ABSTRACT ALGEBRA: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS Def.

Subset
A set 𝐵 is called a subset of a set 𝐴, denoted by 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 or
SETS 𝐴 ⊇ 𝐵, if every element of 𝐵 belongs to 𝐴. If 𝐵 ≠ 𝐴 then we
may write B ⊂ 𝐴 or 𝐴 ⊃ 𝐵.
Def. Set and Elements
A set is a well-defined collection of objects called elements. For any set 𝐴, 𝐴 itself and ∅ are both subsets of 𝐴. 𝐴 is
We usually denote a set by capital letters and its elements by the improper subset of 𝐴 and any other subset of 𝐴 is called a
small letters. For instance, we say 𝑥 is an element of set 𝐵 proper subset of 𝐴.
and denote this by:
Example.
𝑥 ∈ 𝐵.
1. 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐴 = {3,6,9,12,15}, then {2,6},{6,9,12}, {15}, and { } are
If x is not an element of set 𝐵 then we write 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵.
some proper subsets of 𝐴.
Def. Empty Set 2. ℤ+ ⊂ ℤ
A set with no elements is called the empty set or the null set. 3. ℚ ⊂ ℝ
We denote this by { } or ∅. The standard way of describing a set
is by listing its elements, called roster method. Another way Def. Cardinality of a Set
The cardinality of set 𝐴, denoted by | 𝐴 | is the number of
is by stating the properties of its elements called rule method.
elements of 𝐴.
Example 1. The following are commonly used sets:
Def. Equal Sets
ℝ = set of all real numbers Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. We say 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal sets denoted by
ℚ = set of all rational numbers 𝐴 = 𝐵 when 𝐴 and 𝐵 contain the same elements. Otherwise, we
ℚ+ = set of all positive rational numbers write 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵.

ℚ− = set of all negative rational numbers

Def. Equivalent Sets.
ℤ = set of all integers Two finite sets 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equivalent if | 𝐴 | = | 𝐵 |
ℤ+ = set of all positive integers .
ℤ− = set of all negative integers
ℂ = set of all complex numbers Def. Complement of a Set
ℕ = set of all natural numbers Let 𝐴 and 𝑆 be sets such that 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑆 with 𝑆 containing the
elements of 𝐴 together with certain elements not in 𝐴. Those
Mn = set of all n x n matrices
elements in 𝑆 that are not in 𝐴 denoted by 𝐴𝑐 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆, 𝑥 ∉
Pn = set of all polynomials of degree n or lower
𝐴} is called the complement of 𝐴.
OPERATIONS ON SETS
2. Let 𝐴 = {0,1,3} and 𝐵 = {1,2}. Find the following:
Intersection of Sets. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The set of all 𝐴 × 𝐵, 𝐴 × 𝐴, and 𝐴 × 𝐵 × 𝐴
elements which belong to both A and B is called the intersection
of 𝐴 and 𝐵. This is denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵.
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
Note that when 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = ∅, the sets are said to be disjoint. RELATIONS

Union of Sets. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The set of all elements Def. Relation
which belong to 𝐴 alone or to 𝐵 alone or to both 𝐴 and 𝐵 is Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of
called the union of 𝐴 and 𝐵. This is denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵. 𝐴 × 𝐵. A relation on a set 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐴. Let 𝑅 be a
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵} relation on a set 𝐴. Let 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴. We shall denote by: 𝑎𝑅𝑏 or
𝑎 ∼ 𝑏 (read as 𝑎 is related to 𝑏) whenever (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅.
Difference of Sets. The difference 𝐴 − 𝐵, in that order for
sets 𝐴 and 𝐵, is the set of all elements of A which do not
belong to 𝐵. We have,
Example: Let A = {2,4,6}
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥 | 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
Take 𝑅1 = {(2,4), (2,6), (6,4)} and 𝑅2 = {(2,2), (4,4), (6,6)}. Then
Symmetric Difference of Sets. The symmetric difference 𝐴∆𝐵 is
2 ∼ 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 since (2,4) ∈ 𝑅2 but since (4,2) ∉ 𝑅1 . In 𝑅2 , every
the set of all elements in 𝐴 − 𝐵 together with the elements of
element of A is related only to itself.
𝐵 − 𝐴 that is,
𝐴 ∆ 𝐵 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 − 𝐴).
Cartesian Product. Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The cartesian product Reflexivity. A relation 𝑅 in 𝐴 is reflexive if 𝑎 ∼ 𝑎 in 𝑅 for
of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the set: every 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. That is (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(𝑎, 𝑏) | 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}
Symmetry. A relation 𝑅 in 𝐴 is symmetric if 𝑎 ∼ 𝑏 in 𝑅 then
Suppose the cardinality of 𝐴 and 𝐵 are | 𝐴 | and | 𝐵 | 𝑏 ∼ 𝑎 where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐴 . That is if (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, then (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅.
respectively, then the cardinality of 𝐴 × 𝐵 is given by:
| 𝐴 × 𝐵 | = | 𝐴 || 𝐵 | Transitivity. A relation 𝑅 in 𝐴 is transitive if 𝑎 ∼ 𝑏 and
Also, the cartesian product may be extended to more than 2 sets 𝑏 ∼ 𝑐 in 𝑅 then 𝑎 ∼ 𝑐 where 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ 𝐴 . That is if (𝑎, 𝑏), (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈
and it is commutative only when 𝐴 = 𝐵. 𝑅, then (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅.

Example: Let A = {2,4,6}

EXAMPLES:
1. Let 𝑆 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑍 | − 5 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 5} with subsets 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 𝑅1 = {(2,4), (2,6), (6,4)}
𝑅2 = {(2,2), (4,4), (6,6)}
where A = {𝑥 | 0 < 𝑥 < 5}, 𝐵 = {𝑥 | − 3 ≤ 𝑥 < 5} and 𝐶 =
{𝑥 | − 4 < 𝑥 < 3} . Identify the following: 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶, 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴,
𝐴 − 𝐵, 𝐵 − 𝐶, 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 ∆ 𝐵 .
𝑅1 is not reflexive since 2 ∈ 𝐴 but (2,2) ∉ 𝑅1 while 𝑅2 is Def. Equivalence Class
reflexive. If 𝑅 is an equivalence relation on 𝑆, then for any 𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, the
equivalence class containing a is the set
𝑅1 is not symmetric since (2,4) ∈ 𝑅1 but (4,2) ∉ 𝑅1 while 𝑅2 is [𝑎] = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 ∶ 𝑎 ∼ 𝑥}
symmetric The collection of all equivalence classes forms a partition of
𝑆.
Both 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 are transitive.
EXAMPLES:
Def. Equivalence Relation
Let 𝑆 be a nonempty set. A relation 𝑅 on 𝑆 is an equivalence 1. Let 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9}. Let 𝑥~𝑦 if and only if 𝑥 − 𝑦 is
relation if it is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. divisible by 3, for any 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
2. Let 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝑅 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (2,3), (3,2)}.
EXAMPLES: Identify the equivalence classes on 𝐴 under the relation
𝑅.
1. Tell whether the given relations are equivalence on 𝐴 =
{4,8,12} or not:
a. 𝑅1 = {(4,8), (8,4), (8,8)}
b. 𝑅1 = {(4,4), (8,8), (12,12), (4,8), (8,4)}
c. 𝑅1 = {(4,4), (8,8), (12,12), (4,8), (8,4), (12,8), (8,12)}
2. Let 𝐴 = ℤ. Define 𝑅 to be relation where 𝑥~𝑦 if 𝑥 − 𝑦 is
an even number. Tell whether 𝑅 is an equivalence relation
or not.
3. Let 𝐴 = ℝ. Define 𝑅 to be relation where 𝑥~𝑦 if and only
if 𝑥 < 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅.

Def. Partition
A partition of a set 𝑆 is a collection of nonempty subsets of
𝑆 such that every element of 𝑆 is exactly in one of the subsets
of 𝑆. These subsets are called the cells of the partition.

EXAMPLE: Let 𝑆 = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} and take 𝑆1 = {1,2,3}, 𝑆2 =

{4,5,6}, 𝑆3 = {7,8,9,10}.Then {𝑆1 , 𝑆2, 𝑆3 } forms a partition of 𝑆. But
{𝑇1, 𝑇2 } where𝑇1 = {1,3,5,7}, 𝑇2 = {2,4,6,8,10} does not form a
partition of 𝑆. Why?