j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 6 1 e6 6 9

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Original Article

Mechanical and microstructural characterization of

functionally graded Inconel 825 - SS316L fabricated
using wire arc additive manufacturing

T.S. Senthil a,*, S. Ramesh Babu b, M. Puviyarasan a, V. Dhinakaran c

a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Panimalar Engineering College, Anna University, Chennai, Tamilnadu,
India
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Sri Venkateswara College of Engineering, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Chennai Institute of Technology, Chennai, Tamilnadu, India

article info abstract

Article history: This work aims to fabricate the functionally graded Inconel 825 - SS316L wall using the
Received 1 June 2021 Cold Metal Transfer (CMT) based Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) process. The
Accepted 14 August 2021 mechanical behavior of the fabricated wall was appraised with the help of room temper-
Available online 21 August 2021 ature tensile and microhardness tests on the specimens cut from Inconel 825, SS316L, and
the interface regions. Fracture morphology revealed the failure of all the specimens after
Keywords: sufficient plastic deformation, indicating ductile fracture. A change in microhardness was
Functionally graded material (FGM) observed at the interface region. The optical micrograph revealed a continuous cellular
Wire arc additive manufacturing edendritic and discontinuous cellularedendritic region in the Inconel 825 region,
(WAAM) whereas the SS316L region was comprised of d ferrite in the primary austenitic (g) den-
Cold metal transfer (CMT) drites. The Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) line scans of the FGM wall revealed a
Microstructure gradual change in the Ni and Fe content throughout the interface, signifying a successful
Inconel 825 fabrication of the FGM.
SS316L © 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

applications such as aerospace, nuclear reactors, and marine

1. Introduction
The evolution of materials day by day to produce products
with homogenized attributes was developed when Function-
ally Graded Materials (FGMs) were proposed for the first time
in Japan in 1984 during research on developing materials for
thermal restraint coatings [1]. It was designed to face up to the
large temperature distinction between the outer and inner
surfaces of the ballistic capsule [2]. Extreme environment
raisers need parts that will provide outstanding performances
once, for example, completely different stress fields are
localized at different positions in the same component. As a
result, these critical components require graded characteris-
tics and corresponding microstructural options caused by
various alloys. The nuclear fusion reactor is a truly explicit
example of outrageous environmental factors, with parts
being tormented by significant temperature variations [3]. At

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: reachtss@gmail.com (T.S. Senthil).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.08.060
2238-7854/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
662 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 1 ; 1 5 : 6 6 1 e6 6 9
the point when a space-plane goes to a higher altitude, its
ignition chamber should support forceful conditions just as
temperatures as high as 1000e2000 K. This seems to be
outrageous to such an extent that regular composite materials
cannot meet the necessary execution standards. Under such
conditions, failure of the material happens mostly due to de-
lamination and the fibers cut loose the matrix [4]. To solve
this drawback, Naotake Noda [5] proposed a replacement
category of materials, specifically Functionally Graded Mate-
rials (FGMs). Functionally graded Inconel and austenitic steel
pipes are utilized in ocean manifolds [6]. Also, they were uti-
lized by NASA for sub-scale boiler applications [7]. However,
the idea of FGM was at first intended for high-temperature
materials. These materials have become accustomed to
diminished twisting, wear, and consumption, just as a
decrease in strain through the elegant progress hierarchic
across the whole part over the long run [8]. FGMs are
extremely useful regions in a part, that produce a localized
continuous variation in chemical composition and, in most
cases, micro-structures that result in tailored mechanical
properties [9]. The techniques for producing FGMs have been
investigated over the last thirty years, and there are currently
numerous innovations used in the creation of these materials.
Centrifugal methods, powder-based methods, vapor deposi-
tion methods, and free-form manufacturing methods are a
few examples [10]. The key reason behind the improvement of
a few methods for creating FGMs is on the grounds that these
materials have immense characteristics and are stipulated by
an assortment of design applications [11]. Inconel 825 and
Stainless steel 316L (SS316L) were widely used in a variety of
industries including Oil & Gas industries, chemical processing
industries that include thermowells, pump and valve com-
ponents, hydrogen and ethylene furnaces, acid production,
nuclear fuel reprocessing, and handling of radioactive wastes.
Both Inconel 825 and SS316L used in this research work
were austenitic steels with Fe, Ni, and Cr being the key ele-
ments, good solubility is always possible [12,13]. The
chromium-rich functionally graded material offers high
resistance to oxidation and all types of corrosion at elevated
temperature [14,15]. Nonetheless, it is not difficult to cause
solidification cracking while these two materials are welded
by fusion welding. This problem can be avoided by function-
ally grading these nickel and steel-based alloys [16]. Carroll
et al. [17] demonstrated the viability of building Inconel 625
and 304L stainless steel FGM using directed energy deposition
and analyzed the microstructural characteristics and ther-
modynamic models. Kamran Shah et al. [18] used laser metal
deposition process to develop Inconel - steel FGMs. The
interfacial characteristics and mechanical properties of
functionally graded maraging steel - copper were examined by
Tan et al. [19]. Wu et al. [20] fabricated Inconel 718 - SS316L
FGM wall and examined hardness, wear, and microstructural
characteristics. Ramkumar et al. [21] investigated the me-
chanical behavior and microstructure of the interface region
of SS904L and Inconel 625 weld joints and reported the micro-
segregation of Mo/Nb rich phases. It is clear from the above
literatures that, FGM of Inconel - SS alloys find application in
highly corrosive and elevated temperature environments like
nuclear power plants, Oil & Gas industries, hydrogen and
ethylene furnaces, acid production, etc.
This study aims to evaluate the mechanical and micro-
structural behavior of functionally graded Inconel 825 - SS316L
fabricated using CMT based WAAM. The CMT process is an
advanced MIG process invented by Fronius International,
Austria in the year 2004. The digital process control and a
welding torch with an integrated servomotor withdraw the
wire every time it contacts the melt pool, thereby transferring
the molten metal droplet mechanically. Thus heat input is
considerably reduced. This improves the quality of WAAM
parts printed by reducing distortion and spatter. The other
benefits of the CMT process involve stable arc length, better
process stability, and reduced dilution [22]. Wire Arc Additive
Manufacturing (WAAM) is a lesser-known metal additive
manufacturing process that holds tremendous potential for
large-scale additive manufacturing because of its higher
deposition and faster part production rates compared to
powder-based additive manufacturing processes.
Literature reviews show that, albeit various analysts have
reported on the microstructure and properties of Ni-based su-
peralloys, examination of the Inconel 825 was found to be
scarce. These alloys used in various modern applications are
very expensive and hard to machine. However, it can be easily
printed to near-net shape by additive manufacturing. On the
other hand, SS316L is machinable and comparatively cheaper.
Therefore, additive manufacturing of functionally graded
Inconel 825 - SS316L is a unique solution for many applications
such as the oil and gas industries. This current research focuses
on the microstructural behavior and mechanical properties of
the ‘Inconel 825 - SS316L FGM’ fabricated using CMT based
WAAM. The objective of this study is to evaluate the mechan-
ical and microstructural behavior of the FGM wall using room
temperature tensile tests, Vickers micro-hardness test, Optical
Microscopy (OM), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). In
addition, compositional analysis was carried out using EDS.
2. Materials and methods
Inconel 825, also known as Incoloy 825, has minor additions of
titanium, copper, and molybdenum. The material possesses a
face-centered cubic lattice structure. The alloy's chemical
composition is intended to function in highly corrosive envi-
ronments. The high percentage of nickel measured gives
sufficient resistance to the stress-corrosion fracture. It also
possesses a very stable austenite structure. The nickel, along
with the molybdenum and copper, gives additional protection
Table 1 e Elemental Composition of Inconel 825 filler
wire.
Ni Fe Cr Mo Cu Ti Mn Si Al C S
45.5 22.0 22.4 3.45 3.50 1.10 0.95 0.50 0.20 0.05 0.03
Table 2 e Elemental Composition of SS316L filler wire.
Ni Cr Mo Mn Si C S P N Fe
13.42 17.55 2.25 1.85 0.65 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.09 Balance
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Fig. 1 e (a) CMT machine setup (b) FGM wall during fabrication.

Fig. 2 e As-deposited Inconel 825 - SS316L FGM Wall showing the dimensions (a) top view (b) front view.

by reducing the environments containing undesirable acids.
The molybdenum and chromium offer resistance to corrosion
and unwanted oxidizing substances. The inclusion of tita-
nium stabilizes the alloy against sensitization, which resists
inter-granular corrosion. The elemental composition of
Inconel 825 and SS316L filler wires were determined using
optical emission spectroscopic analysis and are listed in
Tables 1 and 2 respectively.
The SS316L is standard low carbon austenitic steel con-
taining molybdenum, which offers enhanced resistance to
corrosion, particularly against the pitting and crevice corro-
sion in chloride environments. It is also resistant to sensiti-
zation. Even at cryogenic temperatures, the SS316L possesses
excellent toughness because of its austenitic structure. Their
applications include exhaust manifolds, heat exchangers,
cryogenic piping, petrochemical process, pulp, and paper
industry.
The functionally graded Inconel 825 - SS316L wall was
fabricated using a novel technique called CMT as shown in
Fig. 1a, b.
A single wall of dimension 140
120
16 mm was fabri-
cated by depositing Inconel 825 followed by SS316L (16 layers
each with a layer height of 4.3 mm), using a to-and-fro tech-
nique as shown in Fig. 2 a, b. Inconel 825 wall was deposited at
a height of 70 mm on the same substrate plate of 14 mm
thickness. This is followed by the deposition of SS316L wall for
the next 70 mm height. The filler wires used were Inconel 825
and SS316L of 1.2 mm diameter.
The CMT process variables implemented for deposition are
listed in Table 3. The fabricated wall was machined to a

Table 3 e CMT process variables used in this study.

Material Deposited Deposition Wire feed rate Travel speed Argon Gas No. of Layers
Current (A) (mm/min) (mm/min) Flowrate (l/min)
Inconel 825 146 5000 150 13 16
SS316L 113 3800 150 13 16
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Fig. 3 e Location of tensile specimens in FGM wall.
dimension of 130
110
14 mm to achieve uniform thickness
and a good surface finish. As the name, CMT implies the
molten metal is deposited at an extremely low heat input to
build the FGM wall. Aluminium fins and a fan are provided
beneath the substrate holding fixture to enhance the cooling
rate. The FGM wall building process was fully automated and
performed by a robotic CMT machine which builds the wall
continuously without any intermittence. Thus, there is no idle
time between the layers built.
The microstructural evaluation was carried out according
to the American Society for Testing and Materials standard,
ASTM E3-11(2017). The extracted specimens were syntheti-
cally exposed to 10 ml of HCL and 3 ml of H2O2 for 10 s. The
room temperature tensile specimens were cut along the
Fig. 4 e Optical micrograph of (a) Inconel 825 specimen (b) SS316L specimen (c) Interface of Inconel 825 - SS316L (d) FGM
Interface at higher magnification.
vertical direction using the Wire-cut Electrical Discharge Ma-
chine (WEDM), according to ASTM E8 standard (Fig. 3).
The tensile fracture morphology was studied using SEM
and EDS point scan. The Vickers micro-hardness test was
conducted using ASTM E384 standard under a load of 300 g.
The EDS line scan examination was performed to analyze the
elemental composition and the presence of secondary phases
at the Inconel 825 - SS316L interface. Two separate scans were
taken to cover the entire layer of the FGM wall. It was carried
out on the specimen cut from the FGM wall from the ‘SS316L
region to the interface’ and also from the ‘interface region to
the Inconel 825 side.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Microstructural characterization
The optical micrograph (Fig. 4a) reveals the microstructure of
the as-deposited Inconel 825 specimen. The micrograph
shows two different microstructures, which belong to the
continuous cellularedendritic and the discontinuous
cellularedendritic types. Both the microstructures reveal the
same growth direction and emerge alternately. At the grain
boundaries, few secondary phases were found. The formation
of carbides is unavoidable at high temperatures due to the
alloying composition of Inconel 825. Being a solid solution,
many Ti(N, C) precipitates were expected to form in Inconel
825 [23].
Fig. 4b, shows the optical micrograph of the as-deposited
SS316L specimen revealing the presence of d ferrite in pri-
mary austenite (g) dendrites. The chromium and nickel
equivalencies can be used to study the phase transitions in
austenitic stainless steels [24]. The Creq/Nieq ratio for the
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with a partially mixed area at the interface. The reason for

Table 4 e Tensile properties of Inconel 825, SS316L, and
partial mixing is the lower heat input of the CMT technique
FGM interface.
with faster cooling rates which provides less time for the
Test Parameters Observed values
diffusion of elements like Mo and Cr to both sides.
Material Inconel 825 FGM interface SS316L Fig. 4d reveals a transition in microstructure, from the
UTS (MPa) 494 474 495 elongated dendrites to fine equiaxed dendrites at the FGM
YS (MPa) 222 198 242
interface and, it is free from defects like cracks, lack of fusion,
Elongation 61.5 48.5 57.5
% (50 mm GL)
and delamination.

3.2. Tensile test

SS316L used in this research was 1.307. According to the
The tensile characteristics of the functionally graded Inconel
Schaeffler diagram [25], the final microstructure is composed
825 - SS316L were analyzed from the outcomes of the room
of 5% delta ferrite and austenite. Fig. 4c shows the optical
temperature tensile test. It is evident from Table 4, that the
micrograph of the interface zone of Inconel 825 and SS316L

Fig. 5 e Fractograph of Inconel 825 at (a) Lower Magnification (b) Higher Magnification.

Fig. 6 e Fractograph of SS316L specimen at (a) Lower Magnification (b) Higher Magnification.

Fig. 7 e Fractograph of FGM interface at (a) Lower Magnification (b) Higher Magnification.
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Fig. 8 e EDS point scan analysis of the SEM fractograph (a, b) SS316L (c, d) Inconel 825.

tensile properties of WAAMed Inconel 825 and SS316L were
found to be closer to their wrought alloys [26,27]. The me-
chanical strength and elongation of the FGM interface were
slightly lesser (4.2%) than the Inconel 825 and SS316L regions.
Additionally, the rupture of the specimen cut from FGM
interface took place prior to the Inconel 825 and SS316L
regions.
The tensile fractograph (Fig. 5) of the Inconel 825 specimen
reveals a fibrous ductile mode of fracture. Despite better ten-
sile properties, the scanning electron micrograph shows the
existence of laves clusters and micro-voids. The fractured
surfaces of the SS316L specimen (Fig. 6) were seen as fine
dimples and small voids, which are typical ductile fracture
micro-characteristics with some Metallic Carbides (MCs).
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Fig. 9 e Hardness distributions along the Inconel 825 - SS316L build direction.

Fig. 10 e Microstructures of the transition region (a) SS316L to interface (b) interface to Inconel 825.

The fractograph of the FGM interface (Fig. 7) reveals that
sufficient plastic deformation occurred prior to failure,
which indicated the ductile mode. The fracture morphology
of the FGM interface was almost similar to that of the
Inconel 825 fracture surface due to the presence of many
dimples. However, the bulging strips seen in the fractured
surface minimized the FGM interface strength, which
resulted in comparatively mediocre tensile properties.
Though the bonding strength at the interface was slightly
lesser (4%), it could be improved by optimizing the process
parameters in future investigations.
3.2.1. SEM and EDS point scan analysis of the fractured
surface
EDS point scan reveals the presence of various elements in the
fractured surface. Fig. 8a, b shows the SEM fractograph of the
SS316L tensile specimen. The corresponding EDS point scan
revealed tiny particles enriched with Ni, Cr, and Fe. Fig. 8c,
d shows the SEM fractograph of the Inconel 825 tensile spec-
imen. The corresponding EDS point scan revealed laves phase
enriched with Fe, Cr contents.
3.3. Microhardness test
The microhardness of the Inconel 825 - SS316L FGM wall
measured along the build direction is shown in Fig. 9. Though a
slight decrease (2.2%) in the hardness value was observed at the
FGM interface, there was not much difference seen in the
hardness values along the build direction. The sudden variation
in the material levels (Ni, Fe), and the absence of a complete
diffusion layer due to rapid cooling was found to be the reason
for the shift in microhardness. Though the argon shielding gas
provides cooling, the heat accumulated due to continuous
deposition reduced the cooling speed, resulting in the ferritic-
austenitic solidification form at the interface. The ferritic-
austenitic solidification mode resulted in a decrease in hard-
ness in the FGM interface [28]. The hardness variation was
almost the same in both the Inconel 825 and the SS316L regions.
3.4. EDS line scan across the FGM interface
Fig. 10a and b shows the microstructures of the transition
region from ‘SS316L to the interface region’ and the ‘interface
to the Inconel 825 region’ respectively. Fig. 11a and b shows the
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Fig. 11 e EDS line scan (a) SS316L to interface (b) interface to Inconel 825.
EDS line scans, which indicates a significant variation of the
iron and nickel content at the interface, which is a common
phenomenon. The reason for increase in iron content near the
interface is the absence of a complete diffusion layer due to
rapid cooling. After crossing the interface, the iron content
decreases, and the nickel content increases, corresponding to
the range of the base materials SS316L and Inconel 825. No
chromium carbide precipitate was formed, as the chromium
content remains almost the same on either side of the inter-
face. All of the other alloying elements were present in the
expected amounts. The proper heat input and faster solidifi-
cation rate resulted in good strength of the FGM wall, which is
evident from the values observed from the tensile test.
This work focuses on the mechanical and microstructural
investigation of FGM wall fabricated by CMT process. A tem-
perature field distribution simulation using Simufact welding
software is planned in the next phase of this work to study the
effect of heat transfer from upper part (Inconel 825) to the
lower part (SS316L).
4. Conclusion
In this research, an innovative CMT based WAAM procedure
was implemented to construct the Inconel 825 - SS316L FGM
wall. The FGM wall was mechanically and metallurgically
characterized with the help of the Vickers microhardness test,
tensile test, SEM, and EDS. The subsequent points are listed as
follows:
(1) The FGM wall exhibited a well-built homogeneous layer
without any defects like de-laminations and cracks.
(2) Both Inconel 825 and SS316L comprised austenite pha-
ses. The Inconel 825 specimen was found to be
composed of continuous cellularedendritic and
discontinuous cellularedendritic microstructures. The
final microstructure of SS316L consisted of 5 % delta
ferrite and austenite.
(3) The tensile fractograph of both the Inconel 825 and
SS316L showed high plastic deformation, which indi-
cated the ductile fracture mode. The interface fracture
morphology was almost similar to that of the Inconel
825 fracture surface. The dimples and bulging strips in
the fractured surface reduced the FGM interface
strength resulting in comparatively inferior tensile
properties.
(4) The sudden variation in the levels of Ni, Fe and the
absence of complete dissemination layers due to the
rapid cooling were the reasons for the shift in micro-
hardness at the FGM interface.
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(5) The EDS line scan from SS316L to the Inconel 825 re-
veals a progressive change in the Ni and Fe content
throughout the interface proving a successful fabrica-
tion of FGM.
Credit author statement
T.S. Senthil e Conceptualization, Methodology, Experimen-
tation and Microstructural examination, Original drafting
(corresponding author).
S. Ramesh Babu e Validation, Analysis, Data Curation,
Supervision.
M. Puviyarasan e Methodology, Visualization, Review &
Editing, Supervision.
V. Dhinakaran e Resources, Review & Editing.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing
financial interests or personal relationships that could have
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
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