Escuela de Idiomas Modernos

Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV
M01 - Formal Elements (1)

Parallelism

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and
function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more
readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten
Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.
Unskillful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should constantly
vary the form of their expressions. It is true that, in repeating a statement in order to emphasize it,
writers may need to vary its form. Apart from this, writers should follow carefully the principle of
parallel construction. In the following example, the left-hand version gives the impression that the
writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of expression and hold to
it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his choice and abided by it.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

Formerly, science was taught by Formerly, science was taught by

the textbook method, while now the textbook method; now it is
the laboratory method is taught by the laboratory method.
employed. (Passive voice only)
(active and passive voice)

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must
either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

The French, the Italians, The French, the Italians, the

(Ø)Spanish, and (Ø) Portuguese Spanish, and the Portuguese

In spring, (Ø) summer, or in In spring, summer, or winter

winter or
In spring, in summer, or inwinter

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 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

Correlative expressions (both… and; not…, but; not only…, but also; either…, or; first…,
second…, third…; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many
violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

It was both a long ceremony and The ceremony was both long
very tedious. and tedious.

A time not for words, but action A time not for words, but for
action

Either you must grant his request You must either grant his
or incur his ill will. request or incur his ill will.

My objections are, first, the My objections are, first, that the

injustice of the measure; second, measure is unjust; second, that it
that it is unconstitutional. is unconstitutional.

When making comparisons, the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures
whenever it is possible and appropriate.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

My income is smaller than my My income is smaller than my

wife. wife's.

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 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

Articles

The three articles – a, an, the – are a kind of adjective, as both are modifiers. The is calledthe
definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an are
called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner (an
unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners
because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or another syntactic unit acting as a noun).
Bellow, you can find, first, a general explanation of the use of each type of article and, after, an
detailed explanation of some specific cases of the use, or absence, of the articles.
The:
1. It is used with specific nouns: The lion king, the beauty and the beast, the day after
tomorrow.
2. It is required when the noun represents something that is one of a kind: The
moon circles the earth.
3. It is required when the noun represents something in the abstract: The United
States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of
public transit.
4. It is required when the noun represents something named earlier in the text:
After doing some research, we were able to collect some relevant data. The data
revealed very interesting information.
A/An:
1. Use A before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a
sheep) and an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door).

2. Words that begin with an /h/ sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history
book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as in
an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because the u of
those words actually sounds like/ju/ – a semivowel followed by a vowel sound – (as
opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident, as the u of ugly sounds like /ʌ/). The same
is true of a European and a Euro (because the semivowel /j/ is the first sound of these
words). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a one-time hero because the words
once and one begin with the semivowel /w/, suchas Washington and win.

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 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

• First and subsequent reference

When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to modify
it: A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.
In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article: "I'd
like a glass of orange juice, please," John said. "I put the glass of juice on the counter already,"
Sheila replied.
Exception: when a modifier, such as an article, appears between the article and the noun, the
subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

• Generic reference
We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can dothe
same thing by omitting the article altogether:
- A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
- An Airedale is sometimes a rather nervous animal.
- The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
- Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun is
that the former (―A beagle makes a great hunting dog‖) refers to all members of that class (all
beagles alike), whereas the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old
beagle will do").

• Proper nouns
We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
- Geographical places: The Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the Smokies, the Sahara (but
often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive noun
or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park).
- Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): The Netherlands, the Bahamas, the
Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots,
4 the United Stated, the United Kingdom.
 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV
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- Public institutions/facilities/groups: The Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the White
House, the Presbyterian Church.
- Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times.
- Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang,
the president of our club.

• Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with
articles, sometimes not:
- The storm upset my peace of mind.
- He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
- Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

• Zero articles
Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of languages
("He was learning Chinese" - but when the word Chinese refers to the people, the definite article
might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."), the names of sports
("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking economics and
math").
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used without
articles: We like wine with our dinner; we adore Baroque music; we use roses for many purposes.

However, if a prepositional phrase that starts with of comes after the noun, we use an article:
We adore the music of the Baroque.
Additionally, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a
subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: The Data
Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately, don't
work.

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:

idiomatic
We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
expressions
He must be in school.
using be and go

with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.

with He's in church/college/jail/class.

institutions

Breakfast was delicious.

with meals
He's preparing dinner by himself.

He's dying of pneumonia.

Appendicitis nearly killed him.
with diseases She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps,"
but these, too, can go without articles.)

with time We traveled mostly by night.

ofday We'll be there around midnight.

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 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

Capitalization

The following elements must be capitalized:

1.- The first word of every sentence.
2.- The first-person singular pronoun: I.
3.- The first and other important lexical elements in a title. The concept lexical elements
does not include articles, short prepositions (which means you might want to capitalize towards or
between), the "to" of an infinitive, and coordinating conjunctions. This is not true in APA Reference
lists (where we capitalize only the first word), nor is it necessarily true for titles in other
languages. Also, on book jackets, aesthetic considerations will sometimes override therules.
4.- Proper nouns:
• Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors
Corporation.
• Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo,
Lake Erie, the Northeast, the Southend. However, we do not capitalize compass directions or
locations that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city; we're leaving the
Northwest and heading south this winter. When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize
attributive words when they precede place-names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the
opposite happens when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack mountains.
When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a proper noun, do not
capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the Sahara Desert."
• Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however, capitalize
earth, moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other (capitalized)
celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is further from Earth to Mars
than it is from Mercury to the Sun.
• Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even
when it is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
• Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of
seasons (spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by
spring, we'll be back up north."
• Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
• Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish,
French, Native American. (Most writers do7 not capitalize whites, blacks.)
 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV
• Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity,
Christians, Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.
• Names of courses: English IV, Cognitive Psychology. (However, we would write:
"I'm taking courses in biology and earth science this summer.")
• Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.
5.- Names of relationships, only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name
(often this means that, when there is a modifier – e.g. a possessive adjective – in front of such a
word, we do not capitalize it).
-Let's go visit Grandmother today / Let's go visit my grandmother today.
-I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my Uncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.

This also means that we don't normally capitalize the name of a vocative or term of
endearment:
-Can you get the paper for me, hon?
-Drop the gun, sweetie. I didn't mean it.

Source: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm