Crypto 7

Primes, Primality Test,
Factorization & CRT

Chittaranjan Pradhan
Cryptography 7 Primes
Generation of Primes
Primes, Primality Test, Factorization Primality Testing

Deterministic algorithms
& CRT Probabilistic algorithms

Recommended Primality
Test
Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
School of Computer Engineering,
KIIT University
7.1
Primes Factorization & CRT
Primes
• A prime is divisible only by itself and 1 Primes

• Number 1 is relatively prime with any integer Primality Testing
Probabilistic algorithms
• Number of Primes: Recommended Primality

Test
[n/(ln n)] < π(n) < [n/(ln n - 1.08366)] Factorization
• Check whether the number n is divisible by the primes less Chinese Remainder
√ Theorem (CRT)
than n
• Ex: 97 is prime? 301 is prime?
1. Sieve of Eratosthenes
• Write all the numbers between 2 and n

• Check any number in the above range is divisible by the
√
primes less than n
• Cross out the numbers divisible by the above primes
• Remaining numbers are the primes
• Ex: Primes under 50 7.2
Primes... Factorization & CRT
Euler’s Phi-Function Primes

• Φ(1) = 0 Primality Testing

• Φ(p) = p-1, if p is prime Probabilistic algorithms

Test
• Φ(m x n) = Φ(m) x Φ(n), if m & n are relatively prime Factorization
• Φ(pe ) = pe - pe−1 , if p is prime Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
• We can combine the above four rules to find the value of

Φ(n)
• Φ(n) finds the number of integers that are both smaller
than n and relatively prime to n
• Φ(10), Φ(13)
• What is the number of elements in Z14 ∗
7.3
Fermat’s Little Theorem
• If p is a prime number and a is an integer such that p Primes

doesn’t divide a, then Primality Testing
ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p Deterministic algorithms
• If p is a prime number and a is an integer, then Recommended Primality

Test
ap ≡ a mod p Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
• If the exponent and the modulus are not the same, with
substitution this can be solved
• Ex: 610 mod 11, 312 mod 11
Application of Fermat’s Little Theorem:
• Used to find multiplicative inverses quickly if the modulus
is a prime
• If p is a prime and a is an integer such that p doesn’t
divide a, then
a−1 mod p = ap−2 mod p
• Ex: 8−1 mod 17, 5−1 mod 23
7.4
Euler’s Theorem Primes

• Generalization of Fermat’s Little theorem Primality Testing

• Here, the modulus is an integer Probabilistic algorithms

Test
Factorization
• If a & n are coprimes, aΦ(n) ≡ 1 (mod n) Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
• If a & n are not coprimes and if n = p x q,
ak ∗Φ(n)+1 ≡ a (mod n)
• Ex: 624 mod 35, 2062 mod 77

Application of Euler’s Theorem:
• Used to find multiplicative inverses modulo a composite
a−1 mod n = aΦ(n)−1 mod n
• Ex: 8−1 mod 77, 7−1 mod 15, 71−1 mod 100
7.5
Generation of Primes Factorization & CRT
Primes
Generation of Primes Primality Testing
• Mersenne Primes Probabilistic algorithms

Test
Mp = 2p - 1 Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
Ex: p= 2, 3, 5, 7, 11
• Fermat Primes
n
Fn = 22 +1
Ex: n=1, 2, 3, 4, 5
7.6
Primality Testing Factorization & CRT
Primes
Primality Testing
Primality Testing Test
Factorization
• Deterministic algorithms: Gives correct answer Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
• Probabilistic algorithms: Gives an answer that is correct

most of the times, but not always
7.7
Deterministic algorithms Factorization & CRT
Divisibility Algorithm
√ Primes
• All divisors smaller than n are used. If any of these Generation of Primes
numbers divides n, then n is composite Primality Testing

Test
Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
• The algorithm can be improved by testing only odd

numbers
7.8
Deterministic algorithms... Factorization & CRT
Primes
Divisibility Algorithm... Generation of Primes
Primality Testing
• It can be further improved by using a table of primes Deterministic algorithms
√ Probabilistic algorithms
between 2 & n Recommended Primality
Test
Factorization
• If each arithmetic operation uses only

√ one bit operation, Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
then the bit-operation complexity is 2nb = 2nb /2 , where nb
is the number of bits in n
• The complexity can be represented as O(2nb )
• This algorithm is infeasible (intractable) if nb is large
• Ex: nb = 200bits
7.9
Deterministic algorithms... Factorization & CRT
AKS (Agrawal - Kayal - Saxena) Algorithm
• Can be used to verify the primality of any general number Primes

given with time complexity O((log2 nb )12 ) Primality Testing
p
(x − a) ≡ (x p -a) (mod p) Deterministic algorithms
Test
Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
7.10
Probabilistic algorithms Factorization & CRT
1. Fermat Primality Test Primes

Primality Testing
• If p is a prime, then ap−1 ≡ 1 mod p Deterministic algorithms
• Bit-operation complexity O(nb ) Recommended Primality
Test
Factorization
• Ex: 5, 561 Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
2. Square Root Test

√
• If n is a prime, 1 mod n = ±1
√
• If n is a composite, 1 mod n = ±1 and possibly other
values
• Ex: 7, 8, 17, 22
7.11
Probabilistic algorithms... Factorization & CRT
Primes
3. Miller - Rabin Test Generation of Primes
Primality Testing
• Combines the Fermat test and Square root test Deterministic algorithms
• n-1 is written as the product of an odd number m & a Recommended Primality

Test
power of 2 Factorization
n-1=m x 2k Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
• Run time complexity of O((logn)3 )
7.12
Probabilistic algorithms... Factorization & CRT
Miller - Rabin Test... Primes

Primality Testing
Test
Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
• Ex: 561, 27, 61
7.13
Recommended Primality Test Factorization & CRT
Recommended Primality Test Primes

Most popular primality test is a combination of the divisibility
Primality Testing
test and the Miller - Rabin test Deterministic algorithms
• Choose an odd integer Recommended Primality
Test
• Do some trivial divisibility tests on some known primes Factorization
such as 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 ... Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
• If the number passes all of these tests, go to next step
• else, go back to step 1 and choose another odd number
• Choose a set of bases for testing. A large set of bases is
preferable
• Do Miller - Rabin tests on each of the bases
• If any of them fails, go back to step 1 and choose another
odd number
• If the test passes for all bases, number is prime
Ex: 4033
7.14
Factorization Factorization & CRT
Factorization Primes
• Any positive integer can be written as Primality Testing
n = p1 e1 x p2 e2 x ... x pk ek
Test
• GCD (Greatest Common Divisor): Factorization
a = p1a1 xp2a2 x...xpk ak Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
b = p1b1 xp2b2 x...xpk bk
gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1,b1) xp2min(a2,b2) x...xpk min(ak ,bk )
• LCM (Least Common Multiplier):

a = p1a1 xp2a2 x...xpk ak
b = p1b1 xp2b2 x...xpk bk
lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1,b1) xp2max(a2,b2) x...xpk max(ak ,bk )
7.15
Factorization... Factorization & CRT
1. Trial Division Method
√
• Trial division can be attempted by all primes up to n Primes
• This method is good if n < 210 , but it is inefficient and Primality Testing
infeasible for factoring large integers Deterministic algorithms

• Ex: 1233 Recommended Primality

Test
Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
7.16
2. Fermat Method
• It divides a number n into two positive numbers a & b so Primes

that n = a x b Primality Testing
• n = x 2 - y 2 = a x b with a = (x + y) and b = (x - y) Deterministic algorithms

• It tries to find two integers a and b close to each other Test
Factorization
Chinese Remainder
Theorem (CRT)
7.17
3. Pollard’s p-1 Method
• Pollard’s p-1 factoring algorithm is a special-purpose Primes

factoring algorithm that can be used to efficiently find any Primality Testing
prime factors p of a composite integer n for which p - 1 is Deterministic algorithms
smooth with respect to some relatively small bound B Recommended Primality
Test
• Let B be a positive integer. An integer n is said to be Factorization
B-smooth, or smooth with respect to a bound B, if all its Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
prime factors are ≤ B. Ex: 57247159 with B=8
7.18
4. Pollard rho Method
• Choose x1, a small random integer called, seed Primes

• Use a function to calculate x2 such that n doesn’t divide Primality Testing
x1-x2 Deterministic algorithms
• Calculate gcd(x1-x2,n): Recommended Primality

Test
• If it isn’t 1, the result is a factor of n; stop Factorization
• If it is 1, return to step 1 and repeat the process with x2 Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
7.19
Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT) Factorization & CRT
Chinese Remainder Theorem (CRT)
• The CRT is used to solve a set of congruent equations Primes

with one variable but different moduli, which are relatively Primality Testing
prime Deterministic algorithms

x ≡ a1 (mod m1 ) Recommended Primality

Test
x ≡ a2 (mod m2 ) Factorization
... Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
x ≡ ak (mod mk )
• CRT states that these equations have a unique solution if

the moduli are relatively prime:
• Find M = m1 x m2 x ... x mk
• Find M1 = M/m1 , M2 = M/m2 , ... , Mk = M/mk
• Find the multiplicative inverse of M1 , M2 , ..., Mk using the
corresponding moduli (m1 , m2 , ..., mk ). Let they are M1 −1 ,
M2 −1 , ..., Mk −1
• The solution to the simultaneous equations is:
x = (a1 x M1 x M1 −1 + a2 x M2 x M2 −1 + ... + ak x Mk x
Mk −1 ) mod M
7.20
CRT... Factorization & CRT
Primes
Primality Testing
CRT... Probabilistic algorithms

Test
• x ≡ 2 mod 3 Factorization
x ≡ 3 mod 5 Chinese Remainder

Theorem (CRT)
x ≡ 2 mod 7
• Find an integer that has a remainder of 3 when divided by

7 and 13, but is divisible by 12
7.21

Crypto 7

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Primes, Primality Test,

Factorization & CRT

Primes, Primality Test, Factorization Primality Testing

& CRT Probabilistic algorithms

• A prime is divisible only by itself and 1 Primes

• Number of Primes: Recommended Primality

[n/(ln n)] < π(n) < [n/(ln n - 1.08366)] Factorization

• Write all the numbers between 2 and n

Euler’s Phi-Function Primes

• Φ(1) = 0 Primality Testing

• Φ(p) = p-1, if p is prime Probabilistic algorithms

• Φ(pe ) = pe - pe−1 , if p is prime Chinese Remainder

• We can combine the above four rules to find the value of

• If p is a prime number and a is an integer such that p Primes

• If p is a prime number and a is an integer, then Recommended Primality

Euler’s Theorem Primes

• Generalization of Fermat’s Little theorem Primality Testing

• Here, the modulus is an integer Probabilistic algorithms

• Ex: 624 mod 35, 2062 mod 77

• Mersenne Primes Probabilistic algorithms

• Deterministic algorithms: Gives correct answer Chinese Remainder

• Probabilistic algorithms: Gives an answer that is correct

numbers divides n, then n is composite Primality Testing

• The algorithm can be improved by testing only odd

• If each arithmetic operation uses only

• The complexity can be represented as O(2nb )

• This algorithm is infeasible (intractable) if nb is large

• Can be used to verify the primality of any general number Primes

1. Fermat Primality Test Primes

• Ex: 5, 561 Chinese Remainder

2. Square Root Test

• n-1 is written as the product of an odd number m & a Recommended Primality

n-1=m x 2k Chinese Remainder

• Run time complexity of O((logn)3 )

Miller - Rabin Test... Primes

• Ex: 561, 27, 61

Recommended Primality Test Primes

• Do some trivial divisibility tests on some known primes Factorization

such as 3, 5, 7, 11, 13 ... Chinese Remainder

• Any positive integer can be written as Primality Testing

• GCD (Greatest Common Divisor): Factorization

a = p1a1 xp2a2 x...xpk ak Chinese Remainder

b = p1b1 xp2b2 x...xpk bk

gcd(a, b) = p1min(a1,b1) xp2min(a2,b2) x...xpk min(ak ,bk )

• LCM (Least Common Multiplier):

lcm(a, b) = p1max(a1,b1) xp2max(a2,b2) x...xpk max(ak ,bk )

infeasible for factoring large integers Deterministic algorithms

• Ex: 1233 Recommended Primality

• It divides a number n into two positive numbers a & b so Primes

• n = x 2 - y 2 = a x b with a = (x + y) and b = (x - y) Deterministic algorithms

• Pollard’s p-1 factoring algorithm is a special-purpose Primes

• Let B be a positive integer. An integer n is said to be Factorization

B-smooth, or smooth with respect to a bound B, if all its Chinese Remainder

• Choose x1, a small random integer called, seed Primes

• Calculate gcd(x1-x2,n): Recommended Primality

• If it isn’t 1, the result is a factor of n; stop Factorization

• If it is 1, return to step 1 and repeat the process with x2 Chinese Remainder

• The CRT is used to solve a set of congruent equations Primes

prime Deterministic algorithms

x ≡ a1 (mod m1 ) Recommended Primality

... Chinese Remainder

• CRT states that these equations have a unique solution if