UNIT 9

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF RAILWAY

The geometric design of railway track is to calculate superelevation, gradient,

etc of the railway for the smooth running of the engine on the rail.

Geometric design of railway truck should be such as to provide maximum

efficiency in the traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Geometric design of railway truck should be such as to provide maximum

efficiency in the traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.

Gradient

Any departure of track from the level is known as grade or gradient. An up or

rising gradient is one when the track rises in the direction of movement whereas
a falling or down gradient is one when the track falls in direction of the
movement.
Gradients are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railing track.

Purpose of providing gradient:

 To provide uniform rate of rise or fall,
 To reduce cost of earth work,
 To reach different stations at different level.

Types of gradients:

1. Ruling gradient
2. Momentum Gradient
3. Pusher gradient

Ruling gradient
The steepest gradient allowed on the track section. It determines the max load
that the locomotive can haul that section. The steep gradient needs more
powerful locomotives, smaller train loads, lower speed, resulting in costly
hauling.
Momentum Gradient: The gradient on a section which are steeper than the
ruling gradient acquire sufficient momentum to negotiate them are known as
momentum gradient.

The momentum gradient is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome
by a train because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section.

Pusher gradient: As stated above a ruling gradient limits the maximum weight of
a train which can be hauled over the section by a locomotive. If the ruling
gradient is so severe on a section that it needs the help of extra engine to pull the
same load than this gradient is known as pusher of helper gradient. In Darjeeling
Railways 1 in 37 pusher gradient is used on Western Ghat BG Track.

The pusher gradient is a steeper gradient than the ruling gradient and needs the
help of an extra engine to pull the train.

Gradient at stations: at stations gradient are provided sufficient low due to

following reason:

–To prevent movement of standing vehicle

–To prevent additional resistance due to grade.

Grade compensation on curves

If a curve is provided on a track with ruling gradient, the resistance of the track
will be increased. In order to avoid resistance beyond the allowable limits, the
gradients are reduced on curves. The reduction in gradient is known as grade
compensation for curves.

•BG track: 0.04% per degree of curve

•MG track: 0.03 % per degree of curve
•NG track: 0.02 % per degree of curve

BG – Broad gauge- 1676 mm (width)

MG – Meter gauge – 1000 mm (width)
NG – Narrow gauge- 762 mm (width)

Rail gauge: It is the minimum distance between the running inner faces of two
rails.
Problem:

The ruling gradient on a BG track section has been fixed as 1 in 150. What
should be the compensated gradient when a 3-degree horizontal curve is to be
provided on this ruling gradient?

Solution:

Ruling gradient = 1/150

Grade compensation for 3-degree curve = 0.04% per degree of curve

0.04
= x3
100

= 0.0012

1
Compensated gradient =
150
- 0.0012

= 5.467 x 10-3

Therefore, the maximum permissible speed on the curve is 99.75 kph

Speeds

Equilibrium speed

It is the speed at which the effect of centrifugal force is exactly balanced by the
superelevation provided. It can also be said that when the speed of a vehicle
running on a curved track is such that the resultant weight of the vehicle and the
effect of radical acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of rails and the vehicle
is not subjected to an unbalanced radical acceleration, is in equilibrium then its
particular speed is called equilibrium speed.

Maximum permissible speed

This is the highest speed which may be allowed or permitted on a curved track taking
into consideration of the radius of curvature, actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess
and the length of the transition curve. When, the maximum permissible speed on the
curve is less than the maximum sanctioned speed of the section of a line, permanent
speed restriction become necessary on such curves.

Cant deficiency

Cant deficiency is the difference between the equilibrium cant (theoritical)

necessary for the maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant
provided there. As per Indian Railways, Cant deficiency is recommended as
follow:
 BG Track: 75 mm
 MG track: 50 mm
  NG track: 40 mm
Cant deficiency (Cd) Cant deficiency occurs when a train is on a curved track at
a speed higher than the equilibrium speed.

It is the difference between the theoretical cant required for much higher speeds
and the actual can provided.

cant deficiency (Cd) = Cth – Ca

Where:

Cd = cant deficiency
Ca = Actual cant provided (as per average or equilibrium speed)

Allowable cant deficiency

1. BG track
 100 mm (V>100 kmph)
 75 mm (V< 100 kmph)
2. MG track – 50 mm
3. NG track – 40 mm

Cant Excess

When a train travels on a curved rack at a speed lower than the equilibrium
speed, then the cant excess occurs. It is the difference between the actual cant
provided and the theoretical cant required for such lower speeds. Maximum
value for cant excess is:

 BG track: 75 mm
 MG Track: 65 mm

Cant excess (Ce): Cant excess occurs when a train travels on a curved track at
a speed slower than the equilibrium speed.

 It is the difference between the actual cant provided and the theoretical
cant required for such lower speeds.
 Cant excess (Ce) = Ca – Cth
 The turnout of contrary flexure:

A turnout of contrary flexure is one that takes off towards the direction opposite to
that of the mainline curve.

Relation between super-elevation, gauge, speed, and radius of the curve:

Let θ be the angle which the inclined plane makes with the horizontal.

Resolving the force and weight along with AC

Where:
e = super-elevation
G = the gauge in mm + width of the railhead in mm
V = the speed of the train in kmph
R is the radius of the curve in m.

Degree of Curve

A curve is defined by its degree or radius. The degree of a curve is the angle
subtended at the center by a chord of 100 feet or 30.48m.

If R is the radius of curve:

Circumference of the curve = 2 π R

Angle subtended at the center by the circle = 360 degree
1750
Angle subtended by the arc of 30.48m =
R

A 1-degree curve has a radius of 1750 m.

Superelevation on Curves (Cant)

Cant is defined as the difference in height between the inner and outer rails on
the curve. It is provided by gradually raising the outer rail above the inner rail
level. The inner rail is considered as the reference rail and normally is maintained
at its original level. The inner rail is known as the gradient rail.

Function of superelevation:

– Neutralizes the effect of lateral force.

– It provides better load distribution on the two rails.
– It reduces wear and tear of rails and rolling stock.
– It provides smooth running of trains and comforts to the passengers.

Maximum value of super-elevation (e):

The maximum value of super-elevation generally on many railways of

the world has been adopted about 1/10th to 1/12th of the gauge.

Types:
1. BG track
Speed less than 120 kmph – 165 mm
Speed more than 120 kmph – 185 mm

2. MG track – 90 mm (Normal Condition)

 100 mm (standard condition)

3. NG track – 65 mm (Normal condition)

 75 mm (special condition)

Negative Superelevation
When the mainline lies on a curve and has a turnout of contrary flexure loading to
a branch line, the super-elevation necessary for the average speed of trains
running over the main curve cannot be provided.

In the figure, AB which is the outer rail of the mainline curve must be higher than
the CD. For the branch line, however of should be higher than AE, or point C
should be higher than point A.

These two contradictory conditions cannot be met within one layout. In such
cases, the branch line curve has a negative super-elevation and therefore, speed
on both tracks must be restricted, particularly on the branch line.

Main Line

AB>CD

A>C

Branch Line

CF>AE

C>A

Calculation of Negative Superelevation

The provision of negative super-elevation for the branch line and the reduction in
speed over the mainline can be calculated as follows;

1. The equilibrium superelevation for the branch line curve is first calculated
using the formula
2
GV
e=
127 R

Where:
e = equilibrium super-elevation
G = the gauge in mm + width of the railhead in mm
V = the speed of the train in kmph
R = the radius of the curve in m.

For BG track,
G = 1676mm + 74 mm = 1.75 m

For MG track,
G = 1.058 m

For NG track,
G = 0.772 m

Cd is the cant deficiency (75 mm for BG track and 50 mm for MG track)

The value of cd is generally higher than that of e and therefore x is normally a
negative super-elevation of x.

2. The maximum permissible speed on the main line which has a super-
elevation of x is then calculated by adding the allowable cant deficiency
(x + Cd). The safe speed is also calculated and smaller of the two values
is taken as the maximum permissible speed on the main line.

Safe speed on curve:

a) For BG and MG:
Transition curves
V = 4.4 √ R−70
Where:
V = speed in kph
R = radius in m
Non-transition curves (80% of the speed on the transition curve)

V = 0.80 (4.4 √ R−70 )

b) For NG (Narrow gauge)

Transition curves
V = 3.65 √ R−6

Non-transition curve:
V = 2.92 √ R−6

Rational formula considering super-elevation:

BG track: V = 0.27 √ ( Ca+ Cd ) R

MG track: V = 0.347√ ( Ca+ Cd ) R

NG track: V = 3.65 √ R−6
Where:
Ca = actual cant provided in mm
Cd = Cant deficiency permitted in mm
V = maximum speed in kmp
R = radius in mm

Problem:
Calculate the superelevation and maximum permissible speed for a 2-degree BG
transitioned curve on a high-speed route with a maximum sanctioned speed of
110 kph. The speed for calculating the equilibrium super-elevation is 80 kph and
the booked speed of goods train is 50 kmph.

Solution:

1. The radius of the curve for 2o of the curve,

1750 1750
R= = = 875
degree of curve 2

2. Superelevation for equilibrium speed

2
GV
e=
127 R

1750(80)2
e=
127(875)

e = 100.8 mm

3. Superelevation for maximum sanctioned speed (110 kph)

1750(110)2
e=
127(875)

e = 190.6 mm

Cant deficiency Cd = 190.6 – 100.8

= 89.8

89.8 is less than 100 mm, hence permissible

4. Superelevation for goods train with a booked speed of 50 kph

2
GV
e=
127 R

1750(50)2
e=
127(875)

e = 39.4 mm

Cant excess (Ce) = 100.8 – 39.4 = 61.4

is less than 75 mm and hence permissible

 5. Safe speed for high-speed route
V = 0.27 √ ( Ca+ Cd ) R

V = 0.27 √ ( 100.8+89.8 ) 875 V = 110.3 kph

6. The maximum permissible speed on the curve will be the least of the
following:
 Maximum santion speed i.e. 110 kph
 Safe speed on the curve i.e. 110.3 kph
Therefore, the maximum permissible speed over the curve is 110 kmph and the
super-elevation to be provided is 100.8 mm.

Problem:
Calculate the super-elevation and the maximum permissible speed for a 3 o curve
on a high-speed BG section with a maximum sanctioned speed of 110 kmph.
The equilibrium speed to be 80 kmph and the booked speed of the goods train to
be 50 kmph.

Solution:

1. The radius of the curve for 30 of the curve:

1750 1750
R= = = 583. 33m
degree of curve 3

2. Super-elevation for equilibrium speed

2 2
GV 1750(80)
e= = = 151.2 mm
127 R 127(583.33)
3. Super-elevation for maximum sanction speed (110 kmph)

GV
2
(1750)(110)2
e= = = 285.83 mm
127 R 127 (583.33)

Cant deficiency Cd = 285.83 – 151.2 = 134.63 mm ¿ 100 mm

If cant deficiency is more than 100 take Cd as 100 mm

Actual cant = 285.83 – 100 = 185.83 mm

However, the actual cant is limited to 165 mm and hence this value will be
adopted.
4. Superelevation for goods train with a booked speed of 50 kmph

GV
2
(1750)(50)2
e= = = 59 mm
127 R 127(583.33)

Cant excess = 165 – 59 = 106 mm

(Cant excess is more than limited value of 75 mm)

With 75 mm takes as cant excess, the actual cant to be provided now

= 75 + 59 = 134 mm
 5. Safe speed for high-speed route

V = 0.27 √ ( Ca+ Cd ) R = 0.27 √ ( 134+100 ) 583.33 = 99.75 kph

6. The maximum permissible speed on the curve will be the least of the
following:

Maximum sanctioned speed i.e. 110 kmph

 Safe speed on the curve i.e. 99.75 kmph
Therefore, the maximum permissible speed on the curve is 99.75 kph

Centrifugal Force

When a body moves on a circular curve, it has a tendency to move in a straight

direction tangential to the curve. This tendency of the body is due to the fact that
the body is subjected to a constant radial acceleration.

The radial acceleration produces a force known as a centrifugal force whose

value is given as:

2
wv
F=
gR

Where:
F = the centrifugal force
W = the weight of the body
V = the speed of the body
R = the radius of the curve in m

 Centrifugal force always acts away from the center.

The railway horizontal alignment is composed of a series of tangent and

horizontal curves. Horizontal curves include transition and circular curves.
Transition curves are typically used between the straight alignment (tangent) and
the circular curve.

What is rail alignment?

Alignment of railway line refers to the direction and position given to the
centerline of the railway track on the ground in the horizontal and vertical planes.
Horizontal alignment means the direction of the railway track in the plan including
the straight path and the curves it follows.

Which is preferred for the alignment of railway?

For railroad, preferred alignment is straight. When straight alignment cannot be
continued, a curve is necessary. Curve is introduced between two given straights
tangentially. The two straights are called tangent tracks.
A railway line should always cross a road at 90° angle, i.e., they should be
perpendicular to each other. This is done so that the passing train is clearly
visible to the road passengers, thus avoiding accidents.
How is accuracy of the rail alignment related to the operating speed of the train?

Improper alignment (either in horizontal plane or vertical plane) will reduce the
speed of train and cause discomfort to the passengers.

Why the railway alignments are more critical?

The position of the rails on the ground effectively fixes the path of the vehicle so
the margins can be smaller. Of course, the quality of the track alignment
determines the level of passenger comfort and the safe operating speed of
the line, so accuracy is important.

What are the various factors in controlling the alignment of a railway track?
The alignment of a new railway line depends upon the topography of the country
it traverses. The following few situations may arise. Plane alignment When the
topography is plane and flat, the alignment presents no problems and can pass
through obligatory points and yet have very easy gradients.