Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Li Et Al 2016 Improving The Energy Efficiency of Stoves To Reduce Pollutant Emissions From Household Solid Fuel
Li Et Al 2016 Improving The Energy Efficiency of Stoves To Reduce Pollutant Emissions From Household Solid Fuel
Li Et Al 2016 Improving The Energy Efficiency of Stoves To Reduce Pollutant Emissions From Household Solid Fuel
copying and redistribution of the article or any adaptations for non-commercial purposes.
Letter
pubs.acs.org/journal/estlcu
221116, China
∥
Beijing Association of New Energy and Renewable Energy, Beijing 100029, China
⊥
School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
#
Collaborative Innovation Centre for Regional Environmental Quality, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
Downloaded via 183.89.11.212 on January 2, 2024 at 16:06:19 (UTC).
*
S Supporting Information
ABSTRACT: Emissions of air pollutants from household solid fuel combustion in low-efficiency
stoves have serious negative impacts on human health and air quality in China. This study compares
the thermal efficiency (TE) and emissions from solid fuel combustion in a newly developed under-
fire heating stove and a typical traditional over-fire heating stove. The average TEs for burning all
tested fuel types (semi-coke, anthracite, briquette, bituminous, lignite, and biomass) were 83 and
42% for the new stove and the traditional stove, respectively. The new stove was effective in reducing
CO2 and pollutant emissions per unit energy delivered to a radiator. The average reductions were
∼50% for CO2, 79% for PM2.5, 95% for EC, 85% for benzo[a]pyrene equivalent carcinogenic
potency, and 66% for eight selected toxic elements (Pb, Cu, Sb, Cd, As, Ag, Se, and Ni) in PM2.5.
Improvements in stove technology are demonstrated as a practical approach for improving TE and
reducing emissions of hazardous pollutants and CO2.
■ INTRODUCTION
Coal is the dominant energy source in China and will continue
diameter of ≤2.5 μm) is greater than that of many industrial
sources, such as coal-fired power plants.14
to be for a long time. Coal combustion makes the largest The TE of solid fuel burned in household stoves is lower
contribution to ambient particulate matter (PM) pollution1 and than that for fuel burned in industrial boilers. The TE of
CO2 emissions2 in China. These emissions negatively impact traditional cookstoves in China was commonly less than 10%.15
the global climate and human health.3,4 Considerable effort has Replacement stoves have been mainly designed with chimneys
been spent to limit their emissions in China.5−9 Air pollution to transport emissions from indoors to outdoors without a
control devices, such as electrostatic precipitators, desulfuriza- significant reduction in the total emission or improvement of
tion systems, and selective catalytic reduction, have been widely the TEs during the 1980s and 1990s.16,17 Rapid development of
installed on industrial coal boilers.6,9−11 There is another way stove technology has occurred in the past 15 years. The TE for
to think about driving down pollutant and CO2 emissions,11 newly developed cookstoves, such as gasifier cookstoves, was
i.e., improving the efficiency of energy utilization. The designed increased to approximately 27−35%.18−20 The TE of heating
thermal efficiency (TE) of China’s industrial coal boilers is stoves promoted by Chinese local governments is commonly
currently 72−80%, whereas the target set in China’s 13th Five- lower than 55% according to our surveys, although their
Year Plan (2016−2020) is to exceed 90%. However, the claimed TE can be up to 65−75%. The TE of household stoves
efficiency of household stoves has attracted less interest from is mainly governed by two factors: heat transfer and
the public and the government even though household solid combustion efficiencies. The heat transfer efficiency is mainly
fuel combustion has been one of the major emission sources of affected by the stove chamber structure. The combustion
CO212 and air pollutants directly associated with negative
impacts on human health.13 More than 4 million people die Received: August 26, 2016
prematurely from illnesses that can be attributed to household Revised: September 18, 2016
air pollution globally, and the contribution of household stoves Accepted: September 19, 2016
to atmospheric PM2.5 (particulate matter with an aerodynamic Published: September 19, 2016
efficiency in household stoves is commonly low and leads to new stove is in pilot studies with some units deployed in the
incomplete combustion. The incomplete combustion results in Beijing area. Both stoves are operated by natural draft and
larger emission factors (EFs) of PM and CO in residential manual air controls. The internal space of the new stove can be
stoves than in industrial boilers.21 An estimated 36% of primary approximately divided into two chambers: a fuel storage
PM2.5, 53% of elemental carbon (EC), and 62% of polycyclic chamber and a secondary combustion chamber. The primary
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in China’s annual emissions are combustion of solid fuel is fired at the junction of the two
from residential solid fuel combustion.18,22−24 Residential solid chambers, i.e., the bottom of the stove. Devolatilization occurs
fuel combustion has led to serious air pollution with an increase in the lower part of the storage chamber because of the high
in environmental risk factors.13,25−27 The replacement of raw temperature in the combustion region. The carbonized solid
fuels with processed (or clean) fuel has been intensively fuel is delivered by gravity feed, while the volatile gases are
investigated as a way to reduce household air pollution. The drawn into the primary combustion region and then the
EFs of PM2.5, EC, organic carbon (OC), and PAHs for secondary combustion chamber by negative pressure. Addi-
anthracite coal and semi-coke briquette were reported to be tional air is supplied in the secondary combustion chamber to
several dozen times lower than that for bituminous coal because further burn the volatile gases in the fuel gas. The surface area
of the low volatile matter content,28−31 whereas pelletized for heat transfer to circulating water surrounds the pathway of
biofuels and coal briquettes were reported to have low pollutant the flue gas. The traditional heating stove has only one
EFs due to the change in their burning form.32−36 However, in chamber, with the fuel batch placed in the bottom part of the
some cases, cleaner fuels may not be effective for reducing the chamber. Fuel is fed into the chamber from the top to the
emissions of CO2, toxic elements, or even PAHs.37,38 bottom and fired from the bottom to the top with primary air
Additionally, the cleaner fuels are typically more expensive, fed into the bottom. The upper fuel is carbonized and releases
which in turn may result in residential consumers not choosing the volatile gases when the bottom fuel is burning. The surface
them. In addition, specific stoves are often required for these area for heat transfer is mainly in the chamber walls and top
fuels, which are also a barrier for the deployment of new fuels as dust baffle, which also has the function of capturing some dust
residents may have to change their cooking and/or heating from the flue gas. Panels a and b of Figure S3 show
habits. Since 2012, the Beijing government has launched a photographs of the two stoves tested, and panel c of Figure
policy of replacing all low-rank coals with anthracite with the S3 suggests that at the moment of fuel addition, the new stove
help of financial subsidies, and Hebei province has planned the emits a level of pollutants considerably lower than that of the
replacement with 15 million tons of clean coal in 2016. These traditional stove. The operational processes for the two stoves
policies require continuous and large amounts of financial are presented in the caption of Figure S3. Compared to the
support but have not yet made a considerable impact, as traditional heating stove, the new stove has a relatively larger
illustrated by photographs in Figure S1, which show emissions water surface area because of its longer flue pathway (from the
from typical residential solid fuel combustion in many areas in stove bottom to the chimney). Along the flue pathway,
China. According to the estimation of reduction scenarios secondary air can be supplied to enhance the burning of
applied to the year 2010, cleaner stoves were proposed to devolatilized matter.
provide better emission reductions, even when free fuels are Tested Fuel Samples. Six different types of solid fuel
used, compared to the deployment of cleaner fuels alone.16 samples were tested, including a semi-coke chunk (made from
However, there is little information about the in-use emission bituminous coals with dimensions in the range of 0.3−4 cm),
and TE of updated cookstoves,18−20 and there is no knowledge anthracite chunk (3−7 cm), anthracite briquette (∼4 cm),
of the performance of updated heating stoves.16 The new bituminous chunk (3−7 cm), lignite chunk (3−7 cm), and
household stoves should be based on updated combustion biomass briquette (sphere-shaped, ∼4 cm) made from sawdust.
technology and well-defined standards that include TE and Table S1 presents the moisture, ash, volatile matter, fixed
emissions of the most important pollutants, i.e., CO and PM2.5. carbon, and sulfur contents, as well as net calorific value as
With the aim of improving TE and reducing pollutant EFs, received, for the various fuels. Among these samples, semi-coke,
this study evaluates a newly developed heating stove that anthracite chunk, and anthracite briquette are considered as
employs under-fire combustion technology, different from the promising potential clean fuels, whereas biomass was recently
over-fire technology commonly used in household stoves. The recommended as a renewable fuel without net CO2 emissions.
technologies used in the new and traditional stoves are termed Bituminous and lignite coals and raw biomass have been
under-fire and over-fire technologies according to the fire recognized as dirty fuels because of their high volatile matter
location in the stove chamber.39,40 Emissions from the content, which causes high PM emissions, but residential
combustion of semi-coke, anthracite, coal briquette, bitumi- consumers have preferred them because of their ease of ignition
nous, lignite, and biomass briquette samples in the new stove and low price. These six samples were selected to represent six
are characterized and compared with those in a typical types of solid fuels commonly used for household energy needs
traditional stove. The reductions in delivered energy-based in rural China.29
(based on useful energy delivered) CO2, PM2.5, OC, EC, PAH, Tested Method and Sampling System. Combustion
and selected toxic element EFs from the new stove are experiments were conducted in the laboratory (see Figure S4)
presented, and the combustion technology affecting emissions for measuring emissions and TEs, while measurement of TEs
and TE is discussed.
■
was also conducted in a household that has the traditional stove
and the new stove (see Figure S3). Five water-filled radiators
MATERIALS AND METHODS (for 150 m2 household heating) were connected in series to the
Tested Stoves and Combustion Technologies. Figure test stoves via a water circulating pump for both household and
S2 shows a schematic of the combustion technologies laboratory testing. The fuel weight for each test was fixed at
employed by the two tested stoves. The tested traditional 10.0 and 60.0 kg for the traditional and new stoves, respectively.
stove is one of the most popular household coal stoves. The Three successful tests of full burning cycles (from ignition to
370 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00324
Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2016, 3, 369−374
Environmental Science & Technology Letters Letter
■
a considerably higher energy efficiency regardless of the volatile
matter content of the fuel.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Emissions of CO2, PM, EC, BaPeq, and Eight Toxic
Thermal and Modified Combustion Efficiencies. The Elements. Delivered energy-based CO2 EFs were considerably
TE and MCE of all tested samples burned in the new stove lower for the new stove than for the traditional stove because of
were higher than those in the traditional stove, as shown in the considerably higher TE (see Figures 1c and 2). Because the
Figure 1. The average TEs for the new and traditional stoves higher MCEs resulted in more complete combustion and
were 83 ± 7% and 42 ± 10%, respectively. A Student’s t test higher TE, both the mass- and delivered energy-based EFs of
showed that the TE for the new stove, ranging from ∼72 to CO, TSP, and PM2.5 were considerably lower for the new stove
371 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00324
Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2016, 3, 369−374
Environmental Science & Technology Letters Letter
Figure 2. Reductions in the EFs of CO2, PM2.5, EC, BaPeq, and eight toxic elements when solid fuel samples are burned in the new stove in
comparison to the traditional stove.
■
EC, BaPeq, and eight toxic elements for the three dirty fuels, i.e.,
bituminous, lignite, and biomass samples, were higher, with ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS
average values of 95 ± 3, 99.1 ± 0.5, 97 ± 3, and 95 ± 1%,
respectively. The implication drawn from this study on household heating
Volatile matter content in solid fuel not only governs PM2.5 stoves and studies of other gasifier cookstoves tested in
EF from the traditional stove employing over-fire technology China18,19,46 is that improving the energy and combustion
but also affects its TE and MCE. The over-fire combustion efficiencies of household stoves is a practical approach to
technology releases volatile matter from fuels without efficient alleviating the current pollutant situation and greatly improving
air quality. The superior performance of the new combustion
subsequent combustion when fuel is added to the stove
technology in reducing CO2 and PM emissions will reduce the
chamber. The unburnt volatile materials are precursors of
household contribution to atmospheric burden and indoor
carbonaceous aerosols.44 Thus, particulate-bound pollutants are
health risks and save energy. Compared with the current
mainly emitted during fuel ignition in the traditional stove,30 as replacement with clean solid fuels annually in the Beijing−
shown in Figure 3. After the pyrolysis stage, the emission rate of Tianjing−Hebei region, the improvement in household stoves
volatile matter decreases with an increase in combustion time is advantageous in terms of a lower cost with at least 10 years of
and thus leads to a fast decrease in ultraviolet- and EC-channel- stove life and is more feasible than the deployment of clean
absorbing PM in the traditional stove.45 The under-fire fuels, as the improvement policy can be more readily supervised
combustion technology used in the new stove distills out the by the government. Additionally, the new stove appears to work
volatile matter gradually, and the distilled volatile matter has a well for various solid fuels used in the residential sector of
higher combustion efficiency because it passes through the China.
primary and secondary combustion regions (see Figures S2 and Considering the simplified assumption that the efficiency of
S3). This improvement is supported by Figure 3, which shows all household stoves can be improved from the current value of
that the tested traditional stove had carbonaceous PM 42 to 83% by employing the under-fire combustion technology,
emissions that were greater than those of the new stove after the mass of household solid fuel can be reduced by
the addition of the lignite coal. The combustion and emission approximately 49%. This would result in a potential savings
processes in the new stove are steadier without the high- of approximately 50 Mt of coal, 90 Mt of firewood, and 130 Mt
emission ignition stage. of stalks in China based on estimates of their consumption in
372 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00324
Environ. Sci. Technol. Lett. 2016, 3, 369−374
Environmental Science & Technology Letters Letter
the past few years.41 Furthermore, reduction in emissions of (7) Wu, X.; Yang, Q.; Chen, G.; Hayat, T.; Alsaedi, A. Progress and
approximately 50% in CO2, 79% in PM2.5, and 95% in EC from prospect of CCS in China: Using learning curve to assess the cost-
household combustion could also be realized. The reduction in viability of a 2× 600MW retrofitted oxyfuel power plant as a case
the emission of PAHs could lead to a reduction in the BaP study. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev. 2016, 60, 1274−85.
equivalent carcinogenic potency of ∼85%. (8) Boot-Handford, M. E.; Abanades, J. C.; Anthony, E. J.; Blunt, M.
■
J.; Brandani, S.; Mac Dowell, N.; Fernandez, J. R.; Ferrari, M. C.;
Gross, R.; Hallett, J. P.; Haszeldine, R. S.; Heptonstall, P.; Lyngfelt, A.;
ASSOCIATED CONTENT
Makuch, Z.; Mangano, E.; Porter, R. T. J.; Pourkashanian, M.;
*
S Supporting Information Rochelle, G. T.; Shah, N.; Yao, J. G.; Fennell, P. S. Carbon capture and
The Supporting Information is available free of charge on the storage update. Energy Environ. Sci. 2014, 7 (1), 130−189.
ACS Publications website at DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.6b00324. (9) Zhang, Q.; He, K. B.; Huo, H. Cleaning China’s air. Nature 2012,
Description of analysis methods for eight toxic elements 484 (7393), 161−162.
(10) Xu, Y.; Williams, R. H.; Socolow, R. H. China’s rapid
and 16 PAHs in PM2.5, fuel quality, values of TE and
deployment of SO2 scrubbers. Energy Environ. Sci. 2009, 2 (5),
MCE, mass- and delivered energy-based EFs of all 459−465.
pollutant species cited in the main text, photographs of (11) You, C. F.; Xu, X. C. Coal combustion and its pollution control
polluted rural Beijing and tested stoves, stove tech- in China. Energy 2010, 35 (11), 4467−72.
nologies, the sampling system, and the relationship (12) Zhang, Y. X.; Wang, H. K.; Liang, S.; Xu, M.; Liu, W. D.; Li, S.
between the TE and MCE and the fuel volatile matter L.; Zhang, R. R.; Nielsen, C. P.; Bi, J. Temporal and spatial variations
content (PDF) in consumption-based carbon dioxide emissions in China. Renewable
■
Sustainable Energy Rev. 2014, 40, 60−68.
AUTHOR INFORMATION (13) Zhang, J. J.; Smith, K. R. Household air pollution from coal and
biomass fuels in China: Measurements, health impacts, and
Corresponding Author interventions. Environ. Health Persp 2007, 115 (6), 848−855.
*Phone: +86-10-62781512. E-mail: jiangjk@tsinghua.edu.cn. (14) Wang, S. X.; Zhao, B.; Cai, S. Y.; Klimont, Z.; Nielsen, C. P.;
Notes Morikawa, T.; Woo, J. H.; Kim, Y.; Fu, X.; Xu, J. Y.; Hao, J. M.; He, K.
The authors declare no competing financial interest. B. Emission trends and mitigation options for air pollutants in East
■
Asia. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 2014, 14 (13), 6571−6603.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS (15) Sinton, J. E.; Smith, K. R.; Peabody, J. W.; Yaping, L.; Xiliang,
Z.; Edwards, R.; Quan, G. An assessment of programs to promote
We thank Zizhen Ma from Tsinghua University and Lei Yu and improved household stoves in China. Energy Sustainable Dev. 2004, 8
Dongfeng Liu from the China University of Mining and (3), 33−52.
Technology for their experimental support. Q.L. thanks Prof. (16) Winijkul, E.; Bond, T. C. Emissions from residential combustion
Yujing Mu from RCEES (CAS) for his helpful discussion. considering end-uses and spatial constraints: Part II, emission
Financial support from the National Key Basic Research and reduction scenarios. Atmos. Environ. 2016, 124, 1−11.
Development Program of China (2013CB228505) and the (17) Smith, K. R.; Gu, S. H.; Huang, K.; Qiu, D. X. 100-Million
National Natural Science Foundation of China (41227805, Improved Cookstoves In China - How Was It Done. World Dev 1993,
21422703, and 21521064) is acknowledged. 21 (6), 941−961.
■
(18) Shen, G. F.; Chen, Y. C.; Xue, C. Y.; Lin, N.; Huang, Y.; Shen,
REFERENCES H. Z.; Wang, Y. L.; Li, T. C.; Zhang, Y. Y.; Su, S.; Huangfu, Y. B.;
Zhang, W. H.; Chen, X. F.; Liu, G. Q.; Liu, W. X.; Wang, X. L.; Wong,
(1) Duan, X. L.; Jiang, Y.; Wang, B. B.; Zhao, X. G.; Shen, G. F.; Cao, M. H.; Tao, S. Pollutant Emissions from Improved Coal- and Wood-
S. Z.; Huang, N.; Qian, Y.; Chen, Y. T.; Wang, L. M. Household fuel Fuelled Cookstoves in Rural Households. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2015,
use for cooking and heating in China: Results from the first Chinese 49 (11), 6590−98.
Environmental Exposure-Related Human Activity Patterns Survey (19) Carter, E. M.; Shan, M.; Yang, X. D.; Li, J. R.; Baumgartner, J.
(CEERHAPS). Appl. Energy 2014, 136, 692−703.
Pollutant Emissions and Energy Efficiency of Chinese Gasifier
(2) Liu, Z.; Guan, D. B.; Wei, W.; Davis, S. J.; Ciais, P.; Bai, J.; Peng,
Cooking Stoves and Implications for Future Intervention Studies.
S. S.; Zhang, Q.; Hubacek, K.; Marland, G.; Andres, R. J.; Crawford-
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (11), 6461−67.
Brown, D.; Lin, J. T.; Zhao, H. Y.; Hong, C. P.; Boden, T. A.; Feng, K.
(20) Panwar, N. L.; Rathore, N. S. Design and performance
S.; Peters, G. P.; Xi, F. M.; Liu, J. G.; Li, Y.; Zhao, Y.; Zeng, N.; He, K.
B. Reduced carbon emission estimates from fossil fuel combustion and evaluation of a 5 kW producer gas stove. Biomass Bioenergy 2008, 32
cement production in China. Nature 2015, 524 (7565), 335−338. (12), 1349−52.
(3) Bond, T. C.; Doherty, S. J.; Fahey, D. W.; Forster, P. M.; (21) Zhang, Y. X.; Schauer, J. J.; Zhang, Y. H.; Zeng, L. M.; Wei, Y. J.;
Berntsen, T.; DeAngelo, B. J.; Flanner, M. G.; Ghan, S.; Karcher, B.; Liu, Y.; Shao, M. Characteristics of particulate carbon emissions from
Koch, D.; Kinne, S.; Kondo, Y.; Quinn, P. K.; Sarofim, M. C.; Schultz, real-world Chinese coal combustion. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2008, 42
M. G.; Schulz, M.; Venkataraman, C.; Zhang, H.; Zhang, S.; Bellouin, (14), 5068−73.
N.; Guttikunda, S. K.; Hopke, P. K.; Jacobson, M. Z.; Kaiser, J. W.; (22) Huang, Y.; Shen, H. Z.; Chen, H.; Wang, R.; Zhang, Y. Y.; Su,
Klimont, Z.; Lohmann, U.; Schwarz, J. P.; Shindell, D.; Storelvmo, T.; S.; Chen, Y. C.; Lin, N.; Zhuo, S. J.; Zhong, Q. R.; Wang, X. L.; Liu, J.
Warren, S. G.; Zender, C. S. Bounding the role of black carbon in the F.; Li, B. G.; Liu, W. X.; Tao, S. Quantification of Global Primary
climate system: A scientific assessment. J. Geophys Res-Atmos 2013, Emissions of PM2.5, PM10, and TSP from Combustion and Industrial
118 (11), 5380−5552. Process Sources. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2014, 48 (23), 13834−43.
(4) Lelieveld, J.; Evans, J. S.; Fnais, M.; Giannadaki, D.; Pozzer, A. (23) Shen, H. Z.; Huang, Y.; Wang, R.; Zhu, D.; Li, W.; Shen, G. F.;
The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature Wang, B.; Zhang, Y. Y.; Chen, Y. C.; Lu, Y.; Chen, H.; Li, T. C.; Sun,
mortality on a global scale. Nature 2015, 525 (7569), 367−371. K.; Li, B. G.; Liu, W. X.; Liu, J. F.; Tao, S. Global Atmospheric
(5) Wang, Q.; Liu, Q. L.; Shao, M.; Zhang, Y. H. Regional Air Quality Emissions of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from 1960 to 2008
Management In China: A Case Study In the Pearl River Delta. Energy and Future Predictions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47 (12), 6415−24.
Environ. 2013, 24 (7−8), 1373−92. (24) Wang, R.; Tao, S.; Wang, W. T.; Liu, J. F.; Shen, H. Z.; Shen, G.
(6) Wang, S. X.; Hao, J. M. Air quality management in China: Issues, F.; Wang, B.; Liu, X. P.; Li, W.; Huang, Y.; Zhang, Y. Y.; Lu, Y.; Chen,
challenges, and options. J. Environ. Sci. 2012, 24 (1), 2−13. H.; Chen, Y. C.; Wang, C.; Zhu, D.; Wang, X. L.; Li, B. G.; Liu, W. X.;
Ma, J. M. Black Carbon Emissions in China from 1949 to 2050. Fired Hydronic Heaters. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (14), 7898−
Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46 (14), 7595−7603. 7904.
(25) Smith, K. R.; Bruce, N.; Balakrishnan, K.; Adair-Rohani, H.; (41) Li, Q.; Jiang, J.; Cai, S.; Zhou, W.; Wang, S.; Duan, L.; Hao, J.
Balmes, J.; Chafe, Z.; Dherani, M.; Hosgood, H. D.; Mehta, S.; Pope, Gaseous Ammonia Emissions from Coal and Biomass Combustion in
D.; Rehfuess, E. Millions Dead: How Do We Know and What Does It Household Stoves with Different Combustion Efficiencies. Environ. Sci.
Mean? Methods Used in the Comparative Risk Assessment of Technol. Lett. 2016, 3 (3), 98−103.
Household Air Pollution. Annu. Rev. Public Health 2014, 35, 185−206. (42) Kirchstetter, T. W.; Novakov, T.; Hobbs, P. V. Evidence that the
(26) Baumgartner, J.; Zhang, Y. X.; Schauer, J. J.; Huang, W.; Wang, spectral dependence of light absorption by aerosols is affected by
Y. Q.; Ezzati, M. Highway proximity and black carbon from cookstoves organic carbon. J. Geophys Res-Atmos 2004, 109 (D21), D21208.
as a risk factor for higher blood pressure in rural China. Proc. Natl. (43) Shen, G. F.; Yang, Y. F.; Wang, W.; Tao, S.; Zhu, C.; Min, Y. J.;
Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 2014, 111 (36), 13229−34. Xue, M. A.; Ding, J. N.; Wang, B.; Wang, R.; Shen, H. Z.; Li, W.;
(27) Rohra, H.; Taneja, A. Indoor air quality scenario in India-An Wang, X. L.; Russell, A. G. Emission Factors of Particulate Matter and
outline of household fuel combustion. Atmos. Environ. 2016, 129, Elemental Carbon for Crop Residues and Coals Burned in Typical
243−255. Household Stoves in China. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44 (18),
(28) Chen, Y. J.; Zhi, G. R.; Feng, Y. L.; Fu, J. M.; Feng, J. L.; Sheng, 7157−62.
G. Y.; Simoneit, B. R. T. Measurements of emission factors for primary (44) Wang, X. F.; Cotter, E.; Iyer, K. N.; Fang, J. X.; Williams, B. J.;
carbonaceous particles from residential raw-coal combustion in China. Biswas, P. Relationship between pyrolysis products and organic
Geophys. Res. Lett. 2006, 33 (20), L20815−8. aerosols formed during coal combustion. Proc. Combust. Inst. 2015, 35,
(29) Shen, G.; Xue, M.; Chen, Y.; Yang, C.; Li, W.; Shen, H.; Huang, 2347−54.
Y.; Zhang, Y.; Chen, H.; Zhu, Y.; Wu, H.; Ding, A.; Tao, S. (45) Zhou, W.; Jiang, J.; Duan, L.; Hao, J. Evolution of
Submicrometer Organic Aerosols during a Complete Residential
Comparison of carbonaceous particulate matter emission factors
Coal Combustion Process. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2016, 50 (14), 7861−
among different solid fuels burned in residential stoves. Atmos. Environ.
7869.
2014, 89, 337−345.
(46) Sanford, L.; Burney, J. Cookstoves illustrate the need for a
(30) Li, Q.; Li, X. H.; Jiang, J. K.; Duan, L.; Ge, S.; Zhang, Q.; Deng,
comprehensive carbon market. Environ. Res. Lett. 2015, 10 (8),
J. G.; Wang, S. X.; Hao, J. M. Semi-coke briquettes: towards reducing 084026−36.
emissions of primary PM2.5, particulate carbon, and carbon monoxide
from household coal combustion in China. Sci. Rep. 2016, 6, 19306−
15.
(31) Li, Q.; Jiang, J.; Zhang, Q.; Zhou, W.; Cai, S.; Duan, L.; Ge, S.;
Hao, J. Influences of coal size, volatile matter content, and additive on
primary particulate matter emissions from household stove combus-
tion. Fuel 2016, 182, 780−787.
(32) Shen, G. F. Quantification of emission reduction potentials of
primary air pollutants from residential solid fuel combustion by
adopting cleaner fuels in China. J. Environ. Sci. 2015, 37, 1−7.
(33) Chen, Y.; Tian, C.; Feng, Y.; Zhi, G.; Li, J.; Zhang, G.
Measurements of emission factors of PM2.5, OC, EC, and BC for
household stoves of coal combustion in China. Atmos. Environ. 2015,
109, 190−196.
(34) Bond, T. C.; Covert, D. S.; Kramlich, J. C.; Larson, T. V.;
Charlson, R. J. Primary particle emissions from residential coal
burning: Optical properties and size distributions. J. Geophys Res-Atmos
2002, 107 (D21), 8347−8355.
(35) Shen, G. F.; Tao, S.; Wei, S. Y.; Zhang, Y. Y.; Wang, R.; Wang,
B.; Li, W.; Shen, H. Z.; Huang, Y.; Chen, Y. C.; Chen, H.; Yang, Y. F.;
Wang, W.; Wei, W.; Wang, X. L.; Liu, W. X.; Wang, X. J.; Simonich, S.
L. M. Reductions in Emissions of Carbonaceous Particulate Matter
and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons from Combustion of Biomass
Pellets in Comparison with Raw Fuel Burning. Environ. Sci. Technol.
2012, 46 (11), 6409−16.
(36) Shen, G. F. Changes from traditional solid fuels to clean
household energies - Opportunities in emission reduction of primary
PM2.5 from residential cookstoves in China. Biomass Bioenergy 2016,
86, 28−35.
(37) Chen, Y. J.; Zhi, G. R.; Feng, Y. L.; Tian, C. G.; Bi, X. H.; Li, J.;
Zhang, G. Increase in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH)
emissions due to briquetting: A challenge to the coal briquetting
policy. Environ. Pollut. 2015, 204, 58−63.
(38) Zhang, W.; Tong, Y. D.; Wang, H. H.; Chen, L.; Ou, L. B.;
Wang, X. J.; Liu, G. H.; Zhu, Y. Emission of Metals from Pelletized and
Uncompressed Biomass Fuels Combustion in Rural Household Stoves
in China. Sci. Rep. 2014, 4, 5611−16.
(39) Syc, M.; Horak, J.; Hopan, F.; Krpec, K.; Tomsej, T.; Ocelka, T.;
Pekarek, V. Effect of Fuels and Domestic Heating Appliance Types on
Emission Factors of Selected Organic Pollutants. Environ. Sci. Technol.
2011, 45 (21), 9427−9434.
(40) Aurell, J.; Gullett, B. K.; Tabor, D.; Touati, A.; Oudejans, L.
Semivolatile and Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Wood-