The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675

https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-022-09693-0

CRITICAL REVIEW

Inconel 718 produced by laser powder bed fusion: an overview

of the influence of processing parameters on microstructural
and mechanical properties
Ana Marques1,2 · Ângela Cunha1,2 · Mariana Rodrigues Silva1,2 · Maria Isabel Osendi3 · Filipe Samuel Silva1,2 ·
Óscar Carvalho1,2 · Flávio Bartolomeu1,2

Received: 31 May 2022 / Accepted: 4 July 2022 / Published online: 27 July 2022
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag London Ltd., part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
The substantial growth of laser powder bed fusion (LPBF) technology has partly been driven by its opportunity to provide
high-performance complex design solutions with outstanding benefits for the aerospace industry. The key opportunities
for metal additive manufacturing in aerospace applications include significant cost and lead-time reductions in addition to
the possibility of highly efficient complex and lightweight designs. Inconel 718 (IN718) alloy is one of the most common
materials usually employed in rocket engines, turbine blades, and turbocharges. The high geometrical complexity of the type
of components demanded a detailed exploration of the LPBF of IN718 parts in the last years. As-built and post-processed
IN718 LPBFed parts are covered both in terms of the processing parameters as for the metallurgical and physical properties
and the mechanical properties (tensile, hardness, and fatigue properties). These complex inter-relations are presented in such
a manner (graphs and tables) that can act as engineering tools for helping engineers and designers to obtain near-net-shape
parts made of IN718 with the desired properties. This comprehensive overview of the influence of LPBF processing param-
eters on the final properties of IN718 alloy allows understanding that there is no straightforward relation between energy
density and final properties of LPBFed IN718 parts. Thus, the combination of different parameters must be considered and
studied individually based on the requirements of each final application. Based on these observations, challenges and future
opportunities are also highlighted for the LPBF production of multi-functional IN718 aerospace parts.

Keywords Laser powder bed fusion · Inconel 718 · Mechanical properties · Microstructural properties · Aerospace
components

1 Introduction strength, corrosion resistance at elevated temperatures, and

Nickel-based alloys are usually used in aerospace compo-
nents, such as rocket engines, turbine blades, and blisks that
are subjected to extremely demanding operating conditions
in terms of temperature and pressure [1, 2]. These alloys are
considered unique, over titanium or steel, due to their high
* Ana Marques
anacristinamarques95@gmail.com
1 by wrought, cast, and powder metallurgy methods [4].
CMEMS – Center for Microelectromechanical Systems,
University of Minho, Azurém 4800‑058, Guimarães,
Portugal
2
LABBELS – Associate Laboratory, Braga, Guimarães,
Portugal
3
CSIC – Institute of Ceramics and Glass, Campus
Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
excellent wear resistance. Moreover, the oxidized protective
layers formed in nickel-based alloys are known for enhanc-
ing mechanical performance [3].
IN718, one of the most common alloys employed in
the aerospace field, is a Ni–Cr-Fe alloy with a composi-
tion of 50–55 wt% of Ni, 17–21 wt% of Cr, 4.8–5.5 wt%
of Nb, 2.8–3 wt% of Mo, 0.65–1.15 wt% of Ti, 1 wt% of
Co, small additions of Al (0.2–0.8 wt%), and Fe (bal-
ance) [2]. Conventionally, IN718 alloy has been produced
However, these manufacturing processes revealed some
severe disadvantages, such as excessive tool wear (due to
the presence of abrasive carbides) and low removal rates
due to IN718 high hardness and low thermal conductiv-
ity. Moreover, traditional manufacturing processes are not
efficient to produce complex IN718 structures with high

13
Vol.:(0123456789)
5652 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
dimensional precision (e.g., turbine blades with internal
cooling channels) [4]. Due to the high demand for IN718
complex specimens’ high mechanical properties at ele-
vated temperatures, LPBF technology has attracted much
attention in several industrialized exigent fields including
aerospace and automotive, among others. LPBF is one of
the manufacturing techniques that use high-energy laser
(continuous or pulsed) to melt metallic powdered beds.
After solidification of the melt pool, a new powder thin
layer is deposited, and the laser melts the new powder
bed. This cyclic process is repeated until the part is built
up [5, 6].
IN718 specimens obtained by the LPBF technique have
unique advantages compared to other techniques, such as
design freedom and dimensional precision. These com-
ponents are generally designed with complex geometry to
implement their functions, and additive manufacturing has
irreplaceable advantages in fabricating these components
[7–9]. Laser-based additive manufacturing techniques have
also revealed some disadvantages such as pores, unmelted
powder, and lack of fusion between built layers that influ-
ence the densification of the specimens leading to powder
contaminations or voids, and consequently, leading to a
decrease in the mechanical properties [5, 10]. Some stud-
ies have reported that the mechanical properties of LPBFed
IN718 specimens are comparable to conventional manu-
facturing methods (cast or wrought) [7–9]. In this regard,
processing parameters, such as power and scanning speed,
strongly affect the microstructure and, consequently, the
mechanical properties of the specimen.
IN718 alloy comprises a face-centered cubic (fcc) matrix
of γ-Ni, which is considered the base phase, with interme-
tallic phases, such as fcc γ′ ­Ni3 (Al, Ti, Nb) and ordered
tetragonal γ″ ­Ni3Nb. The microstructure could also contain
needle/plate-like δ phase, composed of ­Ni3Nb, that precipi-
tates at grain boundaries and irregularly shaped Laves (Ni,
Fe, Cr)2(Nb, Mo, Ti) and precipitates MC carbides (Nb, Ti)
C [11, 12, 157, 159].
The microstructural and mechanical properties can be
improved by applying post-processing methods such as
heat treatments (solution, aging [13], or hot isostatic press-
ing (HIP) [14]) or surface treatments (shot peening (SP),
ultrasonic impact treatment (UIT), or barrel finishing (BF)
[15–18]).
In this sense, heat treatment processes are frequently used
to increase the precipitation of γ″ and γ′ phases. Moreo-
ver, in high-temperature conditions, Niobium segregation
is potentiated, which leads to the formation of Laves phase
having the main elements (Ni, Fe, Cr)2(Nb, Mo, Ti) needed
for precipitation strengthening (γ″ and γ′). It is essential
to improve the material’s strength, ductility, fatigue, and
creep-rupture properties and to avoid easy crack initiation
and propagation [7–9, 19, 155].
13
The mechanical properties are strongly affected by the
microstructure and it is known as extremely important to
know how the laser processing parameters influence men-
tioned properties. In opposition, the literature lacks a review
correlating microstructural and mechanical properties of
LPBFed IN718 specimens. In this sense, this paper can be
useful as engineering tool for researchers and designers who
intend to produce high-quality IN718 specimens by LPBF.
2 LPBF: processing parameters
A laser is used as heat source in LPBF process aiming to
heat up and fuse metallic materials [20]. There are three
main types of lasers: ­CO2 laser, Nd: YAG fiber laser, and
Yb: YAG fiber laser. The Yb: YAG fiber laser has bigger
absorption bandwidth than the Nd: YAG which contributes
to lower the thermal requirements, and thus, increase the
lifetime for diode lasers. In this sense, the Yb: YAG crystal
lasers are projected to substitute the Nd: YAG for high power
diode-pumped laser [5, 20].
The microstructure and mechanical properties of LPBFed
IN718 specimens are strongly influenced by the following
processing parameters: laser power (P), layer thickness (t),
scanning speed (v), and hatch spacing (h) and are schemati-
cally represented at Fig. 1a. These processing parameters
and the absorptance of powders to the laser irradiation
strongly influence the energy density that is disposable to
heat and fuse the IN718 powders. During LPBF process, the
heat capacity and latent heat must be considered since they
are greatly influenced by the material properties and pro-
portional to the amount of IN718 powder to be fused. When
the selected processing parameters’ combination results in
low input energy (usually when low laser power, high scan-
ning speed, and large layer thickness are employed), ball-
ing effect is observed due to the absence of wetting ability
of molten pool with the previous layer [21]. On the other
hand, low scanning speed and high laser power values often
result in a large amount of material evaporation and keyhole.
Moreover, low hatch spacing may lead to some porosity in
as-built specimens because close melt lines do not fully melt
together. Therefore, the adequate combination of scanning
speed, laser power, layer thickness, and hatch spacing is cru-
cial for LPBF processing to build highly densified parts [5]).
As shown in Fig. 1b, the LPBF is a manufacturing process
based on a laser beam interaction with a powder bed leading
to melting and formation of a liquid pool. This interaction
leads to the occurrence of several physical and microstruc-
tural phenomena - there are gas expansion, solid-liquid-vapor
transition, and intrinsic heat treatment. The combination of
both thermal fluid and powder particle dynamics enhances
the incident of damage mechanisms such as cracking [22].
The heat employed by the laser source is partially gone by
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675 5653

Fig. 1  a LPBF process param-

eters: laser power, scanning
speed, hatch spacing, and layer
thickness (based on [5]). b
Scheme of the physical and
microstructural phenomenon
and main defects generated
during the LPBF process (based
on [22])

evaporation, convection, and radiation on the surface. The phase, and low amount of alloying element segregation. On
evaporation (represented by metal vapor in Fig. 1b) occurred other hand, a high LED can increase the size and shape of
when the boiling temperature is surpassed and thus should be the melt pool [25].
controlled mainly when applying high laser power and low The energy density affects significantly the size and shape
scan speeds. The convective phenomenon occurs due to the of the melt pool as well as the microstructural features of
fluid flow inside the metal pool and is impelled by the ther- LPBFed IN718 specimens. Consequently, the mechani-
mal gradients in the free melt surface. The radiation effect is cal properties of the final specimen are also influenced by
usually negligible stating that the melt pool size is very small the energy density and the number of processing param-
when compared with the entire part [23]. eters is not uniform in the selected studies in this discus-
The energy input in LPBF can be quantified by energy sion; the comparison of the results will be done considering
density (ED). The measure of ED can be determined for linear energy density ( P∕V). The common outputs found
lines, areas, or volume as shown in Table 1 [24]. Some stud-
ies did not present the layer thickness and/or hatch spac-
Table 1  Linear, areal, and volumetric energy density [24]
ing, so the areal or volumetric energy density could not be
calculated. In this sense, the linear energy density (LED), Energy density Equation Unit
as a combination of energy power ( P ) and scanning speed Linear P J∕mm
EDL =
( v ), was used to compare the studies. It is known that LED v
Areal EDah = P
J∕mm2
influences the microstructural properties of LPBFed speci- vh
P
EDah =
mens. Low LED results in a refined and equiaxed grain, vt
Volumetric EDV = P
J∕mm3
high porosity (due to lack of fusion), low amounts of Laves vht

13
5654 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
in most studies were densification (density, porosity, and
void sizes), microstructural (grain sizes (GS), dendrite arm
spacing (DAS), and phases fraction (PF), among others),
and mechanical (the yield (YS) and ultimate tensile strength
(UTS), tensile elongation (TE), Young’s modulus (YM), and
hardness) properties.
2.1 Powder features
The effects of powder features (particle shape and size dis-
tribution) on the powder flowability and packing capability
were not explored on the studies which reported the pro-
duction and characterization of IN718 LBFed specimens.
Most of the studies reported a particle size ranging from
15 to 45 µm with spherical shape. However, the correlation
between powder behavior and the densification level and
microstructure and mechanical properties were not reported.
The powder characteristics must be a requirement due to its
influence on the final part quality and mechanical proper-
ties. Gorji et al. [10] compared parts printed from virgin
and recycled powders in terms of its hardness and YM. The
hardness values of as-built parts from virgin and recycled
powders decreased by 30%, from 5.34 to 3.78 H, and the YM
decreased by 20%, from 189.3 to 149.8 GPa, respectively.
The shape of the powders is an extremely relevant aspect
in LPBF process since it influences the contact areas between
powders and, consequently, the flowability. The spherical
powders have the minimal contact areas neighboring pow-
der particles (when compared with the irregular or angu-
lar-shaped powders) which create lower internal friction
force, needing the least force to flow [26]). Table 2 shows
the hall flow rate, the density, and the mechanical properties
of specimens produced from both virgin and recycled pow-
ders. The hall flow rate was lower in specimens produced
from recycled (29.47 ± 0.42 s (50 g)−1) than virgin powders
(28.35 s·(50 g)−1) since recycled powders tend to deform
over time and ceased to have a spherical shape. The density
values in the specimen produced from recycled specimens
(8.1803 ± 0.0035 g/cm3) were slightly higher than from virgin
powders. On the contrary, all the mechanical properties evalu-
ated were higher in specimens produced using virgin powder
(microhardness 325 HV, YS of 1210 MPa, UTS of 1404 MPa,
and elongation of 18.5%). However, the difference was not
significant since the recycled powder was properly sieved and
saved in an environment with the humidity controlled [26].
Table 2  Hall flow rate, density, Material Hall flow rate
and mechanical properties of (s (50 g)−1)
LPBF parts using the virgin and
recycled IN718 powders [26]
Virgin 28.35 ± 0.32
Recycled 29.47 ± 0.42
13
2.2 Machine model, part dimensions, and property
measurements
Most studies reported other relevant information such as the
machine model, part dimensions, and property measurement
directions. Different machine models used in the studies col-
lected were EOS [14, 27–58], Renishaw [16, 59–64], SLM
280HL [57, 65–68], SLM250HL [69–71], iSLM 150 [24],
3D Systems2 ProX DMP 320 [72], and EP-M100T [73].
NOURA M100 [74, 75], EP-M250 3D [76], and SLM Real-
izer II 250 (MPC-HEK) [77] equipped with a continuous
wavelength (CW) Ytterbium fiber laser were also reported.
The property measurement directions have been evaluated
to assess the anisotropy features originated by the LPBF
process. Some studies have reported the influence of the
anisotropy features of LPBFed IN718 specimens on the final
properties as well as on the post-processing process (such
as machining cutting forces) [24, 78, 79, 156]. Liu et al. [24]
produced three types of specimens - in horizontal, diago-
nal (45°), and vertical building directions (as represented
in Fig. 2) aiming to study the influence on the melt pool
shape, microstructure, and mechanical properties. Regarding
microstructure features, they concluded that transverse and
longitudinal cross-sections presented both track segments
and fish scale morphologies and that the ultimate strength
and ductility were not affected by the texture created dur-
ing LPBF process. The specimens revealed mechanical ani-
sotropy, being the specimens produced along build direc-
tion those who presented the lower YS and UTS (592 and
900 MPa, respectively) and the highest YS and UTS (702
and 999 MPa) along diagonal direction.
2.3 Build platform and protective atmosphere
However, some other relevant aspects should be considered
such as the build platform aspects and the type of protective
atmosphere. The selection of a suitable build platform mate-
rial is usually considered an important aspect to soften the
warping and distortion that may arise due to the high pro-
duction temperatures [80]. Distinct build platform materials
were reported in the studies collected. Five studies [24, 40,
61, 81] used stainless steel, three studies used carbon steel
[28, 71, 82] and IN718 [30, 83, 84], and only one used alu-
minum [73]. Preferably, the platform material should be the
same as the built part (so, IN718) to ensure a homogeneous
Density (g/cm3) Mechanical properties
Microhardness 0.2YTS (MPa) UTS (MPa) Elongation (%)
(HV)
8.1794 ± 0.0059 325 ± 12 1210 ± 25 1404 ± 32 18.5 ± 1.6
8.1803 ± 0.0035 321 ± 17 1178 ± 31 1369 ± 35 17.4 ± 1.7
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
Fig. 2  Tensile specimens
with different build directions
(horizontal, diagonal (45°), and
vertical (based on [24])
heat flow and contractions/dilations and a greater chemical
affinity at the first printed powder layers and to avoid the dif-
fusion phenomenon. The use of supports, which are removed
posteriorly, can mitigate the effect of printing materials dif-
ferent from the platform materials.
The preheating of the build platform is important to
reduce the thermal gradient, homogenize the microstruc-
ture, and, consequently, improve mechanical properties to
avoid residual stresses on the specimen [85]. The direct
contact with the build plate promotes a larger cooling
rate for the bottom than for the top layers, creating a tem-
perature gradient across sample thickness that affects the
microstructure features [86]. Thirteen studies [12, 36, 40,
41, 47, 49, 53, 63, 74–76, 87, 88] reported that the plat-
form was heated to 80 °C, and one study reported 100 °C
[71], 150 °C [54], and 200 °C [70]. Moreover, the heat
extraction is also achieved through support structures that
fixed the specimen to build the platform, preventing the
emergence of defects. Sometimes, the specimens are heat-
treated while connected to the build platform to relieve
residual stresses.
Another relevant aspect is the protective atmosphere used
during the fabrication that aims to limit the level of oxida-
tion. Usually, an inert gas covers up the powder bed allow-
ing it to dilute the existent oxygen or other impurities (e.g.,
humidity) [80]. The majority of studies used argon [12, 14,
16, 25, 31, 33, 34, 36, 39, 42–45, 51, 54, 57, 59, 62, 65, 69,
70, 77, 81, 82, 84, 87–92] as the protective atmosphere. One
study reported nitrogen [28] and another vacuum [93]. The
5655
protective atmosphere also is relevant to remove the evapo-
rating material by flowing flow of inert gas [94].
Bean et al. [95] studied the influence of argon and nitrogen
protective gas influence on microstructure and mechanical
properties of IN718. It was concluded that the IN718 speci-
mens LPBFed under nitrogen gas revealed a substantially
larger grain size than those printed under argon atmosphere,
which was attributed to the thermal behavior of the gas and
its reactivity with the melt pool or weld spatter. Also, each
type of gas has a distinct potential for attenuation of the laser
beam effect which also affects the microstructure features as
grain size. The IN718 specimens built under nitrogen gas
did not reveal the increase of the number of nitrides or dis-
solved nitrogen in the LPBFed specimens. The heated-treated
specimens revealed a similar distribution of nitrides as as-
built specimens and it appeared not to have an unfavorable
impact on microstructure and mechanical properties [95].
The obtained porosity under nitrogen atmosphere was higher
than under argon atmosphere, decreasing from 0.23 to 0.05%.
The specimens processed under argon atmosphere have 4%
higher YS results than specimens processed under nitrogen,
increasing from 1110 to 1159 MPa. The obtained UTS of the
specimens produced under argon (1403 MPa) were higher
than under nitrogen atmosphere (1383 MPa).
2.4 Scanning strategies
The design of the scanning strategies strongly influences
the microstructural properties of the produced specimens
13
5656
and, so, the mechanical properties. The use of different
scanning strategies can be very beneficial for inducing
different microstructural features (fine and coarse grains)
in different zones of the specimens and building micro-
structural properties’ gradients between regions [66]. Five
studies [29, 71, 96–98] applied strip strategy, eight studies
[55, 74, 75, 93, 97, 99–101] reported island strategy, and
six studies [28, 31, 38, 45, 58, 91] reported bi-directional/
zig-zag strategy (Fig. 3). Two studies reported continuous
[75, 97] and s-cross [36, 39]. Gu et al. [46] and Delcuse
et al. [59] strategies were reported in only one study.
The microstructure and mechanical behavior of LPBFed
IN718 at room temperature can be optimized by the choice
of a suitable scanning strategy. The model of a “band”
heating influence across each “island” rather than “moving
point” heating has been proposed as a potential strategy to
reduce residual stress of the LPBFed part once it affects
the crystallographic orientation and crack formation [103].
Wan et al. [39] showed that both the grain structure and
size strongly impact the mechanical properties of the
LPBFed IN718. The scanning strategy influences the heat
flux direction between successive layers and so allows to
control of the microstructure features [39]. For example,
when the specimens are produced by rotating 90° the scan
strategy between each layer, the heat flux direction rotates
as well. Moreover, the grain growth is more prominent,
and a strong cube texture was developed. This scanning
strategy produced a directional columnar grain structure.
Otherwise, if scanning strategy direction is maintained a
bimodal grain structure is developed once the heat flux
direction is similar for each layer.
Amirjan and Sakiani [75] considered scan speed of
500 mm/s, power of 170 W, a layer thickness of 30 µm, and
linear energy density of 0.34 J/mm (see Appendix 1) and
evaluated island and continuous scanning strategies under
the same set of processing parameters. It is observed that
Fig. 3  Three scan strategies: a unidirectional (strip), b bi-directional/zigzag, and c island scan (reproduced from [102])
13
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
island strategy produced specimens with higher density
(8.20 and 8.11 g/cm3) than continuous strategy (8.10 and
7.98 g/cm3) and, consequently, lower porosity percentages.
Specimens that were fabricated using continuous strategy
revealed pores due to lack of fusion, which can indicate that
the scanning speed was not adequate to obtain a fully densi-
fied sample. To reduce porosity, the island strategy should
be preferred to the continuous strategy for lower scanning
speeds because it reduces heat input and consequently the
evaporation of the powder due to high temperature during
the process. Lu et al. [101] considered 600 mm/s, 180 W of
power, a layer thickness of 30 µm, and linear energy den-
sity of 0.3 J/mm (see Appendix 1) compared different island
sizes (2 × 2, 3 × 3, 5 × 5, and 7 × 7 ­mm2) in terms of YS and
UTS (MPa) and TE (%) (Fig. 4). The results revealed that
the larger the size of the island, the lower the YS and UTS.
Otherwise, the elongation increases with island size, from
2 × 2 to 7 × 7 (Table 3).
The authors reported that small island size potentiated the
pores and cracks and so less dense specimens (98% of theo-
retical density) were obtained than for bigger sizes (99%).
The increase in elongation was attributed to the appearance
of shallow dimples with deeper and larger average sizes with
the increase of island size [101]. The morphologies of the
LPBFed IN718 specimens revealed that for 2 × 2 specimens
(Fig. 6a) the island shapes and the respective borders are
not visible, and a good metallurgical bonding was verified,
contrarily to the remaining specimens. For all specimens
considered, the melt pool boundaries of the tracks are identi-
fied (marked by a white rectangle). Despite the cracks usu-
ally nucleate and propagate in the overlap zone between two
adjacent tracks, such cracks were not detected in the other
specimens, suggesting that the 2 × 2 island scanning strat-
egy is susceptible to trigger defects in overlap areas that
are high-stress concentration zone. This occurs because the
overlap area is normally exposed to repetitive fast remelting
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675 5657

Fig. 4  Tensile stress–strain curves of IN718 specimens and respective grain morphologies at a 2 × 2, b 3 × 3, c 5 × 5, and d 7 × 7 island scanning
strategies (adapted from [101])

and solidification processes which results in a larger ten- The core area is usually printed with higher power
sile and compressive stress during LPBF. Moreover, the and spot size when compared with the skin region once it
high number of pores enhances crack propagation which reduces the build rate while maintaining the final mechani-
could easily influence the results. The optical morphology cal properties. The skin area is produced with a small beam
images also showed the elongated microstructure shape in diameter to guarantee the precision and surface quality of the
no defined directions, several fine dendritic grain sizes, and part [105]. In conclusion, it can be concluded that real-life
cellular and columnar structures resultant from fast solidifi- components can be produced with an optimized build-up
cation rate during the LPBF process [101]. rate and, consequently, increase productivity [106].
The skin–core strategy consists of splitting the part
into an inner and outer core, applying distinct processing
parameters to each area (Fig. 5). Usually, the skin scan
3 Influence of processing parameters
defines the boundaries of the part and the interior is ful-
on as‑built specimens’ properties
filled applying a core strategy. The core strategy plays an
important role since it will have the greatest impact on the
This subsection aims to summarize all the relevant aspects
final properties of the part [97]. Three studies [99, 104,
of LPBFed IN718 specimens in as-built condition discrimi-
105] used different parameters when considering skin,
nated in Appendix 1.
core, and contour regions.

3.1 Densification and microstructure

Table 3  Effect of island size on mechanical properties of LPBFed
IN718 alloy [101]
Metallurgy and physical properties are strongly related to the
Mechanical properties Island Size (mm) material final properties. In this sense, this subchapter aims
2×2 3×3 5×5 7×7 to explore and discuss relevant densification and microstruc-
ture aspects for posteriorly being related to the mechanical
YS (MPa) 804.2 800.5 770.5 772.5
properties of the IN718 LPBFed parts.
UTS (MPa) 1076.5 1075.0 1064.5 1065.0
Densification is one of the main parameters considered
TE (%) 16.90 21.05 22.35 25.30
to assure the quality of the LPBFed specimens. The studies

13
5658 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
Fig. 5  Schematic representation
of skin–core strategy - skin,
core, and contour regions
considered in this review revealed high densification values
ranging from 99.34 to 99.95% [28, 44, 69, 82, 107, 154].
This parameter is also presented in terms of density results
that varied from 7.98 to 8.20 g/cm3, considering 500 mm/s
of scan speed, 170 and 30 W of power, a layer thickness of
30 µm, and linear energy density of 0.34 and 0.40 J/mm
respectively [24, 75, 96], therefore very close to the theoreti-
cal IN718 densified specimens (8.20 g/cm3) [108]. Small,
circular, and disconnected pores were observed, resulting
from processing gas entrapped (gas bubbles) in the molten
pool [12, 90]. Moreover, irregularly shaped pores formed
due to lack of fusion between built layers were reported [68].
Although the majority of the studies revealed porosity val-
ues lower than 1% [62, 65, 70, 75], a study [109] achieved
a higher value of 7.10% by using a scanning speed value of
900 mm/s, power of 370 W, and a linear energy density of
0.441 J/mm (see Appendix 1) [109]. In high-temperature
operation conditions, the thermal expansion of the entrapped
gas or lack of fusion between layers enhances the internal
stresses [69, 110].
The production of IN718 cellular structures by LPBF has
been reported in literature aiming to achieve lightweight and
high strength aerospace components [59, 111, 112]. Calleja-
Ochoa et al. [112] have reported the production of cellular
structures in low weight but with the needed mechanical
properties, considering several processing parameters.
Delcuse et al. [59] produced a cellular structure, using a
scanning speed of 450 mm/s, laser power of 180 W, layer
thickness of 30 µm, and linear energy density of 0.4 J/mm.
The cellular structure revealed powder melting and balling
effect - the creation of spherical drops instead of melt pools
along the scan tracks - on struts. The balling phenomenon
Fig. 6  Microstructure of as-
built LPBFed IN718 in three
perpendicular planes - X, Y,
and Z directions (adapted from
[114])
13
is favored by the thermal gradient between distinct struts of
the cellular structure that induces surface tension, extreme
evaporation (and so, internal porosities), and high rough-
ness. It is known that the balling effect occurs essentially
at low volumetric energy density values once the sintering
temperature decreases and potentiates the partial melting of
the powder particles, a deterioration of the wetting effect
and, consequently, creating large balls of adhered powder
to the laser track. On the other hand, the metal evaporation
and sputtering in the melt pool are potentiated by high laser
power values [113].
The microstructure of the IN718 parts can strongly affect
mechanical properties such as yield and tensile strength,
ductility, hardness, or fatigue resistance. Huang et al. [114]
reported the production of a LPBFed specimen by using a
scanning speed of 800 mm/s, power of 350 W, a layer thick-
ness of 40 µm, and so, the energy density of 0.438 J/mm (see
Appendix 1). Figure 6a shows the grain morphology along
the X, Y, and Z planes (build direction) of as-built LPBFed
IN718 specimens. It is possible to observe the typical colum-
nar grains along the build direction (Z) with rod elongated
shaped grains. In XZ and YZ planes, it is possible to observe
equiaxed grains (irregular grain morphology). Figure 6b, c
show the laser tracks at the ZY and XZ planes. Literature
have reported that the processing parameters have a great
impact on the melt pool definition. The low power to scan
speed ration can enhance a discontinuous melt pool or the
formation of balling [28].
The cooling rate difference between the top and bottom
layers strongly affects the microstructure. The bottom layers
have a higher cooling rate due to the contact with the build
platform and so, the microstructure differs along with the
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
building height. The bottom region (with a larger cooling
rate) tends to create equiaxed grains and the top region (with
a low cooling rate) with high thermal gradient tends to create
planner grains [115].
In Fig. 7a, b, the yellow arrows represent the growth
direction of dendrites that differs in different zones. In
as-built condition, there has been a reported insignificant
amount of γ″ and γ′ (Fig. 7d) when compared with heat-
treated specimens [107]. Similarly, the δ phase, which is
formed mainly because of the microsegregation of Nb and
Ti, was not often identified [37, 38]. Some studies reported
the occurrence of precipitation of Laves (Fig. 7c) [27, 99]
in interdendritic regions [30, 81, 89] rich in Nb and Mo
[63, 73]. The Laves phases are prejudicial for mechanical
properties since it promotes segregation of Nb. Usually, heat
treatments are applied to dissolve Laves phase to release Nb
segregations and precipitate γ′ and γ′′ [114].
Figure 7c, d present Laves phases in interdendritic regions
and the EBDS (electron backscatter diffraction) map where
mainly coarse columnar grains are observed, respectively
[114].
3.2 Mechanical properties
This subsection relates the processing parameters with the
physical and microstructure properties, previously dis-
cussed, and the final mechanical properties - fatigue, yield,
and tensile properties and hardness - of the IN718 LPBFed
parts. The mechanical properties of LPBFed specimens are
compared with other competitive techniques (which also
allows to build complex design with dimensional precision)
and the conventional techniques (with low removal rates,
high tool wear, and design restrictions) (Fig. 8).
Generally, studies pointed out that high LED leads to
higher densification (low porosity due to lack of fusion),
which induced superior mechanical properties [25]. How-
ever, it is known that the combination of processing param-
eters influences the densification and also the increase of
the LED leads to relevant changes in microstructure since
Fig. 7  SEM image of as-LPBFed IN718 microstructure in a XZ and
b XY planes. c Brittle Laves on XZ plane in the interdendritic region
with chainlike morphology. d EBSD grain map on XZ plane with
5659
coarse and elongated columnar grains are transformed into
equiaxed grains with fine microstructure [25, 122]. When
favored the results shown in Fig. 8a, large range of mechani-
cal properties for each LED range can be found which can
indicate that the energy input is not enough to understand the
mechanical properties and also each processing parameter
has its relevance.
The mechanical properties of the LPBFed specimens
were slightly higher than DMDed and cast specimens.
However, the ductility measured in the LPBFed specimens
through tensile elongation at rupture is in the range of the
conventional processes [123]. Casted specimens showed an
ultimate tensile strength lower than for the DMDed speci-
mens which can be attributed to larger grains within cast
parts [124]. These coarse grains are promoted by low cool-
ing rates during the casting process which outcomes in a
reduced amount of grain boundary strengthening and con-
sequently decreases the material’s strength (according to the
Hall–Petch equation).
Some studies compared the YS, UTS, and TE of the LPB-
Fed parts in three distinct build orientations, vertical, diago-
nal, and horizontal (Fig. 9), to conclude about the isotropy
of mechanical properties.
In Fig. 9, it can be seen that the specimens built in the
Z direction (vertical) presented lower YS and UTS (and
high ductility) when compared with the diagonal and hori-
zontal. The tensile property differences between vertical
and the remaining build directions can be attributed to
the variation on cracking mechanisms when the specimens
were loaded with columnar grains parallel or perpendicu-
lar to tensile load direction (vertical) [126]. The angles
between tensile load and the directions of the columnar
grain boundaries strongly impact the mechanical proper-
ties since columnar grains are a pathway by which stresses
can be accumulated and result in specimen failure.
Hardness is a very important property once it influences
the operation lifetime of the component. Figure 10 shows
hardness results for several linear energy density ranges
similarly to tensile results. It can be observed that there
mainly coarse columnar grains and fine grains around them (repro-
duced from [114])
13
5660 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
Fig. 8  Tensile properties - a YS, b UTS, and c TE - of as-built IN718
manufactured with different linear energy density ranges (LED) [13,
35, 48, 59, 62, 65, 68, 72, 76, 77, 81, 82, 90, 96, 101, 116–120] and
is no linear relation between the hardness results and the
linear energy density (LED), despite most of the results
embrace LED ranging from 0.25 to 0.40 J/mm.
Samuel et al. [33] considered a scan speed of 950 mm/s,
power of 286 W, a layer thickness of 40 µm, and linear
energy density of 0.3 J/mm (see Appendix 1) and com-
pared the hardness results in the top, medium, and bot-
tom of the same specimen and no significant variation was
found (top region with 357.7 HV, medium with 362 HV,
and bottom ranging between 361.1 and 357.4 HV). The
increased precipitated hardening at the bottom region is
typically attributed to the superior heating cycles when
compared to the top region [127, 128].
Fatigue cracks are usually triggered by gas pores, lack
of fusion, and columnar grains (facets) in the LPBF pro-
cess [73]. Moreover, the high temperature gradients dur-
ing the LPBF process potentiate the crack initiation and
13
comparison with other additive technology - DMD (direct metal dep-
osition) - and conventional technology - casting [121]
propagation and, therefore, reduce the final fatigue properties
[83, 162]. Yang et al. [107] reported a study in which they
used 960 mm/s as scanning speed value, power of 285 W,
a layer thickness of 40 µm, and linear energy density of
0.297 J/mm (see Appendix 3). They reported the cycles to
failure obtained in specimens subjected to distinct maxi-
mum stress (Smax) and the failure location that can be
at the surface or in the interior region. The Smax var-
ied from 440 to 600 MPa and cycles to failure decreased
from 6.40 × ­106 to 4.76 × ­105, when the defects were on
the surface. This study’s results revealed that the fatigue
crack initiation is more affected by high-stress amplitudes
than low-stress amplitudes and it is resultant from pores
or lack of fusion originated during the LPBF process.
Regarding the defects in the interior, the Smax increases
from 440 to 520 MPa and cycles to failure were similar
for both Smax (4.04 × ­1 0 8 to 1.13 × ­1 0 8). The cycles to
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675 5661

Fig. 9  Tensile test results: a YS, b UTS, and c TE for LPBFed IN718 specimens produced in vertical, diagonal, and horizontal build directions
[13, 24, 48, 77, 82, 125]

failure range values of both situations revealed that the
specimen lifetime range is much higher when the defects
are located at the interior. The most valuable technique to
enhance fatigue life is to adjust the crack location from the
surface to the interior. On the other hand, surface modifi-
cation treatments such as SP, ultrasonic impact treatment
(UIT), or ultrasonic shot peening (USP) can be applied to
enhance surface finishing, relieve stresses, increase surface
hardness, and improve fatigue properties (see Appendix
1) [16]. Moreover, the employment of different scanning
strategies in distinct regions could provide different micro-
structure features in the same sample. As the mechanical

Fig. 10  As-built hardness of

IN718 manufactured with
different linear energy density
ranges (LED) [14, 16, 25,
27, 32, 33, 36, 40, 46, 50, 56,
62, 65, 69, 70, 77, 88, 89, 97,
98, 101, 104, 117, 119] and
comparison with other additive
technology - DMD (direct metal
deposition) - and conventional
technology - casting [121]

13
5662 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
response is directly related to the microstructure, fatigue
strength can be improved by a grain size gradient between
the inner part (fine-grained zone) and the surface (coarse-
grained zone). Knowing that the crack initiation is more
critical at the surface, coarse grain in this zone leads to
high deformation and thus avoids crack initiation and
propagation [66].
In summary, at lower energy densities the as-built speci-
mens revealed a microstructure constituted by coarse and
elongated columnar grains which are converted into equi-
axed grains with fine microstructure at high energy density
values. Usually, the as-built IN718 specimens presented
columnar dendrites aligned with the building direction (Z
axis), suggesting that the heat flow direction is parallel to Z
axis. The top layers presented coarser columnar dendrites
than the bottom due to the difference in the cooling rate in
different zones. A negligible amount of γ″ and γ′ and a high
quantity of Laves phase in interdendritic zones were often
reported in the analyzed papers. High levels of densifica-
tion were achieved (ranging between 7.95 and 8.20 g/cm3)
although some small pores due to gas entrapping during
LPBF are also reported.
The YS, UTS, and TE reported did not show a linear rela-
tion with the energy density, so, each processing parameter
(laser power, scanning speed, hatch spacing, and layer thick-
ness) influences the mechanical properties, independently.
Regarding the fatigue behavior, the defects proved to have a
great influence when located at the surface or in the interior
of the specimen.
4 Influence of post‑processing on as‑built
specimens’ properties
The post-processing techniques were reported as effective
methods to increase mechanical properties, attenuate anisot-
ropy, and reduce high residual stresses [129, 158]. All methods
found in the literature were divided into three main groups:
heat treatment, hot isostatic pressing, and surface treatments.
Generally, all studies considered in this review revealed that
mechanical properties improved after post-processing as a
consequence of relevant microstructure features. Table 4
presents the summary of all heat treatments collected by the
studies selected for this review.
4.1 Heat treatment
Heat treatment requires the heating or chilling of a part,
usually to high temperatures, to reach the required material
properties such as hardening or softening. The homogeni-
zation heat treatment is usually employed to enhance the
number of microsegregations before any other heat treatment
13
[130]. Figure 11 shows homogenization and solution treat-
ment aimed to control the δ and Laves phase precipitation,
by dissolving and homogenizing the distribution of Ti, Al,
and Nb in the matrix. Aging treatments potentiated the
formation of strengthening phases ( y′ and y�� ). The rapid
solidification and complex cooling process inherent in the
LPBF process inhibit the precipitation of y′ and y′′ strength-
ening phases The small amount of these phases in the as-
built specimens leads to the low mechanical strength of the
LPBFed IN718 specimens [131].
As mentioned before, there is a huge diversity of post-
processing methods, with distinct temperatures and holding
times found in the literature. Table 4 presents the summary
of the post-processing treatments employed in as-built LPB-
Fed IN718 specimens. The temperatures typically ranged
from 620 to 1250 °C (there is a maximum temperature that
should be achieved because the IN718 melting point is
1336 °C). The holding time varied from 1 to 24 h and the
specimens were cooled by air, water, or furnace.
Popovichet al. [65] produced LPBFed specimens with
a linear energy density of 2.696 J/mm and evaluated the
respective mechanical properties (YS 531 MPa, UTS
866 MPa, and TE 21%). Subsequently, these specimens were
subjected to a temperature solution of 850 °C for 1 h and
then cooled by air. The mechanical properties (YS 668 MPa,
UTS 884 MPa, and TE 7%) of these specimens were higher
when compared with as-built conditions, excepting the ten-
sile elongation. The study reported the presence of needle
δ–N ­ i3Nb precipitate and undissolved Laves phase due to
low-temperature solution (850 °C) that is not enough to dis-
solve Laves phase and micro-segregated phases.
The effects of temperature and time on homogenization
treatment (HT) were evaluated by Tucho et al. [88], consid-
ering LED of 0.283 J/mm, which were subsequently sub-
jected to homogenization solution heat treatment by consid-
ering distinct temperatures (970, 1100, 1180, 1250 °C) and
holding times (1 and 7 h). In this study, the specimens sub-
jected to 970 and 1100 °C for 1 h revealed higher hardness
values (450 and 452 HV, respectively) than those heated for
7 h at the same temperatures (441 and 423 HV, respectively).
The precipitation of the y′′ phase is described in the litera-
ture as responsible for the variations in hardness between the
specimens treated at 970 and 1100 °C. The difference found
between holding time is related to the recrystallization phe-
nomena. For longer hold times, crystallization was favored
due to coarser grains and the removal of lattice defects (dis-
locations and subgrain boundaries). Moreover, the increase
in time potentiated the coarsening of age-hardening precipi-
tates. Thus, the short hold time benefited the mechanical
strength since it revealed smaller precipitates, a large num-
ber amount of dislocations, and subgrain boundaries. How-
ever, for higher temperatures (1180 °C), the hardness results
were similar for the two different specimens’ holding times
 Table 4  Post heat treatment processes employed for as-built IN718 specimens produced by LPBF (AR air cooling, FC furnace cooling, WC water cooling, WQ water quenching) [13, 14, 34–37,
50, 56, 65, 68, 71, 81–83, 88, 90, 96–99, 114, 125, 132]
Homogenization Solution treatment Double aging Author, year

1st stage 2nd stage

Temperature Time (h) Cooling Temperature Time (h) Cooling Temperature Time (h) Cooling Tempera- Time (h) Cooling
(°C) (°C) (°C) ture (°C)

- - - - - - 720 24 FC (55 °C/h) - - - Kouraytem et al. (2020) [125]

- - - - - - 8 620 8 AC Jiang et al. (2020) [14], (2019) [56]; Zhou et al. (2019) [98]
- - - - - - 760 10 FC 650 - - Li et al. (2018) [36]
850 2 AC - - - - - - - - - Popovich et al. (2017) [65]
970 1/7 WQ - - - 760 10 - 650 10 - Tucho and Hansen (2019) [88]
980 1 WC - - - 720 8 FC 620 8 AC Ni et al. (2019) [13]; Gao et al. (2017) [34]; Li et al. (2018)
[36]; Zhou et al. (2019) [98]; Gallmeyer et al. (2020) [81]
1010 1 AC - - - 718 8 FC 621 8 AC Sabelkin et al. (2020) [99]; Laquai et al. (2020) [132]
- - - 720 2 AC - - - - - -
1040 1 WC - - - - - - - - - Ni et al. (2019) [13]
1065 ± 1 1.5 AC - - - 720 8 - 620 8 - Varela et al. (2020) [96]; Zhou et al. (2019) [98]
- - - 760 10 FC 650 AC Li et al. (2018) [36]; Popovich et al. (2015) [68]
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675

1010 1 - 720 8 - 620 10 - Schneider et al. (2018) [90]

1070 1 WQ - - - 720 8 FC 620 18 AC Yao et al. (2017) [71]
1080 1 - 720 8 - 620 8 - 650 100 - Zhao et al. (2020) [83]
AC 980 0.25–1 AC 720 8 AC 620 8 AC Fayed et al. (2020) [50]
1080 1.5 FC - - - 720 8 AC 620 8 AC Gao et al. (2019) [34]
980 1 FC
7 AC 0.25–1 AC Fayed et al. (2020) [50]
1100 1/7 WC - - - 760 10 AC 650 10 AC Liu et al. (2019) [13]; Tucho and Hansen (2019) [88]
1.5 AC 960 1 AC 720 8 FC 620 9.5 AC Pei et al. (2019) [37]
1120 1.5/4/16 WQ - - - 720 8 FC (55 °C/h) 620 8 AC Jiang et al. (2019) [56]
1150 2 - - - - - - - 700 12 - Li et al. (2019) [35]
1180 1/7 WQ - - - 760 10 AC 650 10 AC Tucho and Hansen (2019) [88]
1250 - - - - - - - - -

13
5663
5664 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
Fig. 11  Comparison of the grain
morphology between as-printed
and post-processed specimens
subjected to different heat treat-
ment conditions (reproduced
from [131])
of 1 and 7 h (434 and 432 HV). With the increase of tem-
perature to 1250 °C, the hardness for 1 h treatment (442 HV)
is lower than for 7 h treatment (448 HV). Heat-treated speci-
mens at high temperatures (1250 °C) revealed the opposite
hardness variation when compared with the specimens above
mentioned. A significant microstructure divergence between
the two specimens (1 and 7 h) was not observed, except by
the y′′ phase precipitate size that is larger for a hold time of
7 than for 1 h. Accordingly, the hardness for 7 h holding time
is higher than for 1 h.
Gallmeyer et al. [81] studied effect of temperature and
time on direct aging (DA) by comparing two specimens,
built with the same conditions (linear energy density of
0.200 J/mm), subjected to 620 and 720 °C during 24 h,
and cooled by air. The specimen subjected to 620 °C had
lower mechanical properties - YS of 1120 MPa, UTS of
1500 MPa, and TE of 14.5% - than the specimen subjected
to 720 °C - YS 1300 MPa, UTS 1580 MPa, and TE 9.6%.
These differences are due to some microstructural changes
between both heat treatments. During the heat treatment at
620 °C, secondary phases are formed (Laves, carbide, and
oxides) as well as in the as-built specimen which means
that this heat treatment was not enough to enhance lattice
dislocations. During 720 °C, Nb segregation was observed
along cell boundaries which means that the temperature
was not sufficient to diffuse the Laves particles or dissolve
the segregated Nb back again into the matrix. Schmeider
et al. [90] reported the tensile properties of a specimen
built by considering a linear energy density of 0.308 J/
mm. This specimen was subjected at 720 °C for 8 h and
it measured a YS of 1204, UTS of 1392, and elongation
of 17.3%, so lower mechanical properties when compared
with those subjected to the same temperature during
24 h. This occurred because longer hold time potentiated
the recrystallization (coarser grains), eliminated a large
13
number of lattice defects, and coarse the age hardening
precipitates.
The influence of temperature and time on direct double
aging (DA) was evaluated by assessing the hardness results
of two specimens subjected to direct double aging treat-
ments, with distinct temperatures and holding times. The
first study, with LED of 0.297 J/mm, described a LPBFed
specimen subjected to 760 °C for 10 h and 650 °C for 8 h -
with hardness results of 389 HV. For comparison, Zhou et al.
[98] evaluated the hardness of specimens (LED 0.222 J/
mm) subjected to double aging treatments with lower tem-
peratures and holding times - 720 °C for 8 h and 620 °C
for 8 h - and obtained lower values 226 HV. According to
the TTT diagram of IN718, the decrease of hardness with
temperature is due to the inability to dissolve or alter the
distribution of Laves phase or carbides. However, energy
density can moderate the quantity of Laves and Nb carbides,
resulting in the formation of strengthening phases ( y′′), and
consequently, increased hardness [133]. Schneider et al. [90]
subjected the specimen (with LED 0.308 J/mm) to the simi-
lar conditions as the previous studies - 720 °C for 8 h and
620 °C for 10 h - but evaluated the tensile mechanical prop-
erties. The mechanical properties were strongly higher when
compared with as-built specimens - YS 1269 and 698 MPa,
the UTS 1739 and 995 MPa, and TE 15.4 and 33.2%, respec-
tively. The mechanical property improvement was attributed
to residual stresses relief, diminution of the number of voids,
and precipitation of y′ and y′′ strengthening phases.
In order to study the effect of adding double aging
(DA) to homogenization treatment (HT), Schneider et al.
[90] reported specimens were subjected to the same heat
treatment above mentioned (double aging – 720 °C for
8 h and 620 °C for 10 h) but they were previously sub-
jected to homogenization treatment (1010 °C for 1 h). The
results proved that the homogenization did not improve the
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
mechanical properties when compared with direct aging (YS
1238 and 1269 MPa, UTS 1379 and 1739 MPa, and TE 19.5
and 15.4%). The aging treatment potentiated the precipita-
tion of strengthening phases ( y′ and y′′ ) and consequently
enhanced the strength and reduced the ductility. The high
homogenization temperature (1010 °C) improved the duc-
tility, hence reducing the strength. Three studies described
three homogenized and double aged (980 °C for 1 h and
720 °C for 8 h at 50 °C/h and 620 °C for 8 h) specimens with
distinct laser energy densities (0.444 [13], 0.233 [34], 0.200
[81] J/mm). The mechanical properties decreased with the
increase of laser energy density, achieving YS of 1276, 1084,
and 620 MPa; UTS of 1505, 1370, and 1325 MPa; and TE
of 13.3, 10.1, and 28.6%, for LED 0.444, 0.233, and 0.200 J/
mm, respectively. The high mechanical property results
at low LED values could be attributed to microstructure
changes - smaller amount of Laves phase and higher y′ and
y′′ precipitation [122, 133]. When the double aging (720 °C
for 8 h at 50 °C/h and 620 °C for 8 h) was added to the speci-
mens homogenized at 980 °C, a significant improvement of
the mechanical properties was verified, with corresponding
values of YS 1240 MPa, UTS 1560 MPa, and TE 10.6%
[81]. The segregations of Nb, Mo, and Ti have been partially
dissolved during homogenization at 980 °C as well as the
eutectic Laves phase [98]. According to the TTT diagram,
this temperature yields the δ phase but it is not enough to
solve them, carbides and oxides did not dissolve δ phases,
and the needle Nb-rich δ phase was observed. The increase
in the δ phase formation (also due to the poor diffusivity
of Nb atoms which leads to local Nb-rich areas) is potenti-
ated by the presence of reduced amounts of strengthening
phases y′ and y′′ in the matrix. On the other hand, aging heat
treatment potentiated the formation of strengthening phases,
reducing the ductility [134].
Gallmeyer et al. [81] compare the mechanical properties
of two specimens in which one of them has the tensile speci-
men connected to the build platform during heat treatment.
Lower mechanical properties were verified for the specimen
connected to the build plate (YS 1135 MPa, UTS 1530 MPa,
TE 10.6%). This specimen experienced slower cooling rates
between each treatment step due to the thermal mass of the
build plate itself. Needle-like δ phase precipitates intercel-
lular and grain boundaries were observed as well as y′ and
y′′ pprecipitates. Meanwhile, the second specimen was
subjected to higher cooling rates after each treatment and
heterogeneous nucleation of y′ and y′′ precipitates along
cell boundaries was not observed. The same double aging
treatment was employed (720 °C for 8 h and 620 °C for
8 h) with previous homogenization at a higher temperature
than 980 °C (1020 °C for 1 h), achieving higher mechanical
properties (YS 1245 MPa, UTS 1640 MPa, and TE 16.6%)
[81]. This occurred due to suppression of Laves phase and δ
phase and homogenization of Nb and Ti segregation.
5665
Anandakrishnan et al. [30] evaluated the wear behavior of
IN718 specimens (see Appendix 3). The authors employed a
homogenization treatment (980 °C for 1 h) and subsequent
double aging (720 °C and 620 °C for 8 h). The parameters
considered were 10 N of load, 45° of build orientation, and
1 m/s of sliding velocity where adhesive wear mechanism
was observed. Two studies evaluated the creep performance
of specimens homogenized and double aged [135, 136]. Shi
et al. [136] revealed that the average grain size of the speci-
mens was similar before and after the creep test and that
the improvement of creep rupture is attributed to the larger
y′ and y′′ strengthening phase in the homogenized sample.
Moreover, the homogenized sample did not present the δ
phases at grain boundaries leading to grain growth during
creep. The presence of microcrack around δ or Laves phases
was revealed along the grain boundaries that potentiated the
intergranular fracture. Xu et al. [135] evaluated the creep
behavior of machined - CNC (computer numerical control)
and WEDM (wire electrical discharge machining) - and
un-machined specimens. The authors concluded that the
surface quality affected the creep results because the fail-
ure reasons were related to both surface finish and residual
stresses. Regarding the machining process, the CNC and the
CNC + WEDM specimens revealed similar lifetimes. The
heat-treated CNC machined specimens showed the poorest
creep results due to the generation of surface defects. The
CNC machining of heat-treated specimens is a complex pro-
cess due to the toughness of the material.
4.2 Hot isostatic pressing and heat treatment
Hot isostatic processing is a sintering process in which metal
powders are heated under isotropic gas pressure during a
dwell time, typically applied before homogenization to close
the internal pores and remove the porosity. Homogeniza-
tion and aging treatment were employed to relieve the stress
and create the required precipitation in the microstructure.
Table 5 systematizes studies included in this review which
reported HIP temperatures between 621 and 1280 °C, pres-
sure from 100 to 175 MPa, and holding time from 1 to 18 h.
The effects of temperature and pressure on hot isostatic
pressing were studied by Popovich et al. [65] that subjected
the as-built LPBF IN718 to 1180 °C under 150 MPa for
3 h. When compared to the as-built specimens produced
under the same conditions (LED 2.969 J/mm), the HIPed
specimens revealed lower mechanical strength and hardness
and superior TE. For the HIPed condition, the YS, UTS, and
hardness were 481 MPa, 788 MPa, and 262 HV, respectively,
and the TE was 34% while for the as-built condition the
YS, UTS, and hardness were 531 MPa, 866 MPa, and 278
HV, respectively, and the TE was 21%. When regarding the
porosity, the values decrease from 0.27 to a range of 0.06%
[65]. Similarly, when considering LED of 0.357 J/mm, the
13
5666 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675

mechanical properties decreased when compared with the

Babamiri et al. (2020) [93]; McLouth et al. (2020) [100]

as-built condition. The YS decreased from 668 to 645 MPa,

Witkin et al. (2020) [137]; McLouth et al. (2020) [100]

Table 5  Post heat treatment processes employed for as-built IN718 specimens produced by LPBF with previously hot isostatic pressing (HIP) [14, 50, 56, 65, 89–91, 93, 96, 100, 132, 137]

Varela et al. (2020) [96]; Babamiri et al. (2020) [93]

the UTS from 1011 to 1025 MPa, the TE increased from
22 to 38.1, and the hardness from 320 to 310 HV [65]. The
porosity reduced from 0.11 to 0.02%. The lower tensile prop-
erties of HIPed specimens are attributed to Laves phase dis-
solution and NbC precipitation. The hardness reduction is
related to the homogenization and dissolution of metastable

Kuo and Kakehi (2017) [91]

Popovich et al. (2017) [65]
phases [65].
Popovich et al. [65] also studied the effect of solution
treatment and double aging on HIPed specimens. Two
specimens with distinct LED (2.696 and 0.357 J/mm) were
Author, year

subjected to 1180 °C at 150 MPa for 3 h and the respective

mechanical properties were evaluated. Then, both specimens
were subjected to homogenization and double aging treat-
ments (1065 °C for 1 h, 760 °C for 10 h, and 621 °C for 18 h)
Cooling Temperature Time (h) Cooling

to evaluate and compare the mechanical property evolution

AC
AC
FC

with the subsequent heat treatments. HIPed specimens pro-

-
-

duced with a LED of 2.696 J/mm improved the mechani-

cal properties after HT and DA - the YS increased from
18
10
20

10
8

481 to 1065, the UTS from 788 to 1272, the TE from 34 to

15%, the YM 138 to 188 Gpa, and the hardness from 262 to
2nd stage

451 HV. Regarding low LED (0.357 J/mm), the mechani-

(°C)

621
620
650
650
621

cal properties of the HIPed specimens also increased after

HT and DA - the YS from 645 to 1145 MPa, the UTS from
1025 to 1376 MPa, the TE from 38.1 to 19%, the YM from
FC

FC
FC
-

181 to 190 Gpa, and the hardness from 310 to 468 HV.
This occurs because the homogenization and double aging
Time
(h)

10
10

conditions promote the dissolution of Laves and δ-phase.

8

8
Double aging

Temperature

Moreover, the precipitation of the strengthening phases ( y′

1st stage

and y′′) during double aging contributes to the increase of

(°C)

strength [67]. Regarding grain size, no significant differ-

718
720
760
760
718

ences were observed in HIPed specimens with and without

Cooling

subsequent heat treatment which is justified by the number

WC

of NbC particles at boundaries that hinder the grain growth.

AC
FC
-

Specimens produced considering lower LED revealed higher

Temperature Time (h)

mechanical properties. This is attributed to a low amount of

1.5
Homogenization

Laves phases and the high amount of strengthening phase

1

precipitation ( y′and y′′) at low LED [122, 133].

McLouth et al. [100] compared IN718 specimens, sub-
1065
1065

jected to HIP, homogenization, and double aging heat treat-

(°C)

954

980

ment, considering island and continuous scanning strate-

Time (h) Pressure Cooling

gies with the laser-focused and defocused. As reported for

WQ

as-built LPBFed specimens, the scanning strategy strongly

FC
FC
-

impacts the microstructural properties. For both scanning

strategies, larger grain was obtained in defocused mode.
100

102
150
175

However, continuous strategy revealed a bigger grain size

-

difference between the two modes and enhanced the growth

Hot isostatic pressing

of elongated grains. Focused condition allowed a more rapid

3

4
3
4

solidification and formed fine clusters of aligned dendrites.

Temperature

On the other hand, the defocused mode revealed a more uni-

form thermal gradient with elongated dendrites parallel to
1163

1180
(°C)

build direction.

13
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
Kuo and Kakehi [91] assessed the effect of tensile test
temperature on the tensile properties of two specimens
subjected to hot isostatic pressing considering 1180 °C at
175 MPa for 4 h combined with solution treatment of 980 °C
for 1 h. The tensile test was performed at different tempera-
tures (25 °C and 650 °C) to evaluate the influence of ten-
sile test temperature. The HIPed specimens tested at 25 °C
obtained higher mechanical properties - YS 1125 MPa, UTS
1473 MPa, TE 21.2% - than specimens tested at 650 °C - YS
1031 MPa, UTS 1093 MPa, and TE 0.9%. This attributed to
the easiness of crack nucleation at the grain boundaries of
the matrix (that contains carbides and oxides) when speci-
mens are at high temperatures (650 °C).
4.3 Surface treatment
The larger thermal gradient LPBFed specimens due to
rapid heating and cooling induce high residual stresses in
the surfaces. Some surface treatments have been studied to
eliminate them and improve the mechanical strength, wear
resistance, and lifetime [160, 161]. Lesyk et al. [16] reported
some techniques such as BF, SP, and UIT that generate com-
pressive stresses on the surface layers to benefit the surface
properties (Fig. 12). SP and UIT are two cold work manufac-
turing processes in which the surface is stroked with shots to
produce the compressive residual stresses. SP aims to create
Fig. 12  Images of surface morphology of IN718 specimens near-surface layer of the as-built LPBF specimens (a–d) and BF (e, f), SP (g, h),
USP (i, j), and UIT (k, l) (adapted from [16])
5667
plastic deformation and change the mechanical properties at
a surface and UIT aims to increase the fatigue resistance of
welded parts by striking a welded zone with a needle [15].
Furthermore, the own laser of the LPBF system can also
be used as heat source for producing controllable micro-
structures and introduce compressive residual stresses in the
surface [20]. BF also aims to improve surface properties by
rotating a mixture of parts, including procedures such as
deburring, lustering, polishing, and radiusing [16–18]. Usu-
ally, the high surface roughness of as-built LPBFed parts is
not beneficial under operation conditions, so distinct meth-
ods such as polishing [138] or ball burnishing [139] have
also been applied after LPBF production.
Moreover, the BF method revealed higher compressive
residual stresses (201.4 MPa) than the remaining methods.
Figure 12b shows partially melted metal powder or spat-
ters, pointed by arrows, that adhered to the surface sample
once it appears inside the heat affected zone. Figure 12c pre-
sents balling phenomenon along the surface due the segmen-
tation effect of the elongated melt pool. Figure 12d shows
unmolten powder particles near-surface layer, represented
by arrows. These defects reduce the surface integrity of the
LPBFed parts, so some surface mechanical methods have
been used [140–145].
Li et al. [146] applied a magnetic abrasive finishing
(MAF) and heat treatment to an IN718 specimen produced
13
5668 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
by laser powder bed fusion. The YS and UTS obtained were
about 1147 MPa and 1334 MPa and the elongation was
22.9%, so higher than those standard wrought specimens. The
crack resistance and the fracture failure delay were enhanced
by MAF since they induced compressive residual stresses and
improved the grain refinement. Baicheng et al. [147] stud-
ied the influence of electrochemical polishing (ECP) on the
surface integrity of LPBFed IN718 specimens. The surface
roughness decreased from 6.05 to 3.66 µm after being ECP
for 5 min, being obtained a smooth and flat surface. However,
the specimens subjected to the ECP process revealed lower
hardness results and YM since there was a verified disso-
lution of hardening phase γ and relief of residual stresses
during the surface treatment. Kaynak and Tascioglu [148]
evaluated the influence of the finish machining on the micro-
hardness and surface properties. The microhardness of the
as-built IN718 specimen increased 16% and the surface
roughness increased 92% after being applied to the finish
machining process which proves the effectiveness of the post-
processing method on these properties.
Chen et al. [149] reported the laser cladding of spherical
IN718 powder on casted IN718 plate as a surface treatment
to repair the worn parts in a near-net shape way. A homo-
geneous distribution of the thermal stress was reached by
depositing the coating into the shape of cylindrical thin wall.
Columnar dendrites were created, and the crystal orientation
increased with the cooling effect, during the deposition, due
to a homogeneous heat flow during the solidification of laser
casting. Moreover, the brittle Laves phase appears during
the laser cladding process of IN718 and a few strengthen-
ing phases faced obstacles into precipitate in the forming
structure. Xin et al. [150] also studied the suppression of
Laves phase, formed in previous manufacturing processes,
by building and remelting of a single pass cladding layer on
IN718 parts at different scanning speed values. Although
low scanning speed values enhance the creation of columnar
dendrites that grow from the bottom to the top, the high laser
scanning speed values promote a substantial refinement on
Laves phase and decrease on Nb segregation.
5 Final remarks
Regarding the literature review process, some difficulties
were found to systematize all information found on the
studies once several parameters and important variables
related with the LPBF process were not mentioned. The
lack of information regarding the support structures that
attach the part to the build platform which are extremely
important to avoid the distortion due high thermal gradi-
ents is one example of relevant information that is missing
in literature. A significative number of authors reported
the same LPBF processing parameters (960 mm/s speed,
13
285 W power, 40 µm layer thickness), which allow to eval-
uate deeply the influence of other aspects on final proper-
ties under the same processing parameters. As some stud-
ies did not quantify the final properties of the specimens
produced, the comparison between similar works becomes
a complex process and did not allow to draw more relevant
conclusions.
The as-built specimens produced with high energy den-
sity revealed changes in the microstructure because coarse
and elongated columnar grains are transformed into equi-
axed grains with fine microstructure. Moreover, as-built
specimens revealed columnar dendrites in XZ and ZY
planes, indicating that the heat flow direction is parallel to Z
axis that corresponded to the building direction. The cooling
rate of the top layers differs to that of the bottom layer and
influences the microstructure of the specimen. Consequently,
the bottom layers often display finer columnar dendrites than
the top layers. Generally, an insignificant amount of γ″ and
γ′ but high quantity of Laves phases in interdendritic regions
were reported. The as-built IN718 specimens achieved high
densifications (between 7.95 and 8.20 g/cm3) but in some
cases with small and circular pores due gas entrapment dur-
ing the process.
Generally, the tensile mechanical properties are reported
and thus, these were the main properties used to compare
different studies. As IN718 parts are generally subjected to
high number of mechanical cyclic loads under use condi-
tions, some authors evaluated the fatigue resistance of the
IN718 LPBFed specimens. The energy density and final
mechanical properties (YS, UTS, TE, and hardness) did not
seem to have a linear relationship, which allows concluding
that there is a balance between these parameters indepen-
dently from the LED. The fatigue performance was harmed
when defects were located at the surface as compared to
the interior. On this regard, the effect of some surface treat-
ments such as laser peening, ultrasonic shoot peening, and
barrel finishing (see table Appendix 2) on microhardness
and reduce the residual stresses was studied. There is a
high diversity of post-processing temperatures (from 620 to
1250 °C), holding times (1 to 24 h), and cooling treatments
(air, water, or furnace). Generally, all post-processing meth-
ods increased the mechanical properties of as-built LPB-
Fed specimens. The aging treatment after homogenization
reduced the ductility and improved mechanical properties
of the specimen due the formation of strengthening phases
y′and y′′ in the matrix.
The thermal properties of the IN718 parts can be strongly
influenced by the choice of the fabrication method. Hakeem
et al. [151] evaluated the thermal behavior of IN718 parts
produced by three distinct production technologies - there
are LPBF, spark plasma sintering (SPS), and casting. The
authors concluded that the casted specimens yielded better
thermal results. The IN718 LPBFed specimens showed the
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
lower values (9.1 W/mK) than the casted (10.3 W/mK) and
the IN718 specimens produced by SPS showed a thermal
conductivity value of 10.1 WmK. However, this fluctuation
in the TC was attributed to the increased interfacial area
and the creation of more voids in the particles. Considering
that the thermal performance is extremely important for the
aerospace component integrity and the low thermal conduc-
tivity values found in this article, the thermal behavior of the
IN718 LPBFed parts still needs more investigation.
This review provided an engineering overview concern-
ing the microstructure, densification, and mechanical of
IN718 specimens manufactured by LPBF as well as the
influence of the processing parameters on the final proper-
ties. The summary tables provided in this review can be use-
ful as guidelines for researchers, engineers, and designers.
6 Challenges and future perspectives
Several aspects and routes should be highlighted as future
perspectives:
• The optimal IN718 LPBFed components should assure
some relevant properties such as moderate cost, low den-
sity, good microstructural stability, high strength, ther-
mal fatigue, and high creep strength in a wide range of
temperatures. The optimization of the scanning strategy
according to the mechanical demands of a specific com-
ponent can allow to control the microstructural properties
and, so, to obtain the desired mechanical properties.
• As the aerospace components (such as rockets engines
or turbine blade) usually comprise very complex shape
designs, the effects of anisotropy and the response of
the IN718 alloy under multi-axial stresses can generate
Fig. 13  Schematic represen-
tation of actual thermal and
surface drawbacks on an IN718
rocket engine
5669
severe stress concentrations zones. In this regard, laser
local heat treatments can be an effective strategy to inves-
tigate in short coming studies.
• The high surface roughness of as-built LPBFed parts
is a prejudicial feature of this technique; however, laser
energy can be further investigated to clean the necessary
surfaces by applying low-energy laser ablation proce-
dures. As well as the compressive residual stress gener-
ated at the surface might also be reduced by applying
laser thermal treatments for stress relief.
• When regarding thermal performance of LPBFed
IN718 parts, it was observed that this aspect is not much
explored in literature. This lack of information is very
relevant taking into consideration the importance of this
aspect in several application where this alloy is used. In
fact, IN718 components such as rocket engine (as shown
in Fig. 13) but also turbine blades and turbocharges are
generally under extremely high temperature conditions
and thermal cycles, which can lead to destruction of the
components [152, 153]. 3D multi-material solutions,
manufactured by LPBF, might be a future possible strat-
egy to obtain superior heat extraction solutions. This high
energy efficiency solutions might be obtained with Addi-
tive Manufacturing components with optimized proper-
ties by strategically incorporating high heat extraction
materials in the design of components.
In conclusion, the IN718 specimens produced by LPBF
revealed higher mechanical properties than those produced
by conventional techniques which indicates that LPBFed
IN718 components with high-performance and complex
design solutions can potentiate the aerospace industry in
such a manner that conventional processing routes cannot
go further.
13
5670 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplemen-
tary material available at https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 00170-0​ 22-0​ 9693-0.
Author contribution A. Marques: methodology, investigation, writing
– original draft, visualization. A. Cunha: methodology, writing – review
and editing, investigation. M. Silva: methodology, writing – review and
editing. M. Osendi: visualization, supervision. F.S. Silva: conceptualiza-
tion, supervision. O. Carvalho: conceptualization, writing – review and
editing, supervision. F. Bartolomeu: methodology, writing – review and
editing, supervision.
Funding This work was supported by FCT national funds, under
the national support to R&D unit grant, through the reference pro-
jects UIDB/04436/2020 and UIDP/04436/2020, and by the grant
number SFRH/BD/148031/2019 and the project Add: additive -
add additive manufacturing to Portuguese industry (grant number
POCI-01–0247-FEDER-024533).
Availability or data and material All data used in this work have been
properly cited within the article.
Code availability Not applicable.
Declarations
Ethics approval Not applicable.
Consent to participate The authors declare that all authors have read
and approved to submit this manuscript to IJAMT.
Consent for publication The authors declare that all authors agree to
sign the transfer of copyright for the publisher to publish this article
upon on acceptance.
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.
References
1. Chakraborty S, Pradhan BB (2017) Laser beam machining of
Inconel alloys: a review 11:9–14
2. Davis JR (2000) ASM specialty handbook : nickel, cobalt, and
their alloys. ASM Intern, USA
3. Hunt R (2020) Inconel 718: a workhorse material for additive
manufacturing. Protolabs Manuf Accel. https://​www.​proto​labs.​
com/​r esou​r ces/​b log/​i ncon​e l-​7 18-a-​workh​o rse-​m ater ​i al-​for-​
addit​ive-​manuf​actur​ing/. Accessed 20 Nov 2021
4. Qi H, Azer M, Ritter A (2009) Studies of standard heat treatment
effects on microstructure and mechanical properties of laser net
shape manufactured. Metall Mater Trans A 2:2410–2422. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11661-​009-​9949-3
5. Yap CY, Chua CK, Dong ZL, Liu ZH, Zhang DQ, Loh LE, Sing
SL (2015) Review of selective laser melting: materials and appli-
cations. Appl Phys Rev 2. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1063/1.​49359​26
6. Bartolomeu F, Buciumeanu M, Costa MM, Alves N, Gasik M,
Silva FS, Miranda G (2019) Multi-material Ti6Al4V & PEEK
cellular structures produced by selective laser melting and hot
pressing: a tribocorrosion study targeting orthopedic applica-
tions. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater 89:54–64. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​jmbbm.​2018.​09.​009
7. Costa MM, Lima R, Melo-Fonseca F, Bartolomeu F, Alves N,
Miranda A, Gasik M, Silva FS, Silva NA, Miranda G (2019)
13
Development of β-TCP-Ti6Al4V structures: driving cellular
response by modulating physical and chemical properties. Mater
Sci Eng C 98:705–716. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msec.​2019.​01.​
016
8. Bartolomeu F, Fonseca J, Peixinho N, Alves N, Gasik M, Silva
FS, Miranda G (2019) Predicting the output dimensions, porosity
and elastic modulus of additive manufactured biomaterial struc-
tures targeting orthopedic implants. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater
99:104–117. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jmbbm.​2019.​07.​023
9. Bartolomeu F, Abreu CS, Moura CG, Costa MM, Alves N, Silva
FS, Miranda G (2019) Ti6Al4V-PEEK multi-material structures
– design, fabrication and tribological characterization focused on
orthopedic implants. Tribol Int 131:672–678. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​tribo​int.​2018.​11.​017
10. Gorji NE, O’Connor R, Brabazon D (2021) XPS, SEM, AFM,
and nano-indentation characterization for powder recycling
within additive manufacturing process. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci
Eng 1182:012025. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1088/​1757-​899X/​1182/1/​
012025
11. Parimi LL, Ravi GA, Clark D, Attallah MM (2014) Microstruc-
tural and texture development in direct laser fabricated IN718.
Mater Charact 102–111. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​match​ar.​2013.​
12.​012
12. Tucho WM, Cuvillier P, Sjolyst-Kverneland A, Hansen V (2017)
Microstructure and hardness studies of Inconel 718 manufactured
by selective laser melting before and after solution heat treat-
ment. Mater Sci Eng A 689:220–232. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
msea.​2017.​02.​062
13. Ni M, Liu S, Chen C, Li R, Zhang X, Zhou K (2019) Effect of
heat treatment on the microstructural evolution of a precipitation-
hardened superalloy produced by selective laser melting. Mater Sci
Eng A 748:275–285. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​01.​109
14. Jiang R, Mostafaei A, Wu Z, Choi A, Guan PW, Chmielus M,
Rollett AD (2020) Effect of heat treatment on microstructural
evolution and hardness homogeneity in laser powder bed fusion
of alloy 718. Addit Manuf 35:101282. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
addma.​2020.​101282
15. Liu C, Chen D, Hill MR, Tran MN, Zou J (2017) Effects of ultra-
sonic impact treatment on weld microstructure, hardness, and
residual stress. Mater Sci Technol (United Kingdom) 33:1601–
1609. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​02670​836.​2017.​12992​77
16. Lesyk DA, Martinez S, Mordyuk BN, Dzhemelinskyi VV,
Lamikiz А, Prokopenko GI (2020) Prokopenko, Post-processing
of the Inconel 718 alloy parts fabricated by selective laser melt-
ing: effects of mechanical surface treatments on surface topogra-
phy, porosity, hardness and residual stress. Surf Coatings Technol
381:125136. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​surfc​oat.​2019.​125136
17. Boschetto A, Bottini L (2015) Surface improvement of fused
deposition modeling parts by barrel finishing. Rapid Prototyp J
21:686–696. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1108/​RPJ-​10-​2013-​0105
18. Maleki E, Unal O, Guagliano M, Bagherifard S (2021) The
effects of shot peening, laser shock peening and ultrasonic
nanocrystal surface modification on the fatigue strength of
Inconel 718. Mater Sci Eng A 810:141029. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​msea.​2021.​141029
19. Hosseini E, Popovich VA (2019) A review of mechanical prop-
erties of additively manufactured Inconel 718. Addit Manuf
30:100877. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2019.​100877
20. Martínez S, Lamikiz A, Ukar E, Calleja A, Arrizubieta JA, Lopez
de Lacalle LN (2017) Analysis of the regimes in the scanner-
based laser hardening process. Opt Lasers Eng 90:72–80. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​optla​seng.​2016.​10.​005
21. Li R, Liu J, Shi Y, Wang L, Jiang W (2012) Balling behavior of
stainless steel and nickel powder during selective laser melting
process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 59:1025–1035. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
10.​1007/​s00170-​011-​3566-1
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
22. Panwisawas C, Tang YT, Reed RC (2020) Metal 3D printing as
a disruptive technology for superalloys. Nat Commun 11:1–4.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41467-​020-​16188-7
23. Karayagiz K, Elwany A, Tapia G, Franco B, Johnson L, Ma J,
Karaman I, Arróyave R (2019) Numerical and experimental
analysis of heat distribution in the laser powder bed fusion of
Ti-6Al-4V. IISE Trans 51:136–152. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1080/​
24725​854.​2018.​14619​64
24. Liu SY, Li HQ, Qin CX, Zong R, Fang XY (2020) The effect of
energy density on texture and mechanical anisotropy in selec-
tive laser melted Inconel 718. Mater Des 191. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​matdes.​2020.​108642
25. Jia Q, Gu D (2014) Selective laser melting additive manufactur-
ing of Inconel 718 superalloy parts: densification, microstructure
and properties. J Alloys Compd 585:713–721. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.​
1016/j.​jallc​om.​2013.​09.​171
26. Nguyen QB, Nai MLS, Zhu Z, Sun CN, Wei J, Zhou W (2017)
Characteristics of Inconel powders for powder-bed additive man-
ufacturing. Engineering 3:695–700. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/J.​
ENG.​2017.​05.​012
27. Caiazzo F, Alfieri V, Casalino G (2020) On the relevance of
volumetric energy density in the investigation of Inconel 718
laser powder bed fusion. Materials (Basel) 13:1–12. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​3390/​ma130​30538
28. Balbaa M, Mekhiel S, Elbestawi M, McIsaac J (2020) On selec-
tive laser melting of Inconel 718: densification, surface rough-
ness, and residual stresses. Mater Des 193:108818. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2020.​108818
29. Mondragón-Rodríguez GC, Torres-Padilla N, Camacho N,
Espinosa-Arbeláez DG, de León-Nope GV, González-Carmona
JM, Alvarado-Orozco JM (2020) Surface modification and tri-
bological behavior of plasma nitrided Inconel 718 manufactured
via direct melting laser sintering method. Surf Coatings Technol
387:125526. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​surfc​oat.​2020.​125526
30. Anandakrishnan V, Sathish S, Muthukannan D, Dillibabu
V, Balamuralikrishnan N (2020) Dry sliding wear behav-
ior of Inconel 718 additively manufactured by DMLS tech-
nique. Ind Lubr Tribol 72:491–496. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1108/​
ILT-​08-​2019-​0322
31. Luo YW, Zhang B, Song ZM, Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang GP (2020)
A comparative investigation of long-term oxidation behavior of
selective laser melting-fabricated Inconel 718 at 650 °C. J Mater
Res 35:2036–2045. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1557/​jmr.​2020.​98
32. Cao Y, Bai P, Liu F, Hou X, Guo Y (2020) Effect of the solution
temperature on the precipitates and grain evolution of IN718
fabricated by laser additive manufacturing. Materials (Basel) 13.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ma130​20340
33. Samuel C, Arivarasu M, Prabhu TR (2020) High temperature dry
sliding wear behaviour of laser powder bed fused Inconel 718.
Addit Manuf 34101279. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2020.​
101279.
34. Gao Y, Zhang D, Cao M, Chen R, Feng Z, Poprawe R,
Schleifenbaum JH, Ziegler S (2019) Effect of δ phase on
high temperature mechanical performances of Inconel 718
fabricated with SLM process. Mater Sci Eng A 767:138327.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​138327
35. Li X, Shi JJ, Cao GH, Russell AM, Zhou ZJ, Li CP, Chen GF
(2019) Improved plasticity of Inconel 718 superalloy fabricated
by selective laser melting through a novel heat treatment process.
Mater Des 180. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2019.​107915
36. Li X, Shi JJ, Wang CH, Cao GH, Russell AM, Zhou ZJ, Li CP,
Chen GF (2018) Effect of heat treatment on microstructure evo-
lution of Inconel 718 alloy fabricated by selective laser melting.
J Alloys Compd 764:639–649. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​
2018.​06.​112
5671
37. Pei C, Shi D, Yuan H, Li H (2019) Assessment of mechanical
properties and fatigue performance of a selective laser melted
nickel-base superalloy Inconel 718. Mater Sci Eng A 759:278–
287. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​05.​007
38. Calandri M, Yin S, Aldwell B, Calignano F, Lupoi R, Ugues D
(2019) Texture and microstructural features at different length
scales in Inconel 718 produced by selective laser melting. Mate-
rials (Basel) 12. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ma120​81293
39. Wan HY, Zhou ZJ, Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang GP (2019) Effect
of scanning strategy on mechanical properties of selective laser
melted Inconel 718. Mater Sci Eng A 753:42–48. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​03.​007
40. Song H, McGaughy T, Sadek A, Zhang W (2019) Effect of struc-
tural support on microstructure of nickel base superalloy fabri-
cated by laser-powder bed fusion additive manufacturing. Addit
Manuf 26:30–40. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2018.​12.​017
41. Gribbin S, Ghorbanpour S, Ferreri NC, Bicknell J, Tsukrov I,
Knezevic M (2019) Role of grain structure, grain boundaries,
crystallographic texture, precipitates, and porosity on fatigue
behavior of Inconel 718 at room and elevated temperatures.
Mater Charact 149:184–197. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​match​ar.​
2019.​01.​028
42. Wang LY, Zhou ZJ, Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang GP (2019) Compara-
tive investigation of small punch creep resistance of Inconel 718
fabricated by selective laser melting. Mater Sci Eng A 745:31–
38. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2018.​12.​083
43. Tao P, Li H, Huang B, Hu Q, Gong S, Xu Q (2019) The crystal
growth, intercellular spacing and microsegregation of selective
laser melted Inconel 718 superalloy. Vacuum 159:382–390.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​vacuum.​2018.​10.​074
44. Wan HY, Zhou ZJ, Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang GP (2018) Enhancing
fatigue strength of selective laser melting-fabricated Inconel 718
by tailoring heat treatment route. Adv Eng Mater 20:1–6. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1002/​adem.​20180​0307
45. Wan HY, Zhou ZJ, Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang GP (2018) Effect of
scanning strategy on grain structure and crystallographic texture
of Inconel 718 processed by selective laser melting. J Mater Sci
Technol 34:1799–1804. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jmst.​2018.​02.​
002
46. Gu D, Shi Q, Lin K, Xi L (2018) Microstructure and performance
evolution and underlying thermal mechanisms of Ni-based parts
fabricated by selective laser melting. Addit Manuf 22:265–278.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2018.​05.​019
47. Gribbin S, Bicknell J, Jorgensen L, Tsukrov I, Knezevic M
(2016) Low cycle fatigue behavior of direct metal laser sintered
Inconel alloy 718. Int J Fatigue 93:156–167. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​ijfat​igue.​2016.​08.​019
48. Vieille B, Keller C, Mokhtari M, Briatta H, Breteau T, Nguejio
J, Barbe F, Azzouna MB, Baustert E (2020) Investigations on
the fracture behavior of Inconel 718 superalloys obtained from
cast and additive manufacturing processes. Mater Sci Eng A
790:139666. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2020.​139666
49. Ardi DT, Guowei L, Maharjan N, Mutiargo B, Leng SH, Srinivasan
R (2020) Effects of post-processing route on fatigue performance
of laser powder bed fusion Inconel 718. Addit Manuf 36:101442.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2020.​101442
50. Fayed EM, Shahriari D, Saadati M, Brailovski V, Jahazi M,
Medraj M (2020) Influence of homogenization and solution treat-
ments time on the microstructure and hardness of Inconel 718
fabricated by laser powder bed fusion process. Materials (Basel)
13. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ma131​12574
51. Li Y, Zhang Z, Guan Y (2020) Thermodynamics analysis and
rapid solidification of laser polished Inconel 718 by selective
laser melting. Appl Surf Sci 511:145423. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​apsusc.​2020.​145423
13
5672 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
52. Kuo YL, Nagahari T, Kakehi K (2018) The effect of post-processes
on the microstructure and creep properties of Alloy718 built up
by selective laser melting. Materials (Basel) 11. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
3390/​ma110​60996
53. Zhao Y, Li K, Gargani M, Xiong W (2020) A comparative analy-
sis of Inconel 718 made by additive manufacturing and suction
casting: microstructure evolution in homogenization. Addit
Manuf 36:101404. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.a​ ddma.2​ 020.1​ 01404
54. Kim S, Choi H, Lee J, Kim S (2020) Room and elevated tem-
perature fatigue crack propagation behavior of Inconel 718 alloy
fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. Int J Fatigue 140:105802.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijfat​igue.​2020.​105802
55. Hazeli K, Babamiri BB, Indeck J, Minor A, Askari H (2019)
Microstructure-topology relationship effects on the quasi-static
and dynamic behavior of additively manufactured lattice struc-
tures. Mater Des 176:107826. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​
2019.​107826
56. Jiang R, Mostafaei A, Pauza J, Kantzos C, Rollett AD (2019)
Varied heat treatments and properties of laser powder bed printed
Inconel 718. Mater Sci Eng A 755:170–180. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​msea.​2019.​03.​103
57. Zhao JR, Hung FY, Lui TS (2020) Microstructure and tensile
fracture behavior of three-stage heat treated inconel 718 alloy
produced via laser powder bed fusion process. J Mater Res Tech-
nol 9:3357–3367. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jmrt.​2020.​01.​030
58. Wang LY, Wang YC, Zhou ZJ, Wan HY, Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang
GP (2020) Small punch creep performance of heterogeneous
microstructure dominated Inconel 718 fabricated by selective
laser melting. Mater Des 195:109042. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
matdes.​2020.​109042
59. Delcuse L, Bahi S, Gunputh U, Rusinek A, Wood P, Miguelez
MH (2020) Effect of powder bed fusion laser melting process
parameters, build orientation and strut thickness on porosity,
accuracy and tensile properties of an auxetic structure in IN718
alloy. Addit Manuf 36:101339. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​
2020.​101339
60. Georgilas K, Khan RHU, Kartal ME (2020) The influence of
pulsed laser powder bed fusion process parameters on Inconel
718 material properties. Mater Sci Eng A 769:138527. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​138527
61. Yang H, Meng L, Luo S, Wang Z (2020) Microstructural evo-
lution and mechanical performances of selective laser melting
Inconel 718 from low to high laser power. J Alloys Compd
828:154473. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​2020.​154473
62. Wang Z, Guan K, Gao M, Li X, Chen X, Zeng X (2012) The
microstructure and mechanical properties of deposited-IN718
by selective laser melting. J Alloys Compd 513:518–523. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​2011.​10.​107
63. Luo S, Huang W, Yang H, Yang J, Wang Z, Zeng X (2019)
Microstructural evolution and corrosion behaviors of Inconel
718 alloy produced by selective laser melting following differ-
ent heat treatments. Addit Manuf 30:100875. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​addma.​2019.​100875
64. Yang H, Yang J, Huang W, Jing G, Wang Z, Zeng X (2019)
Controllable in-situ aging during selective laser melting: step-
wise precipitation of multiple strengthening phases in Inconel
718 alloy. J Mater Sci Technol 35:1925–1930. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​jmst.​2019.​05.​024
65. Popovich VA, Borisov EV, Popovich AA, Sufiiarov VS, Masaylo
DV, Alzina L (2017) Impact of heat treatment on mechanical
behaviour of inconel 718 processed with tailored microstructure
by selective laser melting. Mater Des 131:12–22. https://​doi.o​ rg/​
10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2017.​05.​065
66. Popovich VA, Borisov EV, Popovich AA, Sufiiarov VS, Masaylo
DV, Alzina L (2017) Functionally graded Inconel 718 pro-
cessed by additive manufacturing: crystallographic texture,
13
anisotropy of microstructure and mechanical properties. Mater
Des 114:441–449. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2016.​10.​075
67. Zhang D, Niu W, Cao X, Liu Z (2015) Effect of standard heat
treatment on the microstructure and mechanical properties of
selective laser melting manufactured inconel 718 superalloy.
Mater Sci Eng A 644:32–40. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​
2015.​06.​021
68. Popovich AA, Sufiiarov VS, Polozov IA, Borisov EV (2015) Micro-
structure and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 produced by
SLM and subsequent heat treatment. Key Eng Mater 651–653:665–
670. https://​doi.​org/​10.​4028/​www.​scien​tific.​net/​KEM.​651-​653.​665
69. Tillmann W, Schaak C, Nellesen J, Schaper M, Aydinöz ME,
Hoyer KP (2017) Hot isostatic pressing of IN718 components
manufactured by selective laser melting. Addit Manuf 13:93–
102. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2016.​11.​006
70. Pröbstle M, Neumeier S, Hopfenmüller J, Freund LP, Niendorf T,
Schwarze D, Göken M (2016) Superior creep strength of a nickel-
based superalloy produced by selective laser melting. Mater Sci
Eng A 674:299–307. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2016.​07.​061
71. Yao X, Moon SK, Lee BY, Bi G (2017) Effects of heat treatment
on microstructures and tensile properties of IN718/TiC nanocom-
posite fabricated by selective laser melting. Int J Precis Eng Manuf
18:1693–1701. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12541-​017-​0197-y
72. Watring DS, Benzing JT, Hrabe N, Spear AD (2020) Effects of
laser-energy density and build orientation on the structure–property
relationships in as-built inconel 718 manufactured by laser pow-
der bed fusion. Addit Manuf 36:101425. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
addma.​2020.​101425
73. Wang X, Kang J, Wang T, Wu P, Feng T, Zheng L (2019) Effect
of layer-wise varying parameters on the microstructure and
soundness of selective laser melted Inconel 718 alloy. Materials
(Basel) 12. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​ma121​32165
74. Rezaei A, Rezaeian A, Kermanpur A, Badrossamay M,
Foroozmehr E, Marashi M, Foroozmehr A, Han J (2020) Micro-
structural and mechanical anisotropy of selective laser melted
IN718 superalloy at room and high temperatures using small
punch test. Mater Charact 162:110200. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
match​ar.​2020.​110200
75. Amirjan M, Sakiani H (2019) Effect of scanning strategy
and speed on the microstructure and mechanical properties
of selective laser melted IN718 nickel-based superalloy. Int J
Adv Manuf Technol 103:1769–1780. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s00170-​019-​03545-0
76. Yi JH, Kang JW, Wang TJ, Wang X, Hu YY, Feng T, Feng YL,
Wu PY (2019) Effect of laser energy density on the microstruc-
ture, mechanical properties, and deformation of Inconel 718
samples fabricated by selective laser melting. J Alloys Compd
786:481–488. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​2019.​01.​377
77. Chlebus E, Gruber K, Kuźnicka B, Kurzac J, Kurzynowski
T (2015) Effect of heat treatment on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of Inconel 718 processed by selective
laser melting. Mater Sci Eng A 639:647–655. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​msea.​2015.​05.​035
78. Pérez-Ruiz JD, de Lacalle LN, Urbikain G, Pereira O, Martínez
S, Bris J (2021) On the relationship between cutting forces and
anisotropy features in the milling of LPBF Inconel 718 for near
net shape parts. Int J Mach Tools Manuf 170. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​ijmac​htools.​2021.​103801
79. Pérez-Ruiz JD, Marin F, Martínez S, Lamikiz A, Urbikain G,
de Lacalle LN (2022) Stiffening near-net-shape functional parts
of Inconel 718 LPBF considering material anisotropy and sub-
sequent machining issues. Mech Syst Signal Process 168:1–18.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ymssp.​2021.​108675
80. Pauzon C (2019) The process atmosphere as a parameter in
the laser-powder bed fusion process. Chalmers University of
Technology
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
81. Gallmeyer TG, Moorthy S, Kappes BB, Mills MJ, Amin-Ahmadi
B, Stebner AP (2020) Knowledge of process-structure-property
relationships to engineer better heat treatments for laser pow- 96.
der bed fusion additive manufactured Inconel 718. Addit Manuf
31:100977. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2019.​100977
82. Ho IT, Hsu TH, Chang YJ, Li CW, Chang KC, Tin S, Kakehi K,
Yeh AC (2020) Effects of CoAl2O4 inoculants on microstruc-
ture and mechanical properties of IN718 processed by selective 97.
laser melting. Addit Manuf 35:101328. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
addma.​2020.​101328
83. Zhao Y, Guo Q, Ma Z, Yu L (2020) Comparative study on the
microstructure evolution of selective laser melted and wrought
IN718 superalloy during subsequent heat treatment process and 98.
its effect on mechanical properties. Mater Sci Eng A 791:139735.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2020.​139735
84. Dunbar AJ, Denlinger ER, Gouge MF, Simpson TW, Michaleris
P (2017) Comparisons of laser powder bed fusion additive manu-
facturing builds through experimental in situ distortion and tem- 99.
perature measurements. Addit Manuf 15:57–65. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​addma.​2017.​03.​003
85. Nezhadfar PD, Soltani-Tehrani A, Shamsaei N (2019) Effect
of preheating build platform on microstructure and mechani-
cal properties of additively manufactured 316L stainless steel. 100.
In 2019 International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium pp
415–425
86. Wang X, Keya T, Chou K (2016) Build height effect on the
Inconel 718 parts fabricated by selective laser melting. Procedia
Manuf 5:1006–1017. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​promfg.​2016.​08.​
089 101.
87. Cao Y, Bai P, Liu F, Hou X (2019) Investigation on the precipi-
tates of IN718 alloy fabricated by selective laser melting. Metals
(Basel) 9:1–10. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​met91​01128
88. Tucho WM, Hansen V (2019) Characterization of SLM-fabricated
Inconel 718 after solid solution and precipitation hardening heat 102.
treatments. J Mater Sci 54:823–839. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s10853-​018-​2851-x
89. Park E, Kim DM, Park HW, Park YB, Kim N (2020) Evalua- 103.
tion of tool life in the dry machining of Inconel 718 parts from
additive manufacturing (AM). Int J Precis Eng Manuf 21:57–65.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s12541-​019-​00275-x
90. Schneider J, Lund B, Fullen M (2018) Effect of heat treatment
variations on the mechanical properties of Inconel 718 selective 104.
laser melted specimens. Addit Manuf 21:248–254. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2018.​03.​005
91. Kuo YL, Kakehi K (2017) Influence of powder surface contami-
nation in the Ni-based superalloy alloy718 fabricated by selective 105.
laser melting and hot isostatic pressing. Metals (Basel) 7. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​3390/​met70​90367
92. Kuo YL, Horikawa S, Kakehi K (2017) The effect of interden-
dritic δ phase on the mechanical properties of alloy 718 built 106.
up by additive manufacturing. Mater Des 116:411–418. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2016.​12.​026
93. Babamiri BB, Indeck J, Demeneghi G, Cuadra J, Hazeli K 107.
(2020) Quantification of porosity and microstructure and
their effect on quasi-static and dynamic behavior of additively
manufactured Inconel 718. Addit Manuf 34. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​addma.​2020.​101380
94. Khairallah SA, Anderson AT, Rubenchik A, King WE (2016) 108.
Laser powder-bed fusion additive manufacturing: physics of
complex melt flow and formation mechanisms of pores, spatter,
and denudation zones. Acta Mater 108:36–45. https://​doi.​org/​ 109.
10.​1016/j.​actam​at.​2016.​02.​014
95. Bean GE, Witkin DB, McLouth TD, Zaldivar RJ (2020)
Process gas inf luence on microstructure and mechani-
cal behavior of Inconel 718 fabricated via selective laser
5673
melting. Prog Addit Manuf 5:405–417. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​
s40964-​020-​00133-7
Varela J, Merino J, Pickett C, Abu-Issa A, Arrieta E, Murr LE,
Wicker RB, Ahlfors M, Godfrey D, Medina F (2020) Performance
characterization of laser powder bed fusion fabricated Inconel 718
treated with experimental hot isostatic processing cycles. J Manuf
Mater Process 4. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​JMMP4​030073
Newell DJ, O’Hara RP, Cobb GR, Palazotto AN, Kirka MM,
Burggraf LW, Hess JA (2019) Mitigation of scan strategy effects
and material anisotropy through supersolvus annealing in LPBF
IN718. Mater Sci Eng A 764:138230. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
msea.​2019.​138230
Zhou L, Mehta A, McWilliams B, Cho K, Sohn Y (2019) Micro-
structure, precipitates and mechanical properties of powder bed
fused Inconel 718 before and after heat treatment. J Mater Sci
Technol 35:1153–1164. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jmst.​2018.​12.​
006
Sabelkin VP, Cobb GR, Doane BM, Kemnitz RA, O’Hara RP
(2020) Torsional behavior of additively manufactured nickel
alloy 718 under monotonic loading and low cycle fatigue. Mater
Today Commun 24:101256. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​mtcomm.​
2020.​101256
McLouth TD, Witkin DB, Bean GE, Sitzman SD, Adams PM,
Lohser JR, Yang JM, Zaldivar RJ (2020) Variations in ambient
and elevated temperature mechanical behavior of IN718 manu-
factured by selective laser melting via process parameter control.
Mater Sci Eng A 780:139184. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​
2020.​139184
Lu Y, Wu S, Gan Y, Huang T, Yang C, Junjie L, Lin J (2015)
Study on the microstructure, mechanical property and residual
stress of SLM Inconel-718 alloy manufactured by differing island
scanning strategy. Opt Laser Technol 75:197–206. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​1016/j.​optla​stec.​2015.​07.​009
Jia H, Sun H, Wang H, Wu Y, Wang H (2021) Scanning strategy
in selective laser melting (SLM): a review. Int J Adv Manuf Tech-
nol 113:2413–2435. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 007/s​ 00170-0​ 21-0​ 6810-3
Carter LN, Martin C, Withers PJ, Attallah MM (2014) The influ-
ence of the laser scan strategy on grain structure and cracking
behaviour in SLM powder-bed fabricated nickel superalloy. J
Alloys Compd 615:338–347. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​
2014.​06.​172
Sutton B, Herderick E, Thodla R, Ahlfors M, Ramirez A (2019)
Heat treatment of alloy 718 made by additive manufacturing for
oil and gas applications. Jom 71:1134–1143. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1007/​s11837-​018-​03321-7
Sabelkin VP, Cobb GR, Shelton TE, Hartsfield MN, Newell DJ,
O’Hara RP, Kemnitz RA (2019) Mitigation of anisotropic fatigue
in nickel alloy 718 manufactured via selective laser melting. Mater
Des 182:108095. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2019.​108095
Bremen S, Meiners W, Diatlov A (2012) Selective laser melt-
ing: a manufacturing technology for the future? Laser Tech J
9:33–38. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1002/​latj.​20129​0018
Yang K, Huang Q, Wang Q, Chen Q (2020) Competing crack
initiation behaviors of a laser additively manufactured nickel-
based superalloy in high and very high cycle fatigue regimes.
Int J Fatigue 136:105580. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​ijfat​igue.​
2020.​105580
Materials A (2020) Nickel alloy inconel 718 - properties and
applications by United Performance Metals. https://​www.​azom.​
com/​artic​le.​aspx?​Artic​leID=​4459. Accessed 20 Apr 2021
Bean GE, Witkin DB, McLouth TD, Patel DN, Zaldivar RJ
(2018) Effect of laser focus shift on surface quality and density
of Inconel 718 parts produced via selective laser melting. Addit
Manuf 22:207–215. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2018.​04.​
024
13
5674 The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
110. Schaak C, Tillmann W, Schaper M, Aydinöz ME (2016) Process
gas infiltration in Inconel 718 samples during SLM processing.
RTe Journal Fachforum Für Rapid Technol 1–8
111. Gibson LJ, Ashby MF, Schajer GS, Robertson CI (1982) The
mechanics of two-dimensional cellular material 348(19AD):101–127
112. Calleja-Ochoa A, Gonzalez-barrio H, de Lacalle NL, Martínez
S, Albizuri J, Lamikiz A (2021) A new approach in the design
of microstructured ultralight components to achieve maximum
functional performance. Materials (Basel) 14:1–12. https://​doi.​
org/​10.​3390/​ma140​71588
113. Zhou X, Liu X, Zhang D, Shen Z, Liu W (2015) Balling phenom-
ena in selective laser melted tungsten. J Mater Process Technol
222:33–42. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jmatp​rotec.​2015.​02.​032
114. Huang W, Yang J, Yang H, Jing G, Wang Z, Zeng X (2019)
Heat treatment of Inconel 718 produced by selective laser melt-
ing: microstructure and mechanical properties. Mater Sci Eng A
750:98–107. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​02.​046
115. Cao Y, Farouk N, Taheri M, Yumashev AV, Bozorg SFK, Ojo OO
(2021) Evolution of solidification and microstructure in laser-clad
IN625 superalloy powder on GTD-111 superalloy. Surf Coatings
Technol 412:127010. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​surfc​oat.​2021.​
127010
116. Lee J, Lee M, Jung ID, Choe J, Yu J-H, Kim S, Sung H (2020)
Correlation between microstructure and tensile properties of
STS 316L and Inconel 718 fabricated by selective laser melting
(SLM). J Nanosci Nanotechnol 20:6807–6814. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1166/​jnn.​2020.​18792
117. Nguyen QB, Luu DN, Nai SML, Zhu Z, Chen Z, Wei J (2018)
The role of powder layer thickness on the quality of SLM printed
parts. Arch Civ Mech Eng 18:948–955. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
acme.​2018.​01.​015
118. Chen Z, Yan X, Yin S, Liu L, Liu X, Zhao G, Ma W, Qi W, Ren
Z, Liao H, Liu M, Cai D, Fang H (2020) Influence of the pore
size and porosity of selective laser melted Ti6Al4V ELI porous
scaffold on cell proliferation, osteogenesis and bone ingrowth.
Mater Sci Eng C 106:110289. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msec.​
2019.​110289
119. Nguyen QB, Zhu Z, Chua BW, Zhou W, Wei J, Nai SML (2018)
Development of WC-Inconel composites using selective laser
melting. Arch Civ Mech Eng 18:1410–1420. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​acme.​2018.​05.​001
120. Wan HY, Luo YW, Zhang B, Song ZM, Wang LY, Zhou ZJ,
Li CP, Chen GF, Zhang GP (2020) Effects of surface rough-
ness and build thickness on fatigue properties of selective laser
melted Inconel 718 at 650 °C. Int J Fatigue 137. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​ijfat​igue.​2020.​105654.
121. Soffel F, Eisenbarth D, Hosseini E, Wegener K (2021) Interface
strength and mechanical properties of Inconel 718 processed
sequentially by casting, milling, and direct metal deposition. J
Mater Process Technol 291:117021. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
jmatp​rotec.​2020.​117021
122. Brenne F, Taube A, Pröbstle M, Neumeier S, Schwarze D,
Schaper M, Niendorf T (2016) Microstructural design of Ni-
base alloys for high-temperature applications : impact of heat
treatment on microstructure and mechanical properties after
selective laser melting 141–151. https:// ​ d oi. ​ o rg/ ​ 1 0. ​ 1 007/​
s40964-​016-​0013-8
123. Pereira JC, Aranzabe J, Taboada MC, Ruiz N, Rodriguez PP
(2021) Analysis of microstructure and mechanical properties
in as-built/as-cast and heat-treated conditions for in718 alloy
obtained by selective laser melting and investment casting pro-
cesses. Crystals 11. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​cryst​11101​196
124. Liu F, Lin X, Song M, Zhao W, Chen J, Huang W (2011) Effect
of intermediate heat treatment temperature on microstructure and
notch sensitivity of laser solid formed Inconel 718 superalloy. J
13
Wuhan Univ Technol Mater Sci Ed 26:908–913. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1007/​s11595-​011-​0335-9
125. Kouraytem N, Chanut RA, Watring DS, Loveless T, Varga J,
Spear AD, Kingstedt OT (2020) Dynamic-loading behavior and
anisotropic deformation of pre- and post-heat-treated IN718 fab-
ricated by laser powder bed fusion. Addit Manuf 33:101083.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​addma.​2020.​101083
126. Ni M, Chen C, Wang X, Wang P, Li R, Zhang X, Zhou K (2017)
Anisotropic tensile behavior of in situ precipitation strengthened
Inconel 718 fabricated by additive manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng
A 701:344–351. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2017.​06.​098
127. Stevens EL, Toman J, To AC, Chmielus M (2017) Variation of
hardness, microstructure, and Laves phase distribution in direct
laser deposited alloy 718 cuboids. Mater Des 119:188–198.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​matdes.​2017.​01.​031
128. Tian Y, McAllister D, Colijn H, Mills M, Farson D, Nordin M,
Babu S (2014) Rationalization of microstructure heterogeneity
in INCONEL 718 builds made by the direct laser additive manu-
facturing process. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci
45:4470–4483. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11661-​014-​2370-6
129. Kreitcberg A, Brailovski V, Turenne S (2017) Effect of heat
treatment and hot isostatic pressing on the microstructure and
mechanical properties of Inconel 625 alloy processed by laser
powder bed fusion. Mater Sci Eng A 689:1–10. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​msea.​2017.​02.​038
130. Bin MH (2012) Homogenization heat treatment to reduce the
failure of heat resistant steel castings. Metall - Adv Mater Pro-
cess. https://​doi.​org/​10.​5772/​50312
131. Fayed EM, Saadati M, Shahriari D, Brailovski V, Jahazi M,
Medraj M (2021) Effect of homogenization and solution treat-
ments time on the elevated-temperature mechanical behavior
of Inconel 718 fabricated by laser powder bed fusion. Sci Rep
11:1–18. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1038/​s41598-​021-​81618-5
132. Laquai R, Müller BR, Schneider JA, Kupsch A, Bruno G
(2020) Using SXRR to probe the nature of discontinuities in
SLM additive manufactured Inconel 718 specimens. Metall
Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci 51:4146–4157. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11661-​020-​05847-5
133. Ma M, Wang Z, Zeng X (2015) Effect of energy input on microstruc-
tural evolution of direct laser fabricated IN718 alloy. Mater Charact
106:420–427. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​match​ar.​2015.​06.​027
134. Xia M, Gu D, Yu G, Dai D, Chen H, Shi Q (2016) Selective
laser melting 3D printing of Ni-based superalloy: understanding
thermodynamic mechanisms. Sci Bull 61:1013–1022. https://d​ oi.​
org/​10.​1007/​s11434-​016-​1098-7
135. Xu Z, Hyde CJ, Tuck C, Clare AT (2018) Creep behaviour of
inconel 718 processed by laser powder bed fusion. J Mater Pro-
cess Technol 256:13–24. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jmatp​rotec.​
2018.​01.​040
136. Shi JJ, Li X, Zhang ZX, Cao GH, Russell AM, Zhou ZJ, Li CP,
Chen GF (2019) Study on the microstructure and creep behav-
ior of Inconel 718 superalloy fabricated by selective laser melt-
ing. Mater Sci Eng A 765. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​
138282
137. Witkin DB, Patel D, Albright TV, Bean GE, McLouth T (2020)
Influence of surface conditions and specimen orientation on high
cycle fatigue properties of Inconel 718 prepared by laser powder
bed fusion. Int J Fatigue 132:105392. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
ijfat​igue.​2019.​105392
138. Lamikiz A, Sanchez JA, Lopez de Lacalle LN, del Pozo D, Etayo
JM, López JM (2007) Laser polishing techniques for roughness
improvement on metallic surfaces. Int J Nanomanuf 1:490–498.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1504/​IJNM.​2007.​014568
139. Rodríguez A, López de Lacalle LN, Celaya A, Lamikiz A, Albizuri
J (2012) Surface improvement of shafts by the deep ball-burnishing
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology (2022) 121:5651–5675
technique. Surf Coatings Technol 206:2817–2824. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​surfc​oat.​2011.​11.​045
140. Mordyuk BN, Milman YV, Iefimov MO, Prokopenko GI,
Silberschmidt VV, Danylenko MI, Kotko AV (2008) Charac-
terization of ultrasonically peened and laser-shock peened sur-
face layers of AISI 321 stainless steel. Surf Coatings Technol
202:4875–4883. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​surfc​oat.​2008.​04.​080
141. Lesyk D, Martinez S, Mordyuk B, Dzhemelinskyi V, Danyleiko
O (2019) Combined laser-ultrasonic surface hardening process
for improving the properties of metallic products. Lect Notes
Mech Eng. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-​319-​93587-4_​11
142. Lesyk DA, Martinez S, Mordyuk BN, Dzhemelinskyi VV,
Lamikiz A, Prokopenko GI, Grinkevych KE, Tkachenko IV
(2018) Laser-hardened and ultrasonically peened surface layers
on tool steel AISI D2: correlation of the bearing curves’ param-
eters, hardness and wear. J Mater Eng Perform 27:764–776.
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11665-​017-​3107-7
143. Lesyk DA, Martinez S, Mordyuk BN, Dzhemelinskyi VV
(2017) Microstructure related enhancement in wear resistance
of tool steel AISI D2 by applying laser heat treatment followed
by ultrasonic impact treatment. Surf Coatings Technol. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​surfc​oat.​2017.​08.​045
144. Nasab MH, Gastaldi D, Lecis NF, Vedani M (2018) On mor-
phological surface features of the parts printed by selective laser
melting (SLM). Addit Manuf 24:373–377. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​addma.​2018.​10.​011
145. Maawad E, Brokmeier HG, Wagner L, Sano Y, Genzel C
(2011) Investigation on the surface and near-surface character-
istics of Ti-2.5Cu after various mechanical surface treatments.
Surf Coatings Technol 205:3644–3650. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/1​ 0.1​ 016/j.​
surfc​oat.​2011.​01.​001
146. Li K, Ma R, Zhang M, Chen W, Li X, Zhang DZ, Tang Q, Murr
LE, Li J, Cao H (2022) Hybrid post-processing effects of mag-
netic abrasive finishing and heat treatment on surface integrity
and mechanical properties of additively manufactured Inconel
718 superalloys. J Mater Sci Technol 128:10–21. https://​doi.​org/​
10.​1016/j.​jmst.​2022.​03.​026
147. Baicheng Z, Xiaohua L, Jiaming B, Junfeng G, Pan W, Chen-nan
S, Muiling N, Guojun Q, Jun W (2017) Study of selective laser
melting (SLM) Inconel 718 part surface improvement by electro-
chemical polishing. Mater Des 116:531–537. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​matdes.​2016.​11.​103
148. Kaynak Y, Tascioglu E (2018) Finish machining-induced surface
roughness, microhardness and XRD analysis of selective laser
melted Inconel 718 alloy. Procedia CIRP 71:500–504. https://​
doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​procir.​2018.​05.​013
149. Chen Y, Lu F, Zhang K, Nie P, Hosseini SR, Feng K, Li Z
(2016) Dendritic microstructure and hot cracking of laser addi-
tive manufactured Inconel 718 under improved base cooling. J
Alloys Compd 670:312–321. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​jallc​om.​
2016.​01.​250
150. Xin B, Ren J, Wang X, Zhu L, Gong Y (2020) Effect of laser
remelting on cladding layer of Inconel 718 superalloy formed by
laser metal deposition. Materials (Basel) 13:1–13. https://d​ oi.o​ rg/​
10.​3390/​ma132​14927
5675
151. Hakeem AS, Patel F, Minhas N, Malkawi A, Aleid Z, Ehsan MA,
Sharrofna H, Al Ghanim A (2021) Comparative evaluation of
thermal and mechanical properties of nickel alloy 718 prepared
using selective laser melting, spark plasma sintering, and casting
methods. J Mater Res Technol 12:870–881. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​jmrt.​2021.​03.​043
152. Sutton GP, Ross DM, Biblarz O (2001) Rocket propulsion ele-
ments. 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons
153. Pizzarelli M (n. d.) Regenerative cooling of liquid rocket engine
thrust chambers. https://​w ww.​resea​rchga​t e.​n et/​p ubli​c ation/​
32131​4974_​Regen​erati​ve_​cooli​ng_​of_​liquid_​rocket_​engine_​
thrust_​chamb​ers. Accessed 12 Feb 2022
154. Choi JP, Shin GH, Yang S, Yang DY, Lee JS, Brochu M, Yu JH
(2017) Densification and microstructural investigation of Inconel
718 parts fabricated by selective laser melting. Powder Technol
310:60–66. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​powtec.​2017.​01.​030
155. Kakehi K, Banoth S, Kuo YL, Hayashi S (2020) Effect of yttrium
addition on creep properties of a Ni-base superalloy built up by
selective laser melting. Scr Mater 183:71–74. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​scrip​tamat.​2020.​03.​014
156. Majchrowicz K, Pakieła Z, Kamiński J, Płocińska M, Kurzynowski
T, Chlebus E (2018) The effect of rhenium addition on microstruc-
ture and corrosion resistance of Inconel 718 processed by selec-
tive laser melting. Metall Mater Trans A Phys Metall Mater Sci
49:6479–6489. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s11661-​018-​4926-3
157. Tabaie S, Rézaï-Aria F, Jahazi M (2020) Microstructure evolution
of selective laser melted Inconel 718: influence of high heating
rates. Metals (Basel) 10. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​met10​050587
158. Barros R, Silva FJ, Gouveia RM, Saboori A, Marchese G,
Biamino S, Salmi A, Atzeni E (2019) Laser powder bed fusion
of Inconel 718: residual stress analysis before and after heat
treatment. Metals (Basel) 9:1290–1307. https://​doi.​org/​10.​3390/​
met91​21290
159. Ferreri NC, Vogel SC, Knezevic M (2020) Determining volume
fractions of γ, γ′, γ″, δ, and MC-carbide phases in Inconel 718
as a function of its processing history using an advanced neutron
diffraction procedure. Mater Sci Eng A 781. https://​doi.​org/​10.​
1016/j.​msea.​2020.​139228
160. Kaynak Y, Tascioglu E (2020) Post-processing effects on the
surface characteristics of Inconel 718 alloy fabricated by selec-
tive laser melting additive manufacturing. Prog Addit Manuf
5:221–234. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​s40964-​019-​00099-1
161. Wang X, Chou K (2019) The effects of stress relieving heat treat-
ment on the microstructure and residual stress of Inconel 718 fab-
ricated by laser metal powder bed fusion additive manufacturing
process. J Manuf Process 48:154–163. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​
jmapro.​2019.​10.​027
162. Watring DS, Carter KC, Crouse D, Raeymaekers B, Spear AD
(2019) Mechanisms driving high-cycle fatigue life of as-built
Inconel 718 processed by laser powder bed fusion. Mater Sci
Eng A 761:137993. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/j.​msea.​2019.​06.​003
Publisher's Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
13