e co lo n ies a n d d e p e n d e n c ie s, e sp e c ia lly th o se o f
 — 8 —
A n d a lu s ia ( S p a i n ) , d e p a r te d a s m u c h a s p o s sib le f ro m tim e -h o n o re d
f o r m s a n d u s a g e s , a n d w e re n o t d e a f to th e v o ic e o f N a t u r e ; b u t th e y
n e v e r lo s t th e ir lo v e f o r th e M o th e r- la n d , a n d th e p o e ts liv in g in th e
r ic h g a r d e n s o f D a m a s c u s a n d B a g d a d , o r th e g r e e n v a lle y o f th e
N ile , still s a n g o f th e “ G az elle o f N a j d a n d E l- A k e e k ” a n d o th e r
p la c e s o f A r a b ia w h ic h th e y h a d n e v e r se e n . E v e n th e p o e t o f th e
tw e n tie th c e n tu r y , w h o h a s b e e n b r o u g h t u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f a n e w
c iv iliz a tio n , tr ie s to im ita te th e o ld p o e ts o f th e J a h ile e y a h .”
II. P R E -IS L A M IC O R H E R O IC A G E .
T h is a g e sa w th e c lim a x in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f A r a b ic p o e try in
its n a tiv e e le m e n ts. I t w a s o n e o f th e m o s t b r illia n t p e rio d s o f A ra b ic
lite r a tu r e . T h e p o e ts b e lo n g in g to th is a g e s ta n d to th e p r e s e n t d a y
a s s u p r e m e a u th o ritie s o n A ra b ic p o e try , g r a m m a r a n d v o c a b u la ry .
F o r n a t u r a l b e a u ty , d ig n ity a n d sim p lic ity I d o n o t k n o w if th e y h a v e
e v e r b e e n s u rp a s s e d . W e h a v e a lre a d y a llu d e d to th e se v e n M u a lla k a t
a n d th e ir u n lim ite d in flu e n c e o n th e life a n d g e n iu s o f th e n a tio n .
T o th e A r a b o f th e J a h ile e y a h , th e y w e re th e se v e n w o n d e rs o f th e
w o rld , a n d th e r e w a s n o w o n d e r w h y h e a d o r e d th e m f o r 150 y e a rs .
T h e g r e a t h o n o r a c c o rd e d to th e m in th e T e m p le o f C a a b a w a s, p e r ­
h a p s , o n e o f th e g r e a te s t s tim u li to th e g r o w th o f p o e try in th is p e rio d .
I t w a s a p e rio d o f u n p re c e d e n te d m e n ta l a s w e ll as p h y s ic a l a c t i v i t y ;
a n a g e o f c h iv a lry a n d ro m a n c e , m o s t fa v o ra b le to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
p o e tic a l g e n iu s . T h e c h ie f c e n tre o f th is d e v e lo p m e n t w a s S u k O k a d
in Y a m e n , to w h ic h p o e ts f ro m a ll p a r ts o f A r a b ia flocked
in c e rta in se a so n s a n d v ie d writh e a c h o th e r in e x h ib itin g th e ir b e st
p r o d u c tio n s a n d in d is c u s s in g , in v e rs e , th e im p o r ta n t q u e s tio n s o f th e
d a y . E v e n w o m e n w e re se iz e d writh th e p o e tic a l m a n ia a n d to o k a n
a c tiv e p a r t in th o s e e x h ib itio n s o f e lo q u e n c e , f o r w e r e a d a b o u t A l-
K hansa I-Ll th e g r e a te s t A ra b ic p o e te ss, th a t sh e c o m p e te d w ith
th e m o s t e m in e n t m e n in S u k O k a d ,6 a n d w o n th e h ig h e s t c o m p lim e n ts
f ro m N a b ig a D ib ia n i (jU iJit , wrh o w a s th e n th e le a d e r o f th a t
p o e tic a l o rg a n iz a tio n .
W e c a n n o t o v e re s tim a te th e in flu en c e o f th o s e m e e tin g s o n th e d e ­
v e lo p m e n t o f A ra b ic p o e try . T h e ir in flu e n c e o n th e life o f th e A ra b s
m a y b e c o m p a re d to th a t o f th e O ly m p ia n G a m e s o n th e n a tio n a l life
o f A n c ie n t G reece. A s th e O ly m p ia n c o m p e titio n s s tim u la te d th e
G re c ia n y o u th to p h y s ic a l e x c e lle n c e , so th e s e c o m p e titio n s o f O k a d
s tim u la te d th e A ra b ia n s to a tta in th e h ig h e s t in te lle c tu a l h o n o rs. T h e
d iffe re n t trib e s , in th e ir c o m m o n lo v e f o r th e “ n o b le A ra b ic v e rs e ,”
 — 9—
f o r g o t th e ir q u a r r e ls a n d jo in e d in p a y in g h o n o r to th e g e n iu s e s o f
th e ra c e .
T h e h e ro ic w a r s 7 th a t to o k p la c e in th is p e r io d , a s th e f o rty y e a r s '
w a r b e tw e e n T a g lib a n d B a k r, a n d th e d e s p e ra te s tr u g g le o f A b s a n d
D a b ia n , jj £ a v e a n o th e r g r e a t im p e tu s to p o e try . O f th e
w a r -p o e ts , th r e e a r e a u th o r s o f M u a lla k a t, n a m e ly , A m r I b n K a lth o o m
H a rith I b n H iliz z a h *jk>- and A n ta r a I b n
S h a d d a d .>1j l £ £y. • T h e la s t o f th e th r e e w a s b o th th e H o m e r
a n d th e A c h ille s o f th e A ra b ia n ra c e .
N o tw ith s ta n d in g th e g r e a t e n th u s ia s m c re a te d b y th e m , th e se w a r s
w e re d e e p ly d e p re c a te d b y m a n y p a tr io tic A ra b s , w h o b e c a m e fa m o u s
a s b e n e fa c to rs o f th e ir ra c e , a n d th e ir n o b le d e e d s w e re e x to lle d b y
p o e ts a s h ig h ly a s th e e x p lo its o f h e ro e s o n th e b a ttle fie ld . W a s th e r e
a p o e t w h o d id n o t s in g th e p r a is e s o f H a tim T a i th e g r e a t ­
e s t p h ila n th r o p is t o f th e J a h ile e -y a h ? I n a s im ila r m a n n e r, Z u h e ir,
th e m o s t e n lig h te n e d o f th e p o e ts o f th e M u a lla k a t, d e d ic a te d h is
c h ie f s o n g to th e m e m o ry o f S in a n a n d H a r i s ^ j W - j ^ , th e tw o
n o b le m e n w h o v o lu n te e re d to p a y a la r g e in d e m n ity to e a c h o f th e
trib e s o f A b s a n d D a b ia n , in o r d e r to e n d a b lo o d y co n flict th a t th r e a t ­
e n e d th e ir a n n ih ila tio n .
C o m p a rin g th e p o e try o f th is p e rio d w ith w h a t w e k n o w o f th e
p r e c e d in g , w e fin d th a t it is b y f a r s u p e r io r in e le g a n c e , p r o fo u n d n e s s
a n d c o m p re h e n s iv e n e s s .
I n th e ir r iv a lr y f o r ex c ellen ce , th e p o e ts o f th is a g e e n d e a v o re d to
o r ig in a te h ig h id e a s a n d to o p en n e w field s f o r th e ir g e n iu s . T h e ir
g r e a t le a d e r w a s th e C h r is tia n p rin c e , U m r o - E l- K e is s *5
th e a u th o r o f th e first M u a lla k a t, w h o w a s s e c o n d e d b y h is f a ith f u l
f r ie n d ,8 E l- S a m o w -E l ( o r S a m u e l) , a H e b r e w c h ie f, w h o se o n ly p o e m
th a t re a c h e d u s e x c e ls in its lo fty s e n tim e n ts a n y o th e r p o e m o f th is
age.
T h e cam el, h o rse , g a z e lle , m e h a ,* d e s e rt, m o u n t, v a lle y a n d o th e r
th in g s seen in th e A ra b ia n P e n in s u la h a d re c e iv e d m u c h a tte n tio n
fro m f o rm e r p o e ts , a n d th e re w a s little to a d d to w h a t h a d b een sa id .
B a ttle s a n d h e ro e s h a d b een a d e q u a te ly d e s c r ib e d ; a n d love a n d b e a u ty ,
o f c o u rse , h a d a lw a y s c la im e d th e f irs t a n d b e s t p a r t o f e v e ry p o em .
A ll th e se to p ic s, f a r fro m b e in g n e g le c te d a n d o fte n im p ro v e d u p o n ,
w o u ld n o t s a tis fy th e a m b itio u s p o e ts o f th is h e ro ic a g e . T h e y tu r n e d
t h e ir th o u g h ts to th e ric h d o m a in s o f p h ilo s o p h y a n d so cio lo g y , a n d
 — 10 —
fre e ly d is c u s s e d th e b u r n in g q u e s tio n s o f e th ic s a n d re lig io n . T h u s
w e fin d Z u h e ir la y in g th e “ p rin c ip le s o f w is d o m ” a n d T a r f a t d is c u s ­
s in g b o ld ly th e I m m o r ta lity o f th e S o u l a n d th e G r e a te s t O b je c t o f
L ife .
W e n o tic e th a t n e a r ly a ll th e p o e ts o f th e M u a lla k a t r e f e r r e d in
b o a s tf u l te r m s to th e h a b its o f d r in k in g a n d g a m b lin g w h ic h p r e ­
v a ile d in th e J a h ile e y a h . In d e e d , th e r e w a s a re v o lu tio n o f th o u g h t in
f a v o r o f m a te ria lis m , a n d a s o r t o f E p ic u r is m , w ell d e s c rib e d b y T a r -
fa t - j C Jl iiJ U s p r a n g u p o n th e ru in s o f fa ith s . T h e c o n d itio n s
w e re n o t d is s im ila r to th o se j u s t p r e c e d in g th e tim e o f C h r is t, a n d all
w a s r e a d y f o r th e ris e o f a n e w re lig io n w h ic h s p re a d lik e fire in ail
A ra b ia . T h is w ill b r in g u s to th e n e x t p e rio d .
III. T H E E A R L Y IS L A M IC A G E .
T h e re lig io u s , so c ia l a n d p o litic a l re v o lu tio n s t h a t a c c o m p a n ie d o r
fo llo w e d th e ris e o f I s la m h a d g r e a t a n d la s tin g e ffe c ts o n A ra b ic
p o e try . T h e n e w re lig io n a ffe c te d p o e try , n o t o n ly d ire c tly b y in ­
s p ir in g th e A ra b ia n m in d w ith n e w id e a s a n d p rin c ip le s , b u t a ls o in ­
d ire c tly , th r o u g h its fo re ig n c o n v e rts , w h o w e re o b lig e d to le a r n th e
la n g u a g e o f th e K o r a n a n d w h o se n a tiv e ta le n ts a n d le a r n in g c o n tr i­
b u te d m u c h to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f A ra b ic v e rse . M o h a m m e d a n is m
p u t a n e n d to m a n y s u p e rs titio n s , c o r r u p t id e a s a n d h a b its , th a t p r e ­
v a ile d in th e J a h ile e -y a h a n d m a d e th e ir w a y in to A ra b ic v e rs e , a n d
th u s f a r h a d a p u r if y in g e ffe c t o n b o th so c ie ty a n d lite r a tu r e , b u t, on
th e o th e r h a n d , it d is c o u ra g e d f re e th in k in g a n d r e s tr a in e d th a t
s p ir it o f in d e p e n d e n c e w h ic h d is tin g u is h e d th e J a h ile e -y a h .
B e fo re M o h a m m e d , re lig io n , a s w e h a v e a lre a d y se en , w a s v e ry
sc a n tily r e p r e s e n te d in A ra b ic v e rs e , b u t a f t e r M o h a m m e d it p e r ­
v a d e d all lite r a tu r e . N o o th e r p o e tr y is m o re ric h th a n th e A ra b ic
in re lig io u s s e n tim e n ts , o r m o re m a g n ific e n t a n d su b lim e in its r e f e r ­
en c e s to th e “ G re a t C r e a to r ,” a n d in r e p r e s e n tin g th e lo y a lty a n d
d e v o tio n o f H is c r e a tu r e , M a n .
B y th e n e w re lig io n , th e A ra b s w e re m a d e a W o r ld - P o w e r , w h o se
m is sio n w a s to b r in g M a n k in d to A lla h a n d to M o h a m m e d , th e
“ a p o s tle o f A l l a h a n d th e ir p o e try , c h a n g in g w ith th e m , b e g a n to
lo se its tr ib a l c h a r a c te r a n d to b ec o m e u n iv e rs a l in its to n e , a lth o u g h
it c e a se d to b e in u n iv e rs a l d e m a n d . T h e r e w a s a g r e a t d e m a n d f o r
o r a to r s to im p re s s th e p u b lic m in d w ith th e n e w d o c trin e s a n d to e x h o r t
m e n to c o m e to A lla h a n d fig h t in th e “ J i h a d ” P r o s e cam e
to th e f r o n t, w h ile v e rs e re c e d e d a little to th e b a c k g r o u n d , a n d th e
>
M u a lla k a t g a v e p la c e to th e Soovvar o f th e K o ra n . A c c o rd in g -
 — 11 —
ly , th e r e w a s a m a r k e d d e c re a s e in th e n u m b e r o f d is tin g u is h e d p o e ts ,
a n d w e h e a r n o m o re o f th e fa m o u s S u k O k a d \y * • P r o s e
re c e iv e d a g r e a t s tim u lu s f ro m th e K o r a n , w h ic h w a s g iv e n in a fo rm
o f p ro s e c a lle d S a j , » an<i w a s f u r th e r s tim u la te d b y th e o r a ­
to r y o f th e fa m o u s im a m s, e s p e c ia lly O m a r I b n -u l K h a tta b ,_ A L tl£ iy ^
a n d A li I b n A b i-T a lib , th e tw o g r e a te s t s u c c e s so rs o f
M oham m ed.
E v e n so m e p o e ts o f th e J a h ile e -y a h w h o liv e d to e m b ra c e I s la m ,
g a v e u p p o e try a s th e y s a w th e M u a lla k a t s u p e rs e d e d b y th e n e w
sty le o f th e K o ra n . W e r e a d a b o u t L a b e e d 9 j o n e o f th e p o e ts
o f th e M u a lla k a t, th a t d u r in g th e f o r ty y e a rs th a t h e liv ed a f te r e m ­
b r a c in g Is la m , h e co m p o sed o n ly th is v e r s e :—

C/* j f ^
“ G o d b e p ra is e d , f o r m y d e a th d id n o t co m e to m e b e fo re
I p u t o n a g a r m e n t o f I s la m .”
W h e n O m a r I b n - u l K h a tta b a s k e d L a b e e d to re c ite to h im so m e
o f h is p o e m s, h e w e n t b a c k to h is h o u se , w ro te th e firs t c h a p te r o f
th e K o r a n ( S o o r a t- E l B a k a r a a n d ca m e w ith it to
O m a r , s a y in g , “ T h is is w h a t G o d g a v e m e in s te a d o f p o e try .”
M o h a m m e d h im s e lf, w h o w a s a v e ry p ra c tic a l m a n , p a tro n iz e d
p o e ts a n d u s e d th e ir in flu e n c e f o r th e su c cess o f h is c a u se . W h e n h e
h e a rd th a t th e p e o p le o f M e c c a w e re d e n o u n c in g h im a n d h is re lig io n ,
h e c a lle d u p o n H a s s a n I b n T h a b it h is p o e t la u r e a te ) to
d e fe n d th e h o n o r o f th e f a ith f u l a n d d e fa m e th e ir en e m ie s, s a y in g ,10
“ G o a h e a d a n d a b u s e th e m , a n d th e A n g e l G a b rie l is w ith th e e a n d
th e H o ly S p ir it w ill h e lp th e e .”
I t w a s a n a g e o f fig h tin g , a n d a s h a rp to n g u e w a s m o re efficacious
th a n a s h a rp s w o rd . W e n o tic e th a t m o s t o f th e p o e ts o f th e e a rly
Is la m ic p e rio d w e re s a tir is ts o f th e m o s t re m a rk a b le ty p e . T h e y a r e
w ell r e p r e s e n te d b y th e fa m o u s tr io , F a r a z d a k ,11 J a r e e r a n d A k h ta l.
firs t h a d a g r im a p p e a ra n c e o f v ic io u s te m p e r
a n d a fierce to n g u e w h ic h e v e ry b o d y d re a d e d e x c e p t J a r e e r . A k h ta l
w o u ld h a v e b e e n e q u a lly efficien t h a d h e n o t b ee n h a n d ic a p p e d by
h is C h r is tia n d e s c e n t. A ll th r e e w o u ld fa ll o n th e ir k n e e s b e fo re
E l- H u ty y a h ( s o c a lle d fro m h is m e a g re s iz e ) . T h is H u ty y a h
 — 1 2 —

is d e s c rib e d b y I s p a h a n i >n h i s b o o k E l- A g a n i , as a
“ b o m s a tir is t, a p o e t o f th e f irs t r a n k ,” b u t o f a “ m e a n so u l, a r e p u l­
siv e a p p e a r a n c e , d ir ty h a b its , c o r r u p t p rin c ip le s a n d a v ic io u s to n g u e ."
H e s a tir iz e d e v e ry b o d y h e m e t, e v e n h is w ife a n d c h i ld r e n ; a n d o n e
d a y , a s h e c o u ld n o t fin d a n y b o d y o n w h o m t o p ra c tic e h is a b u s iv e
to n g u e , h e b e g a n to s i n g : —

lil ^ \Jl£j VJ 1
“ M y lip s h a v e re fu s e d to - d a y b u t to u t t e r evil. I d o n o t k n o w to w h o m
I s h a ll s a y it."
H e w e n t a b o u t r e p e a tin g th e sa m e , u n til h e c a m e a c ro s s so m e w a te r
th r o u g h w h ic h h e s a w a re fle c tio n o f h is face , a n d c o n tin u in g h is
so n g , h e s a id :—

“ I see th a t fa c e o f m in e w h ic h G o d h a th s o d isfig u re d .
S h a m e u p o n th a t fa c e a n d s h a m e u p o n h im th a t c a rr ie s i t !”
A lth o u g h th e e a rly I s la m ic p e rio d w a s n o t a v e r y b r illia n t o n e in
th e h is to r y o f A ra b ic lite r a tu r e , it w a s fo llo w e d b y a n a g e o f g r e a t
in te lle c tu a l d e v e lo p m e n t a n d re fin e m e n t, w h ic h w e h a v e a lre a d y ca lle d
th e G o ld e n A g e .
IV . T H E G O L D E N A G E .
T h is is th e a g e th a t sa w th e r e ig n o f H a r o o n u l-R a s h e e d
a n d h is so n M a m o o n , a n d is th e b r ig h te s t p e r io d in th e h is to ry o f
A r a b ia n c u ltu re a n d c iv iliz a tio n . D u r in g th e tw o p r e c e d in g c e n ­
tu r ie s , th e A ra b s w e re to o m u c h e n g a g e d in th e ir J ih a d s to c u ltiv a te
th e a r ts o f p ea ce . T h e y h a d a lso to c o n te n d w ith m a n y g r e a t p o lit­
ical a n d so c ia l p ro b le m s a r is in g , p a r tly , fro m th e e x tre m e r a p id ity
o f th e ir c o n te s ts a n d th e v a s tn e s s o f th e ir d o m a in s , a n d p a r tly fro m
th e ir n e w re la tio n s w ith a c o u n tle s s n u m b e r o f n a tio n a litie s a n d
c re e d s. T h e ir d e s tru c tiv e c a p a c ity h e lp e d th e m to g e t r id o f m a n y
o f th e s e p ro b le m s , f o r th e S w o r d o f I s la m w a s a p p lie d to e v e ry
G o rd ia n k n o t th a t se em e d d ifficu lt to u n tie .
M o re o v e r, th e y h a d m a n y in te rn a l tro u b le s w h ic h th e s w o rd a lo n e
c o u ld n o t re m o v e . T h e r e w e re c h a n g e s o f d y n a s tie s , re b e llio n s, h e r ­
esies, tr ib a l fe u d s a n d civil w a r s — w h ic h m a n y a tim e th r e a te n e d th e
c o lla p se o f th e e m p ire a n d Is la m .
T h e n a tio n s th a t th e y s u b d u e d — G re e k s , R o m a n s , P e r s ia n s , E g y p ­
tia n s , a n d S y ria n s , w e re s u p e rio r to th e m in c iv iliz a tio n a n d c o u ld
n o t b e h e ld in s u b je c tio n e x c e p t b y a c o n tin u o u s d is p la y o f a rm s .
T h a t s u p e r io r ity o f th e ir s u b je c ts w a s d is ta s te f u l to th e s e p r o u d m a s ­
te r s , a n d th e r e is n o w o n d e r w h y th e y h a d to sh o w th e g r e a te s t d is ­
 — 13 —
d a in to e v e r y th in g t h a t w a s n o t M o h a m m e d a n o r A r a b ia n , a n d to
b r in g in to p la y th e ir re m a rk a b le p o w e rs o f d e s tru c tio n .
T h e ir la n g u a g e w a s w ith o u t b o o k s, e v e n th e K o r a n d id n o t ta k e
th e f o rm o f a b o o k u n til th e r e ig n o f O th m a n I b n A ffa n
th e se c o n d K a lip h , a n d h a d to b e r e w r itte n h a lf a c e n tu r y a f te r ­
w a r d s . T h e y h a d n o g r a m m a r ,12 n o le x ic o n , a n d n o lite r a tu r e s b e sid e s
w h a t w a s k e p t b y m e m o riz e rs a n d s to r y te lle rs. T h e a r t o f w r itin g
w a s v e r y im p e rfe c t, a n d th e y h a d s c a rc e ly a n y o th e r a r t e x c e p t th a t
o f w a r , a n d y e t th e y w e re c a lle d u p o n to r u le th e c iv iliz e d w o rld .
H o w e v e r, th e y w e re q u ic k to le a rn a n d q u ic k to p ra c tis e , a n d b y th e
r e ig n o f E l- R a s h id a n d h is so n s, m o s t o f th e se d ifficu lties h a d b ee n
o v erco m e.
Ib n K h a ld o o n s ta te s th a t th e A r a b s d e s tro y e d th e sc ien c e o f th e
C h a ld e a n s , B a b y lo n ia n s , P e r s ia n s a n d C o p ts, a n d s a v e d o n ly t h a t o f
G re e c e , b e c a u se E l-M a m o o n to o k p a in s to co llect it a n d to h a v e it
tr a n s la te d in to A ra b ic . T h is s a m e a u th o r a s c rib e s th e ir d e s tru c tiv e ­
n e ss to th e ir e x tre m e lo v e o f in d e p e n d e n c e a n d a n tip a th y to r u le s ,13
a n d f u r th e r s ta te s t h a t th e n a t u r e o f th e ir liv in g in th e w ild e rn e s s w as
u n f a v o r a b le t o th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c o n s tru c tiv e q u a litie s , a s th e y n e v e r
c a re d to b u ild ev e n a h o u se .
T h e m a rk e d c h a n g e in th e ir p o lic y d u r in g th e r e ig n o f E l-M a m o o n
m u s t h a v e h a d a c a u s e , in th e o p in io n o f o u r d is tin g u is h e d sc h o la r,
N o w fe l N o w fe l. H e th in k s th a t sin c e th e d a y s o f th e J a h ile e -y a h th e
A r a b s d e e p ly a s p ire d to a k n o w le d g e o f th e i r f u tu r e d e s tin ie s, a n d h a d
a n id e a th a t s u c h k n o w le d g e m ig h t be o b ta in e d f ro m c a re fu l s tu d y o f
a s tro n o m y . T h is id e a w a s fo s te r e d b y th e G re e k p h y s ic ia n s e m p lo y e d
b y th e m , a n d th u s th e y w e re le d to in v e s tig a te th e scien tific w o rk s o f
th e G re e k s, h o p in g t o d is c o v e r so m e k e y to th e k n o w le d g e o f th e
f u tu r e . T h e y d id n o t c a re f o r G re e k p o e try , a s H o m e r ’s I lia d , b e ­
c a u s e th e y th o u g h t it w a s to o co ld , n o r f o r G re e k h is to r y b e c a u se th e y
h a d n o u s e f o r it. I n s u p p o r t o f th is v ie w , N o w fe l s ta te s th a t E l-
M a m o o n h im s e lf, th e g u id in g s p ir it o f t h a t scien tific m o v e m e n t, d id
n o t m a s te r a n y sc ien c e e x c e p t a s tr o n o m y .14 I a m in c lin e d to th in k
th a t th is e x p la n a tio n is a little to o f a r -f e tc h e d . T h e A r a b s in M a -
tn o o n ’s a g e h a d q u ie te d d o w n a n d w e r e a b le to see th e fo o lish n e ss o f
th e ir p re d e c e s s o rs in d e s tro y in g th e g r e a t lib ra rie s a n d m o n u m e n ts o f
th e ir e n e m ie s. I n th e c o u rs e o f tim e , th e y c a m e to a p p r e c ia te th e
g e n iu s o f o th e r n a tio n s a n d to b e n e fit f ro m it. I n a ll th e ir c o n q u e sts
th e y h e a r d th e fa m e o f G re c ia n p h ilo s o p h y a n d a r t ; a n d G re ec e h a d
its n o b le re v e n g e b e c a u s e it c o n q u e re d th e m in te lle c tu a lly a s it h a d
c o n q u e re d R o m e . A ris to tle , P y th a g o r a s , P la to , S o c ra te s , P to le m y
a n d o th e rs w e re r e a d a n d a d m ire d b y th e m a n d th e ir th o u g h ts a s sim -
 — 14 —■
ila te d a n d o fte n im p r o v e d u p o n .
T h e b e a rin g - o f a ll th is o n o u r s u b je c t is v e ry g r e a t, b e c a u s e n o
s o o n e r w e re th e w o rk s o f th e s e a u th o r s tr a n s la te d in to A r a b ic th a n w a s
b e g u n th e in v a s io n o f A r a b ic p o e tr y b y th e p h ilo s o p h ic id e a s a n d w ise
s a y in g s o f th e G re e k s. T h is m a d e p o e ts p h ilo s o p h e rs , a n d p h ilo s o ­
p h e r s w e re n o t a c c o m p lish e d w ith o u t b e c o m in g p o e ts a s w ell, a c c o r d ­
i n g to th e ta s te o f th e A ra b s . T h e n a m e s a n d w ise s a y in g s o f th o s e
G re e k a u th o r s o c c u r q u ite f r e q u e n tly in th e p o e try o f th is p e rio d . T h e
K ash k o o l f o r in s ta n c e , sa y s th a t so m e o f th e b e st
v e rs e s o f M u ta n ib b i a r e tr a n s la tio n s f ro m G re e k , su c h a s :—

“ W e lo a th e to g iv e o u r s p ir its to n a t u r e
w h o s e p r o p e r ty th e y a re . T h e s e s p irits a r e f ro m its
a tm o s p h e re , a n d th e s e b o d ie s a r e f ro m its d u s t.”
A l s o :—

“ H o w m a n y a o n e fin d s f a u lt w ith a s o u n d s ta te m e n t,
b e c a u se h is u n d e r s ta n d in g is sic k .”
T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e p o e try o f th is p e rio d a n d t h a t o f th e
f ir s t o r se c o n d c a n b e tte r b e e s tim a te d b y c o m p a rin g a p o e m lik e th a t
o f A v ic e n n a ^ * y\ a b o u t th e so u l, w ith so m e v e rs e s o f th e
J a h ile e - y a h ; y e t th e p o e ts o f th e J a h ile e -y a h u s e d th e little m a te r ia l
th e y h a d , to th e b e s t a d v a n ta g e . W e c a n n o t b la m e , f o r in s ta n c e , th e
B e d o u in p o e t w h o s e c o m p a n y w a s h is d o g a n d h is g o a t, a n d w h o , o n
v is itin g a n o te d c h ie f, p r a is e d h im in th e fo llo w in g v e r s e :—

" T h o u a r t lik e th e d o g in f rie n d s h ip a n d lik e th e h e - g o a t in c o n ­

te n d in g w ith d if fic u ltie s /' ( O r , to be lite ra l, “ in f ig h tin g w ith h o r n s .” )
A v ic e n n a in th e p o e m to w h ic h w e r e f e r r e d d e s c rib e s th e so u l a s
‘‘t h a t h e a v e n ly d o v e, s ta te ly a n d d ig n ifie d , t h a t fe ll d o w n to th e e f ro m
o n h ig h .” H e g o e s o n to s a y :—
f-j O / — ill. if-
“ H id d e n fro m th e eye"of th e w ise , y e t it s h in e th a n d h a s n o v e il.”
H e d isc u ss e s th e o b je c t o f h e r “ f a llin g d o w n f r o m th e lo f ty a n d
su b lim e ,” a n d s ta te s t h a t “ p e rfe c tio n c a n n o t b e th e a im , f o r s h e w ill
n o t g e t it in th is w o r ld .” D e s c r ib in g th e e n d h e s a y s :—
^ a]'6 0 ( £ f J j J V; V1
 — 15 —
“ A s i f s h e w a s a lig h te n in g th a t s p a rk le d in th e field, th e n o b sc u re d ,
a s if it n e v e r d id s h in e .”
W e h a v e d w e lt ch iefly o n th e in flu e n c e o f G re c ia n id e a s, a lth o u g h
th e r e w e re o th e r im p o r ta n t f a c to rs th a t a ffe c te d th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f
p o e try in th is a g e . T h e A r a b s , a t th is tim e , w e re s e ttle d o n n e w la n d s
r ic h in n a tu r a l s c e n e ry t h a t d id n o t fa il to in s p ire th e ir im a g in a tio n ,
su c h a s th e w ild e rn e s s h a d n e v e r in s p ire d it b e fo re . T h e y h a d a c c o m ­
p lis h e d th e c o n q u e s t o f th e w o rld in a n in c re d ib ly s h o r t tim e a n d w e re
in p o ss e s sio n o f a m o s t g lo rio u s h is to r y v e r y r ic h in p o e tic a l th e m e s.
T h e y e x p lo re d all c o u n trie s , s tu d ie d all n a tio n s , e x p e rie n c e d a ll clim es,
g a in e d e v e ry tr e a s u r e a n d w e re n o m o re th e n a r r o w - m in d e d m e n o f th e
d e s e rt. T h e y p o s s e s s e d a fine s y s te m o f e d u c a tio n , a n d th e y o u th w e re
tr a in e d in e v e ry b r a n c h o f k n o w le d g e in s te a d o f b e in g le ft to th e ir
n a tu r a l in s tin c ts .
I n A n d a lu s ia o r S p a in , K in g E l- N a s ir d id w h a t E l-M a m o o n h a d
d o n e in th e E a s t, a n d C o rd o v a L l>Ji w a s p u t o n a le v el w ith
B a g d a d . I n th a t W e s te r n c lim a te th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f A ra b ic p o e try
w a s m o re fre e a n d u n b ia s s e d th a n in th e m o th e r c o u n try , a n d p o e ts
in v e n te d m a n y fo rm s a n d m e th o d s o f v e rsific a tio n , su c h a s th e fa m o u s
M o u a s h a h a t, th a t w e re a d o p te d b y th e r e s t o f th e A ra b ic ­
s p e a k in g w o rld .
V . T H E A G E O F D E C L IN E .
W h e n E u r o p e w a s g r o p in g in th e d a r k n e s s o f th e te n th c e n tu ry ,
th e A r a b s r e a c h e d th e c lim a x o f th e ir in te lle c tu a l a n d m a te ria l p r o g ­
re s s , b u t, b y th e b e g in n in g o f th e ele v e n th c e n tu ry , th e ir d e c lin e w a s a s
r a p id a n d s tr ik in g a s th e ir su c cess. T h e ir w e a lth , w h ic h w a s th e
w e a lth o f all n a tio n s a n d th e b o o ty o f a th o u s a n d w a rs , le d th e m to a
s ta te o f lu x u r y , p e r h a p s u n e q u a lle d in th e h is to ry o f th e w o rld . T h e y
h a d th e ir P a r a d is e h e re in th is w o rld a n d th e y f o r g o t th e n e x t. T h e
h e ro ic s p ir it o f th e J a h ile e -y a h w a s d e a d , a n d in s te a d o f th e w a rlik e
p e o p le th a t a c h ie v e d in s e v e n ty y e a rs w h a t R o m e d id in se v e n h u n d r e d ,
th e r e w a s a n in d o le n t, p le a s u re -s e e k in g , H a r e m - lo v in g p o p u la tio n .
C o r r u p tio n filled th e ir lite r a tu r e a s it filled th e ir so c ie ty , a n d im m o ra li­
tie s c r e p t in to A ra b ic p o e try . P o e ts w e re w o rs e th a n c o m m o n flirts,
a n d th e r e w e re v e ry fe w w h o se g e n iu s w a s n o t s tu ffe d w ith im p u r i­
tie s . I d o n o t c a re to d w e ll o n th e s e p o in ts n o r to sh o w sa m p le s o f
t h a t p o e tr y o f M a jo o n * th a t b e a rs th e s ta m p o f th a t a g e .
T h e n a tio n a l s p ir it w a s f u r th e r w e a k e n e d b y th e g r a d u a l tr a n s f e r ­
e n c e o f p o w e r to th e T a r t a r s , w h o se p e r s is te n t a tta c k s o n th e d e g e n e r­
a te d e m p ire c r e a te d d is u n io n a n d d ism a y in its b e s t c e n tre s , a n d finally
e n d e d in th e d e s tru c tio n o f B a g d a d w ith all its tr e a s u r e s o f a r t a n d
 — 16 —
sc ie n c e in 1258 A .D ., a n d t h a t w a s th e e n d o f th e A r a b ia n K a lip h a te .
T h e r e w a s a ra lly d u r i n g th e C r u s a d e s , a n d th e A g e o f C h iv a lry
se e m e d t o h a v e r e tu r n e d in th e d a y s o f th e g lo r io u s S a la d in , b u t e v e n
t h e r u d e s o ld ie ry o f E u r o p e c o u ld n o t w ith s ta n d th e lu x u r io u s a tm o ­
s p h e re o f A r a b ia n life , a n d th o s e w h o s e ttle d in P a le s tin e so o n b e c a m e
d e g e n e r a te d . E g y p t, f a v o r e d b y th e r u le o f th e F a tim ite s a n d S a l-
je u k s , h e ld o u t lo n g e r, a n d in f a c t it p ro d u c e d th e b e s t p o e ts o f th is
p e rio d , a s th e fa m o u s S o p h ite , O m ar- I b n el F a r i t h ^ j f ' and
B e h a X Jddeen Z u h e ir , jjOkJ w h o se D iw a n is n o w tr a n s la te d
in to E n g lis h v e rs e .
U N D E R T H E O T T O M A N R U L E A N D O U R T IM E .
T h e d e c a y o f A r a b ic life a n d lite r a tu r e c o n tin u e d f o r so m e tim e in
th is p e rio d , a lth o u g h m o re slo w ly t h a n in th e p re c e d in g o n e, u n til it
r e a c h e d a s ta tio n a r y c o n d itio n . T h e T u r k s , d r e a d in g a n A ra b ia n
p o litic a l re v iv a l, a lw a y s p r o h ib ite d th e p ro m o tio n o f a n y sc h e m e a n d
th e p u b lic a tio n o f a n y b o o k , a rtic le o r p o e m , t h a t m ig h t c o n trib u te to
it. I n e e d o n ly r e f e r to th e p r e s e n t s y s te m o f c e n s o rs h ip , a n d f o r
e x a m p le , I m a y c ite th e f a c t t h a t d u r in g th e th r e e y e a rs th a t I se rv e d
in th e e d ito ria l office o f L is s a n - u l- H a l, B e ir n t, th e w o r d A r a b ia n w a s
d a s h e d o u t f ro m e v e ry a rtic le , a n d th e w o rd O tto m a n w r itte n in s te a d .
I n E g y p t, w ith a f re e p re s s , A r a b ic lit e r a tu r e is f lo u ris h in g a g a in ,
a n d p o e ts a n d o th e r m e n o f le tte rs flo ck to t h a t c o u n try f r o m L e b a n o n ,
P a le s tin e , M e s a p o ta m ia a n d o th e r p a r ts o f th e A ra b ic s p e a k in g w o rld .
T h e r e is a re n a is s a n c e in b o th S y r ia a n d E g y p t, a n d a tr u e d e s ire a m o n g
m a n y o f th e e d u c a te d c la sse s to m o d e rn iz e th e A ra b ic v e rse . O f th e
le a d e rs in th is m o v e m e n t w e m a y m e n tio n A h m e d S h o w k i B e y , th e
p o e t o f th e K h e d iv e , th e e d ito rs o f E l- M u k ta t a f a n d H ila l a n d o th e r
S y r ia n s c h o la rs a n d a u th o r s , m a n y o f w h o m a r e g r a d u a te s o f th e
S y r ia n P r o te s ta n t C o lleg e . B u t th e d ifficu lties o f m o d e rn iz in g A ra b ic
p o e try a r e v e r y n u m e ro u s , o w in g ch iefly to th e e x tre m e c o n s e rv a tis m
a n d p r e ju d ic e o f th e M o h a m m e d a n e le m e n t w h ic h fo rm s th e m a jo r ity ,
a n d to th e p e c u lia r c h a r a c te r o f th e A r a b ic v e rs e a n d la n g u a g e .
T h e r e is g r e a t n e e d f o r a n A ra b ic a c a d e m y a n d m u c h ta lk a b o u t m a k ­
in g o n e , b u t th is is still a d re a m .

N E W Y O R K U N IV E R S IT Y
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 References

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