These handouts are part of our PSIR Daily Answer Writing Practice through PYQ’s

for 2024

PSIR PAPER 1 SECTION B

FEDERALISM

By Vivek Waghmare
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Federalism

Federalism: Constitutional provisions; changing nature of centre-state relations; integrationist tendencies

and regional aspirations; inter-state disputes.

Previous year Questions

1. Does the actual working of Indian federalism conform to the centralizing tendencies in Indian
polity? Give reasons for your answer. (2023)
2. Discuss the composition and functions of the Inter-State Council. To what extent has this body
been successful in achieving its objectives? (2022)
3. How far is it correct that the regional parties have strengthened Indian democracy and federal
system? Substantiate your answer with suitable examples. (2022)
4. Do you think that there has been a gradual shift in the basis on which the demands for the creation
of new states have been raised in the different regions of India? Explain. (2021)
5. Does the functioning of federalism in India makes it appear as a unitary in practice? (2020)
6. Mechanism for settling interstate disputes. (2020)
7. Comment on: Implementation of GST and NEET is a major challenge to Indian federalism. (2018)
8. Do the Lieutenant Governors have more powers than the Governors of the States? Explain. (2018)
9. Discuss asymmetrical federalism in India. (2018)
10. Comment on: Indian federation has moved from cooperative federation to competitive
federation. (2017)
11. 'Article 368 does not enable Parliament to alter the basic structure or framework of the
Constitution'. (2016)
12. The philosophy and administration of the distribution of powers between Centre and State is
required to be re-assessed. (2016)
13. Critically examine the role of Governor in recent times. (2016)
14. Comment on: 99th Amendment of the Indian Constitution (2015)
15. Comment on: Cooperative Federalism in India. (2015)
16. Critically analyse the discretionary powers granted to the Governor by the Indian Constitution.
(2015)

Introduction
• William H. Riker: "Federalism is a political system that establishes a division of power between
different orders of government, usually a central government and subnational political entities."
• K.C. Wheare defines federalism as "the method of dividing powers so that the general and regional
governments are each, within a sphere, co-ordinate and independent."
• Granville Austin: "Federalism in India is a constitutional arrangement that divides powers between a
central government and a set of state governments. This division is explicit and defines the scope and
limits of their authority."
• D.D. Basu: "Indian federalism is a cooperative and competitive federalism in which the union and the
states have their separate spheres of powers as well as common spheres. It is a dual polity with the
center and the states having distinct areas of jurisdiction."

Features of Federalism
• Division of Powers: Powers divided between central and state governments.
• Constitutional Basis: Governed by a written constitution.
• Autonomy: State governments can make laws in their jurisdiction.
• Supreme Law: Federal constitution is supreme.

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• Independent Judiciary: Resolves disputes and enforces constitution.

• Dual Citizenship: Citizens of both the federation and states. (Indian case is different, India has single
citizenship)
• Interstate Relations: Mechanisms for cooperation.
• Flexibility: Adaptable to regional diversity.
• Cooperative Federalism: Collaboration to address issues.

Nature of the Indian Federal System

• Granville Austin described Indian federalism as "cooperative federalism." He emphasized that India's
federal structure is characterized by a cooperative and interactive relationship between the central
government and state governments, where both levels work together in harmony.
• Durga Das Basu, referred to Indian federalism as a "cooperative federalism with strong unitary
features." He highlighted that Indian federalism maintains a delicate balance between
decentralization and unity.
• Morris Jones, described Indian federalism as "quasi-federal." He pointed out that while India follows
a federal system, the strong powers of the central government in certain areas give it a unitary
character.
• M.P. Jain, considered Indian federalism as a "cooperative and coordinate federalism." He highlighted
the significant role of the Indian judiciary, particularly the Supreme Court, in maintaining the federal
character of the country.
• K.C. Wheare He described India as "quasi-federal" due to the central government's extensive powers
in certain circumstances.
• S. L. Shakdher, emphasized that Indian federalism is characterized by "asymmetry," with different
states enjoying varying degrees of autonomy based on historical, cultural, and regional factors.
• A.C. Kapur, an authority on Indian federalism, pointed out the "strong-center" nature of Indian
federalism, where the central government holds significant powers, especially during emergencies.

Functioning of Indian Federalism

• Balancing Act: India's Seventh Schedule in the Constitution divides powers between the Union and
states.
o For example, matters like defense, foreign affairs, and currency are in the Union List, while
education and public health are in the State List. This division maintains a balance between
centralized and decentralized authority.
• Strong-Center Aspect: During the COVID-19 pandemic, the central government invoked its extensive
powers to impose a nationwide lockdown, demonstrating its authority to act decisively in times of
crisis under Article 356.
• Cooperative Federalism: The introduction of the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in 2017 was a
collaborative effort between the central and state governments, showcasing their joint commitment
to economic reforms and unified taxation.
• Interstate Relations: The formation of the National Water Commission and the National Disaster
Management Authority under Article 263 highlights the importance of intergovernmental
coordination in areas like water resources management and disaster response.
• Single Citizenship: In India, every citizen has a single citizenship of the country, reinforcing a common
national identity irrespective of the state of residence.

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• Special Provisions: Jammu and Kashmir's special status under Article 370 and Article 35A, which
granted it greater autonomy, is an example of asymmetric federalism. However, it was abrogated in
2019.
• Flexible Constitution: Over time, the Indian Constitution has been amended more than 100 times to
address changing federal relations. For instance, the 73rd and 74th Amendments decentralized
powers to local self-governing bodies, enhancing grassroots democracy.
• Judicial Oversight: In the case of the Keshavananda Bharati vs. State of Kerala (1973), the Supreme
Court played a pivotal role by interpreting the Constitution and upholding federal principles. This case
affirmed the basic structure doctrine.
• Residuary Powers: Matters not explicitly mentioned in the lists fall under the residuary powers of the
central government. This ensures that the center retains certain unassigned authorities to maintain
national unity.
• Emergency Provisions: In several instances, President's Rule (Article 356) has been imposed in states
facing governance crises. For example, President's Rule was imposed in the state of Jharkhand in 2013
to address political instability.

Need of re-assessment of distribution of Power between Centre and State

While the distribution of powers outlined in the Indian Constitution has provided a framework for governance
since its adoption, it's essential to periodically reassess and adapt it to the changing needs and challenges of
the current context.
• Changing Dynamics: India's socio-economic landscape, technology, and globalization have evolved
significantly since the Constitution's adoption. The distribution of powers should be updated to align
with current needs.
• Global Engagements: International agreements and trade require a review to ensure effective
implementation while safeguarding states' interests.
• Fiscal and Resource Allocation: Fiscal federalism and resource allocation need reconsideration to
promote sustainable economic growth.
• Health and Environmental Challenges: The response to health and environmental crises requires
coordinated efforts across government levels.
• Local Governance: Empowering local self-governance and decentralization should be a priority,
influencing the distribution of powers.
• Cultural and Regional Diversity: India's diversity requires flexibility in power distribution to cater to
unique state needs.
• Conflict Resolution: A review can help address ongoing disputes and conflicts between the Centre and
states.
1. The philosophy and administration of the distribution of powers between Centre and State is
required to be re-assessed. (UPSC 2016)

Unitary appearance of Indian Federalism

The functioning of federalism in India can sometimes give the appearance of a unitary system in practice due
to various following factors
• Centralization of Powers: The central government takes the lead in diplomatic negotiations and
strategic decisions.
• Single Market and Tax Regime: The GST implementation has centralized tax collection and
administration in India reducing state’s fiscal autonomy.

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• Emergency Powers: Although not currently in effect, the provision for the central government to
assume significant control over the states during a state of emergency (as per Article 356 of the Indian
Constitution) remains a part of India's federal structure.
• Financial Dependence: Many state governments rely on financial transfers, grants, and revenue-
sharing from the central government to meet their expenditure needs.
o The ongoing financial dependence on the central government can be observed in various state
budgets, where a significant portion of their revenue comes from central funds and grants.
• Uniform Laws: The central government continues to push for uniformity and standardization in
various policy areas. For example, the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 aims to bring uniformity
in the education system across states. The central government's role in setting education standards
and guidelines is evident, impacting state-level discretion.
• Interference in State Affairs: Ongoing disagreements between the state government of Delhi and the
central government, led by different political parties, exemplify interference in state affairs. A major
point of contention has been control over the Delhi Police, with both governments asserting their
authority, which highlights the challenges of federal-state relations when political interests diverge.

1. Does the functioning of federalism in India makes it appear as a unitary in practice? (UPSC 2020)

Issues pertaining to Indian Federalism

• Asymmetry in States' Powers: Asymmetrical federalism in India refers to a federal system in which
different states have varying degrees of autonomy and powers, as opposed to a symmetrical federal
system where all states have equal powers and responsibilities. India's federal structure allows for
such asymmetry, which acknowledges the diverse nature of the country and the unique needs of its
states.
o Special Provisions for Certain States that grant them additional powers and autonomy. These
states are often referred to as "special category states" or "special status states." Jammu and
Kashmir, which had Article 370 providing it with significant autonomy, is a prime example.
However, Article 370 was effectively revoked in 2019.
§ Similarly, states in India's northeastern region have special provisions due to their
distinct geographical and cultural characteristics.
o Resource Allocation: Some states, such as those in the northeastern region and hilly states
like Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, receive special financial assistance and grants to
promote economic development. This asymmetry is designed to address regional disparities
in resource distribution.
o Language and Culture: Some states have a distinct language and cultural identity, and
provisions for the promotion and preservation of these identities are incorporated into the
federal structure.
o Critiques and Challenges: Critics argue that it can lead to unequal development, promote
regionalism, and create complexities in governance and administration.
o Asymmetrical federalism in India recognizes the country's diversity and the varying needs of
its states. It seeks to balance the principles of unity and diversity, allowing for tailored
governance solutions while maintaining the overall integrity of the Indian Union. However, it
also raises questions about the practical implementation and potential disparities that can
emerge from such arrangements.
1. Discuss asymmetrical federalism in India. (UPSC 2018)

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• Financial Imbalance: Financial resources and fiscal autonomy have been a contentious issue. States
often depend on fiscal transfers from the central government, and the distribution of funds can lead
to disputes and demands for more financial autonomy.
o Revenue Distribution:
§ Centralized Revenue Collection: India's central government primarily collects tax
revenue, with over 80% of total tax income.
§ Distributable Pool: The Finance Commission, under Article 280 of the Indian
Constitution, decides how to distribute central taxes among states, though this is
sometimes criticized for not fully meeting states' fiscal needs.
o Grants-in-Aid:
§ Conditional Grants: The central government often grants funds to states with specific
conditions, restricting states' flexibility in spending.
§ Discretionary Grants: These grants can lead to uneven resource distribution, favoring
politically influential states.
o Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management Act (FRBMA):
§ Debt Constraints: The FRBMA (Article 292) limits state borrowing, ensuring fiscal
responsibility but also constraining their ability to invest in development.
o Vertical Fiscal Imbalance:
§ Mismatch Between Revenue and Spending: India faces vertical fiscal imbalance.
While the central government collects much of the revenue, states are responsible
for significant expenditures, particularly in areas like education and health.
o Disparities Among States:
§ Economic Disparities among states affect their revenue generation capacity.
§ Special Category States to some states can cause tensions with non-special category
states.
o GST and Compensation Cess:
§ Disagreements in the GST Council can affect revenue sharing.
§ Delayed Compensation Cess
o Resource Mobilization:
§ States often face difficulties in resource mobilization, with economically weaker
regions struggling to generate sufficient revenue.
o Recommendations of Finance Commissions:
§ Role of Finance Commissions: Finance Commissions (Article 280) to make
recommendations on the distribution of resources, but disagreements over these
recommendations can significantly impact financial relations.
• Inter-State Water Disputes: Inter-state water disputes in India are a critical challenge due to the
country's federal structure and the varying geographical and climatic conditions that influence water
availability. These disputes often arise from competing demands for water resources among states for
agricultural, industrial, and domestic use. The tension is exacerbated by growing populations,
urbanization, and environmental changes.
o Key Points of Contention in Inter-State Water Disputes:
§ Allocation and Usage: Disagreements often arise over how water from shared rivers
should be allocated and used by different states. Each state typically seeks to
maximize its own share, often leading to disputes.

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§ Historical Agreements: Many disputes stem from historical agreements that are now
considered outdated by some parties due to changes in water flow, population, and
development needs.
§ Equitable Distribution: Determining what constitutes an equitable distribution of
water resources is often at the heart of these conflicts. The definition of "equitable"
varies among the states based on their specific needs and perspectives.
§ Legal and Institutional Framework: The Inter-State Water Disputes Act, 1956, is
meant to provide a legal framework for resolving such disputes, but the process is
often protracted and the outcomes are sometimes not satisfactory to all parties.
§ Impact of Climate Change: Changing rainfall patterns and the increasing frequency of
extreme weather events due to climate change have intensified these disputes,
making historical data less reliable for forecasting and planning.
o Political Implications:
§ Regional Politics: Political parties often leverage water disputes to gain regional
support, portraying themselves as defenders of their state’s rights and resources.
§ Federal vs State Interests: There is a continual negotiation between preserving the
federal structure (which empowers states) and the need for centralized management
of interstate rivers for the common good.
o Recent Examples of Disputes:
§ Cauvery Dispute: Between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, often flaring up during periods
of drought when the water levels in the reservoirs fall short of meeting the demands.
§ Sutlej-Yamuna Link Canal (SYL) Dispute: A prolonged contention between Punjab and
Haryana over the sharing of waters.
§ Krishna Water Disputes: Involving Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, and
Maharashtra, where the formation of Telangana has renewed the conflict dynamics.
o Scholars perspective and solutions
§ Ramaseshan Ramachandran calls for updating the Inter-State Water Disputes Act to
reflect modern water management needs and future challenges.
§ Subash P. Kunji Kutty views inter-state water disputes as a political tool for regional
parties to assert power and negotiate federal autonomy.
§ K.J. Joy and Suhas Paranjape recommend an ecosystem-based approach to water
management, rather than fragmented strategies.
§ Nilanjan Ghosh highlights the need for water-sharing agreements to factor in
changing precipitation patterns due to climate change.
§ Philippe Cullet advocates for water law reforms that prioritize human needs and
ecological sustainability, upholding the right to water.
§ Dr. Srinivas Chokkakula suggests establishing a permanent, adaptable water-sharing
framework that promotes interstate dialogue and cooperation.
§ Dr. Mihir Shah argues for involving communities in water policy development to
achieve sustainable and widely accepted outcomes.
o Mechanism of water dispute resolution: Resolving water disputes in India involves a complex
legal and institutional framework designed to address conflicts arising between states over
the sharing and management of interstate river waters.
o Constitutional Provisions: Article 262 empowers the Parliament to adjudicate
disputes relating to waters of interstate rivers or river valleys. It also states that

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Parliament may, by law, exclude the jurisdiction of all courts, including the Supreme
Court, over any disputes or complaints with respect to the use, distribution, or
control of these waters.
o Legislative Framework
§ Interstate Water Disputes Act (IWDA), 1956: This act was enacted based on
the powers conferred by Article 262. It provides a detailed process for the
resolution of water disputes and outlines the establishment of Water
Disputes Tribunals.
§ Amendments to IWDA:
• The Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2019,
proposes a single, permanent tribunal known as the Inter-State River
Water Disputes Tribunal (ISRWD Tribunal), replacing the multiple ad
hoc tribunals.
• The introduction of a mechanism for resolving disputes within a
maximum of four-and-a-half years.
• The establishment of a Dispute Resolution Committee (DRC) to
resolve the dispute amicably before it reaches the tribunal.
§ The River Boards Act, 1956: This act allows the central government to
establish boards for interstate rivers and river valleys in consultation with
state governments. These boards aim to advise on the development and
regulation of the rivers and river valleys.
o Institutional Mechanisms
§ Water Dispute Tribunals: These are the tribunals established under the
IWDA, which are intended to resolve the disputes in a fair and expeditious
manner. Each tribunal has the same powers as a civil court and is supposed
to deliver its decision within a specified period, although, in practice,
tribunals have often been criticized for excessive delays.

o Proposed Reforms
§ Interstate Council (Article 263): This constitutional body aims to create
coordination between the central and state governments. While not a
dispute resolution body per se, it can serve as a forum for dialogue on
interstate issues, including water disputes.
§ Zonal Councils: Created by the States Reorganisation Act, 1956, Zonal
Councils are advisory bodies that are intended to foster cooperation among
states within a zone. They can discuss and recommend ways to address
interstate water disputes informally.
o Critiques of Existing Mechanisms
§ Delays in Adjudication: Scholars have pointed out that the tribunals
established under the Interstate Water Disputes Act (IWDA) tend to take a
long time to resolve disputes.
§ Lack of Permanent Tribunal: Prior to the amendments proposed in 2019, the
lack of a permanent tribunal meant that each new dispute required the
formation of a new tribunal, leading to a lack of continuity and expertise.

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§ Data Inconsistency and Secrecy: There is often a lack of reliable data, which
leads to disputes in the first place.
§ Political Influence: Political factors often influence the water disputes
resolution process. As stated by scholars like Subodh Varma, water disputes
are not just about water, but also about electoral politics and inter-state
power dynamics, which complicate the resolution process.
o Recommendations for Improvement
§ Integrated water management with participatory river basin organizations
(Janakarajan).
§ Stronger, clearer mandates for water dispute institutions with enforcement
power.
§ Inclusion of environmental and social justice in resolutions (Cullet).
§ Expert panels in hydrology and environmental science alongside legal
expertise..
o Theoretical Perspectives
§ Bargaining Theory: Political scientists like Paul R. Brass have used bargaining
theories to explain how water disputes are often resolved through political
negotiations rather than legal adjudications, suggesting that the tribunal’s
decisions are sometimes only a part of the solution.
§ Federalism and Decentralization: Political theorists, like Elinor Ostrom, have
argued for more decentralized governance of resources, suggesting that local
stakeholder involvement can lead to more sustainable and less conflict-prone
management of shared resources.
o Conclusion: Water dispute resolution in India struggles with political intricacies and
delays. Success hinges on state cooperation, efficient tribunals, and a commitment
to sustainable, equitable water management.

1. Comment on Mechanism for settling interstate disputes. (2020)

• Goods and Services Tax (GST): While the GST was introduced to streamline and simplify the tax
system, it has raised concerns among states about their revenue-sharing arrangements. The
implementation and administration of GST have been a complex issue.
o GST Implementation:
§ Uniform Tax Regime: While it aimed to create a unified and simplified tax system, it
did challenge federalism by significantly reducing the fiscal autonomy of state
governments.
§ Revenue sharing mechanism can sometimes lead to disputes over the distribution of
funds, as states have varying levels of economic activity.
§ Dual Control: The division of administrative powers between the central and state tax
authorities can create complexities and potential conflicts.
o NEET Implementation:
§ Centralization of Education: NEET is a centralized entrance exam for medical and
dental courses, introduced to ensure a uniform standard of education and reduce
corruption and malpractice in admissions. However, some states argue that it
infringes on their education autonomy.

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§ Language and Curriculum: Different states in India have diverse languages and
education boards. The imposition of a common entrance test with a uniform syllabus
can be seen as undermining regional linguistic and cultural diversity.
§ Disparities in Education: States with varying levels of educational infrastructure and
resources may feel disadvantaged in a standardized national test. They may argue
that NEET does not account for these disparities.
o In both cases, there are valid concerns about the potential erosion of states' powers and the
centralization of control, which can be seen as challenging the principles of federalism in India.
These challenges underscore the importance of cooperative federalism and effective
coordination between the central and state governments to address these issues.

1. Comment on Implementation of GST and NEET is a major challenge to Indian federalism. (UPSC
2018)
• Bargaining Federalism: The rise of regional parties and coalition governments at the state level has
shifted power dynamics. States have become more assertive, leading to bargaining-based federalism
where states negotiate with the central government for resources and powers. (Bargaining
Federalism is explained below in further detail)
• Governor's Role: The role of state governors, who are appointed by the central government, can
sometimes lead to conflicts when they are perceived as representing the interests of the central
government rather than the state.
o Constitutional Head (Article 153): The Governor is the ceremonial head of the state
government and performs constitutional duties like summoning the state legislature and
giving assent to bills.
o Discretionary Powers: Governors hold discretionary powers, such as appointing the Chief
Minister, which must be exercised impartially and in the state's interest (S.R. Bommai vs.
Union of India).
§ Appointment of Chief Minister (Article 164): The Governor's discretion in appointing
the Chief Minister can be valuable in situations where there's no clear majority or
during hung assemblies.
• Discretion can be misused for political purposes, leading to allegations of
favoritism or bias. For example, in the past, Governors have invited a party
with fewer seats but perceived as ideologically closer.
§ Dissolution of the State Legislature (Article 174): The Governor can dissolve the state
legislature if the government loses a vote of confidence, allowing for fresh elections.
• There have been instances where Governors prematurely dissolved
legislatures without proper reasons, inviting criticism and legal challenges.
§ Recommendations for President's Rule (Article 356): Overzealous recommendations
or politically motivated ones can lead to misuse, as seen in the case of Arunachal
Pradesh, which was subsequently quashed by the courts.
§ Calling Assembly Sessions (Article 174): The Governor can summon, prorogue, or
dissolve the state legislature, ensuring its smooth functioning.
§ Misuse can disrupt the legislative process, as exemplified by the Karnataka crisis in
2019 when the Governor's decisions faced criticism.
§ Discretion in Sending Reports to the President (Article 167): These reports can be
subjective, potentially reflecting the Governor's political bias.

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§ Allocation of Funds: Governors are involved in the allocation of state funds.

• Allegations of biased allocation, influenced by political considerations, can
undermine the principles of equitable resource distribution.
o Areas of Dispute:
§ Appointment of Chief Minister: The Governor appoints the Chief Minister, which can
lead to disputes if political bias is suspected (Arunachal Pradesh and Karnataka
examples).
§ Dismissal of State Governments: Dismissing state governments is contentious, as
seen in the dismissal of the Farooq Abdullah government in Jammu and Kashmir in
1984.
§ Recommendations for President's Rule (Article 356): Governors recommending
President's Rule can be disputed, like in the case of Uttarakhand in 2016.
• Misuse of Article 356: Article 356 of the Indian Constitution has been a
subject of controversy due to its frequent misuse for political purposes.
Misuse leads to
o Political Exploitation: Historically, Article 356 has been used by the
central government to dismiss state governments led by political
opponents. For instance, in 1980, the Central government dismissed
the opposition-led state government in Telugu-speaking Andhra
Pradesh.
o Abrupt dismissals of elected state governments. Ex. Bihar (2005)
o Overreach by the central government into state matters. This
weakens the federal structure of the Indian Constitution,
concentrating power in the central government. (Uttarakhand in
2016)
o Misuse erodes states' autonomy to make decisions in their best
interest. (President's Rule in Arunachal Pradesh 2016)
o Creates a trust deficit between states and the center. (Karnataka in
2019)
o Often leads to legal challenges and political protests. In 2002, the
state government of Uttar Pradesh was dismissed, resulting in legal
disputes and political unrest
§ Relationship with the State Government: The Governor's interaction with the central
government can be perceived as interference, such as in the Delhi government's case
regarding the appointment of bureaucrats.
§ Allocation of Funds: Disputes can arise if fund allocation is seen as biased, like the
controversy over funds for West Bengal.
• Lieutenant Governor and Governor: In the Indian political system, the roles of Governors and
Lieutenant Governors (LGs) are constitutionally similar but differ significantly in practice, particularly
in Union Territories (UTs) with legislative assemblies.
o Governors of States:
§ Constitutional Head: As per Article 153, Governors are the constitutional head of the
states, appointed by the President of India.
§ Executive Powers: Under Article 164, Governors have the authority to appoint the
Chief Minister and, on the Chief Minister's advice, the Council of Ministers.

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§ Legislative Powers: Article 174 empowers Governors to summon, prorogue, and

dissolve the state legislative assembly and to reserve certain bills for the President's
consideration.
§ Discretionary Powers: Article 163 grants Governors few discretionary powers,
primarily to be exercised during a hung assembly or when specific constitutional
situations arise.
§ Special Powers: Governors generally do not have special powers outside of their
discretionary remit.
o Lieutenant Governors of Union Territories:
o Constitutional Head: Article 239 designates LGs as the head of UTs, appointed by the
President of India.
o Executive Powers: In UTs like Delhi, under Article 239AA, LGs have significant
executive powers over subjects like public order, police, and land.
o Legislative Powers: Article 239B allows LGs to promulgate ordinances under certain
conditions and to reserve bills passed by the legislative assembly for the President's
assent.
o Discretionary Powers: LGs in UTs with assemblies have substantial discretionary
powers, which can sometimes lead to a contentious relationship with the elected
government.
o Special Powers: LGs can act in a discretionary capacity, often giving them a greater
say in administrative matters compared to Governors.
• Scholars like Subhash C. Kashyap and M.P. Singh have pointed out the nuances in the roles
of Governors and LGs. They note that while both serve at the President's pleasure, the scope
of their powers can lead to different levels of influence over the regions they administer.
Justice A.P. Shah and Dr. Rajeev Dhavan have called attention to the democratic implications
of the discretionary powers of LGs, particularly in areas where they have clashed with the
elected governments of UTs.
• Examples: The governance of Delhi has often been an example of this complex power
dynamic. The appointment of Anil Baijal as the LG of Delhi saw multiple instances where his
discretionary powers came into conflict with the elected government. In Puducherry, similar
conflicts arose during Kiran Bedi's tenure as LG, showcasing the special powers LGs hold in
UTs with legislatures.
1. Do the Lieutenant Governors have more powers than the Governors of the States? Explain. (2018)

• Conflict over Concurrent List: The Concurrent List, which contains subjects over which both the central
and state governments can legislate, has been a source of conflict. Clashes over jurisdiction can create
confusion and disputes.
• National Security vs. State Autonomy: Balancing national security concerns with states' autonomy is
another challenge. Issues like terrorism and internal security sometimes require central intervention,
but states may resist encroachments on their powers.
• Recentralization Trends: Some experts have raised concerns about recent trends towards
centralization of power, particularly in the context of a strong ruling party at the center. Critics argue
that this may undermine the principles of federalism.

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• Resource Management: States with rich natural resources often face challenges related to resource
management and environmental concerns. Balancing economic development with sustainable
practices can be contentious.
• Socio-economic Disparities: Indian federalism needs to address socio-economic disparities between
states. Some states are more developed while others are lagging, requiring a more equitable approach
to development.

Impact of Globalisation on Indian federalism

• Economic Impacts: Scholars like Isher Judge Ahluwalia noted globalization has allowed states to
attract foreign investment directly. This economic decentralization has fostered competition among
states to offer favorable conditions for investment, leading to uneven development in some cases.
o For instance, states like Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu have become economic powerhouses
by capitalizing on globalization, while others lag behind.
• Political Impacts: Authors like Balveer Arora have noted that the increased international interactions
have allowed states to have a more direct role in foreign policy, a domain traditionally reserved for
the central government.
o States with coastal lines like Gujarat have developed sister-city relationships and international
trade agreements that bolster their global standing.
• Social and Cultural Impacts: Sociologists like Nirmal Kumar Chandra point out that the flow of global
cultures has sometimes strengthened regional identities, leading to greater assertion of local cultures
and languages.
o This can be seen in the increased popularity and global reach of regional cinema, such as
movies from the Tamil and Telugu industries, which amplify regional narratives.
• Technological Impacts: Technological advancements, a byproduct of globalization, have empowered
states with better governance tools. The Aadhar system and digital governance initiatives are prime
examples where technology facilitated by globalization is reshaping the federal structure by enabling
states to implement and tailor national schemes more effectively.
• Intergovernmental Relations: Political scientists like Nirvikar Singh argue that the increased economic
interdependence among states and with the external world has required more collaborative federal
interactions, sometimes leading to new tensions over resources and revenues.
• Environmental Considerations: Finally, as environmental issues become global, states now must align
with international environmental norms and policies, which has implications for federalism. This is
evident in the policies surrounding renewable energy adoption and climate change mitigation
strategies. States like Karnataka and Rajasthan have become front-runners in solar and wind energy,
aligning local policies with global environmental commitments.

How the role of centre strengthened with globalisation?

• Centralized Economic Reforms: Economist Jagdish Bhagwati notes that the economic liberalization
policies starting in 1991, which led to opening of the economy required strong central oversight to
negotiate trade agreements, streamline national policies for foreign investment, and comply with
international economic standards.
• Regulatory Role: The central government, as pointed out by Arvind Panagariya, has had to take on an
increased regulatory role to ensure that the states adhere to the norms that facilitate global trade and
investment, such as intellectual property rights, environmental regulations, and labor standards.

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• Foreign Policy and Defense: Globalization has expanded the scope of foreign policy and defense,
traditionally centralized domains. As C. Raja Mohan suggests, the central government has had to
navigate complex international relations, engage in defense partnerships, and develop strategic
alliances, all of which have reinforced its position.
• National Security and Cybersecurity: With globalization, the threat landscape has evolved,
encompassing cyber threats and terrorism. Strategic experts like K. Subrahmanyam have stressed the
importance of a strong central response to these threats, necessitating robust national security
policies and cybersecurity measures.
• GST and Fiscal Policy: The introduction of the Goods and Services Tax (GST), as analyzed by M.
Govinda Rao, showcases how the central government orchestrated a major fiscal reform to create a
unified market, which is a key component of integrating with the global economy.
• Technology and Infrastructure: Globalization requires up-to-date technology and infrastructure for
competitiveness. Here, scholars like Nandan Nilekani have highlighted the central government's role
in implementing national-level technology infrastructure projects like the Digital India initiative.
• Central Negotiations in International Forums: Experts like Mattoo and Jacob have noted the central
government's role in climate negotiations, representing India's interests in international forums like
the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and World Trade
Organization (WTO).

Party system and federalism

• One-Party Dominance (Congress System) Era: Political scientists such as Rajni Kothari conceptualized
the term "Congress System" to describe the one-party dominance of the Indian National Congress
post-independence. This centralization under Congress leadership led to a version of cooperative
federalism that scholars like Granville Austin have described as centralized federalism, where states
operated under the shadow of a strong center.
• Emergence of Regional Parties: Paul Wallace and others have examined how regional parties have
redefined Indian federalism by asserting state rights and cultural identities, leading to a form of
competitive federalism. Subrata K. Mitra has looked at how regional politics influences bargaining
power and resource allocation between the center and states, emphasizing a need for balance
between unity and diversity.
• Coalition Politics: According to political analyst James Manor, the era of coalitions has introduced a
new dimension of federal bargaining power. Scholars like Yogendra Yadav and Suhas Palshikar have
pointed out that coalitions have increased the leverage of regional parties, making federalism more
pluralistic and bargaining-based.
• Centrally Sponsored Schemes: Louise Tillin has researched how centrally sponsored schemes can
become a site of negotiation and even conflict between the center and states, depending on which
party is in power at different levels, reflecting the underlying tension in India’s federal structure.
• Fiscal Federalism: M. Govinda Rao and Nirvikar Singh have explored the fiscal dynamics within Indian
federalism, noting that the alignment of political parties between the state and the center can
influence fiscal flows and development projects, leading to claims of partisan bias in the distribution
of financial resources.
• Constitutional Bodies and Party Politics: Balveer Arora has analyzed the role of constitutional bodies
like the Finance Commission in mediating center-state relations, suggesting that the politicization of
these bodies can undermine their role in maintaining a balanced federal structure.

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Co-operative and Competitive federalism

Co-operative federalism in India

• Constitutional Basis: Article 1 defines India as a Union of States, and Article 263 establishes the
Interstate Council, emphasizing the need for cooperation among states and the central government.
• Interstate Council (Article 263): Providing a platform for dialogue and coordination among states and
the central government, resolving disputes, and fostering cooperation.
• Financial Relations: Article 280 establishes the Finance Commission, and Article 282 enables grants-
in-aid, promoting financial cooperation to address fiscal disparities and foster development.
• Joint Programs and Schemes: Both levels jointly implement various programs and schemes in line
with the principles of cooperative federalism to achieve national development goals while addressing
state-specific needs.
• Empowerment of Local Governments (Articles 243 to 243ZG): The Constitution empowers local
governments, including panchayats and municipalities, reflecting cooperative decision-making at the
grassroots level.
• Role of GST (One Hundred and First Amendment Act, 2016): The Goods and Services Tax (GST)
harmonizes indirect taxation and involves both central and state governments in its implementation,
fostering cooperative federalism in the realm of taxation.

How co-operative federalism changes into bargaining federalism

Cooperative federalism can evolve into bargaining federalism under certain circumstances. This transition is
marked by a shift from collaborative decision-making and shared responsibilities to a situation where state
governments, often through regional or political factors, seek to negotiate and assert their interests with the
central government.
• Emergence of Regional Parties: Paul Brass notes that the regional parties often leverage their position
to engage in bargaining with the central government, particularly when they hold the balance of
power in the upper house of the Parliament, which represents the states.
• Resource Allocation Disputes: Economist M. Govinda Rao highlights that states often feel
shortchanged by the formulas used by the Finance Commission and thus engage in bargaining with
the central government for a larger share of the pie.
• Interstate Conflicts: Political geographer Sanjay Chaturvedi has addressed interstate conflicts,
particularly over resources like water, as a fundamental issue in federal bargaining. The need for inter-
state river water sharing agreements, for example, requires a significant amount of negotiation and
compromise.
• Shifts in Political Power: Christophe Jaffrelot have noted that states run by opposition parties often
have to negotiate harder to get favorable treatment from the central government, which can lead to
a bargaining scenario.
• Competing Policy Agendas: Scholar Rob Jenkins has explored how India's federal system allows for
diverse policy agendas to coexist, which sometimes leads to competition and the need for negotiation
between the central and state governments to reconcile these different agendas.
• Economic and Developmental Asymmetry: Developmental economist Jean Drèze argues that the less
developed states often have to engage in bargaining with the central government for special
assistance or concessions, which is an intrinsic part of federal negotiations.

Bargaining federalism represents a dynamic and evolving phase in federal-state relations, where state
governments actively negotiate and assert their interests to secure favorable outcomes for their regions. It is

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a response to changing political, economic, and social dynamics that impact the cooperative nature of
federalism.
1. Comment on Cooperative Federalism in India. (UPSC 2015)

Competitive federalism
Competitive federalism is a model of federal governance where central and state governments, as well as the
states themselves, engage in competition to attract investment, implement reforms, and improve
administration and governance.

Features of competitive federalism include:

• States compete to provide a more favorable business environment.
• Incentives for states that perform well on various development indices.
• Increased autonomy for states in planning their expenditure.

Examples in India:
• States hosting investment summits like 'Vibrant Gujarat'.
• Rankings on Ease of Doing Business to incentivize reforms.
• Implementation of policies like 'One Nation, One Ration card'.

Criticism:
• Potential to exacerbate regional inequalities.
• Social and environmental concerns, such as tribal displacement or pollution.
• Allegations of bias in central rankings and the need for cooperative decision-making mechanisms.

The transition from a cooperative federation to a competitive

The transition from a cooperative federation to a competitive one in India reflects changes in the dynamics of
center-state relations over time. In a cooperative federation, the central and state governments tend to
collaborate and work collectively towards common goals, often leading to a uniform approach to governance
and development across the country. This model emphasizes the sharing of resources, responsibilities, and
powers in a manner that is not competitive but rather mutually beneficial and supportive.
In India, the initial decades following independence in 1947 witnessed a strong emphasis on cooperative
federalism. This was partly due to the dominance of a single political party, the Indian National Congress, at
both the national and state levels, which facilitated a more centralized approach to governance and policy
implementation.
• Political Diversity and Federal Dynamics: The emergence of regional parties has led to a decentralized
expression of power, challenging the centralized governance model. This change has prompted states
to compete by crafting unique policies, as observed by Ashutosh Varshney.
• Economic Liberalization and Competition: Bibek Debroy highlights how liberalization has turned
states into active players in economic development, competing to attract investments through
initiatives like the Vibrant Gujarat summit.
• Fiscal Decentralization and Resource Competition: M. Govinda Rao notes that increased fiscal
autonomy for states, as recommended by Finance Commissions, has led to internal competition for
revenue maximization.
• Governance and Policy Innovation: Pratap Bhanu Mehta points to states becoming incubators for
policy innovation, with successful programs being emulated by others, driving a form of competitive
governance.

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• Political One-upmanship and Welfare Schemes: Welfare programs have become a competitive arena,
with schemes like Odisha’s KALIA serving as a tool for electoral success and influencing welfare politics
regionally.
• Inter-State Councils and Regional Dynamics: The role of regional councils in fostering competition for
central funds and attention is significant, with concerns about regional disparities as analyzed by
Amitabh Kundu.
• Challenges and the Path Forward: Figures like Amartya Sen and Ashis Nandy caution against the risks
of competitive federalism, such as increased inequalities, and advocate for a balance between
competition and cooperation to ensure inclusive development.

The Inter-State Council

The Inter-State Council is a constitutional body in India, established under Article 263 of the Constitution. It
was set up by a Presidential Order in 1990 on the recommendation of the Sarkaria Commission, which
examined the relationship and balance of power between state and central governments.

Composition of the Inter-State Council:

• The Prime Minister is the Chairman of the council.
• Chief Ministers of all States and Union territories with legislative assemblies are members.
• Administrators of Union Territories without legislatures are also members.
• Six Ministers of Cabinet rank in the Union Council of Ministers to be nominated by the Prime Minister
are members.
• The Inter-State Council is not a permanent body and can be established 'at any time' deemed
necessary by the President.

Functions of the Inter-State Council:

• Inquiry and Advice: It can inquire into and advise upon disputes which may have arisen between
states.
• Investigations and Recommendations: It may investigate and discuss subjects in which some or all of
the states, or the Union and one or more of the states, have a common interest.
• Recommendations for Better Coordination: It can make recommendations upon any such subject and
particularly for better coordination of policy and action on these issues.
• Considerations of Interests: It also deliberates on matters of general interest to the states, including
recommendations for better fiscal relations between the center and the states.

Assessment of the role of ISC

Successes:
• Dialogues on Federal Issues: The ISC has provided a platform for extensive dialogues between
different state governments and the center. For instance, the 11th ISC, held in July 2016, focused on
the Punchhi Commission's recommendations, discussing changes in the current role of the Governor,
Emergency provisions, and financial relations between the center and states.
• Fiscal Coordination: It has facilitated discussions on the devolution of finances. There have been
dialogues about increasing states’ share in central taxes, which was a key component of the 14th
Finance Commission's recommendations, leading to an increase from 32% to 42%.
• Inter-State Dispute Resolution: While the ISC has not frequently been used for dispute resolution, it
has the potential to address conflicts, such as those over river water sharing, although most have been
resolved through tribunals or Supreme Court interventions.

Challenges:

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• Infrequent Meetings: The ISC is not a regularly convening body. It has met irregularly since its
establishment in 1990. Up until 2016, there were only 11 meetings of the ISC. This infrequency
undermines its ability to address and resolve ongoing issues promptly.
• Non-binding Recommendations: The ISC’s recommendations are advisory and not binding on the
center or states. For example, despite its discussions on central-state relations, many of its suggestions
from the Sarkaria Commission and Punchhi Commission have been either partially adopted or ignored.
• Implementation Issues: Implementation of ISC recommendations remains sporadic. There is a lack of
a formal mechanism to ensure follow-up on the decisions taken during the meetings. This leads to
situations where even agreed-upon measures are not effectively pursued.

Effectiveness and Arbitration:

The ISC's role as an arbitrator has been limited. The Council has potential as a forum to build consensus on
contentious issues between states, and while it has been used to address some conflicts, it hasn’t been the
central mechanism for interstate dispute resolution. The effectiveness of the ISC is often seen as reflective of
the political will of the incumbent central government and its willingness to engage with the states on equal
terms.

While the ISC has the structural potential to enhance cooperative federalism in India and has had successes in
initiating critical dialogues, its full potential is yet to be realized due to irregular meetings and the non-binding
nature of its recommendations. The ISC’s role in achieving the objectives laid out for it by the Constitution
remains an area for potential improvement through greater institutionalization and regular convening.

1. Discuss the composition and functions of the Inter-State Council. To what extent has this body
been successful in achieving its objectives? (2022)

Role of states in Indian federal structure

Constitutional Provisions for State Formation:

India's state formation is primarily guided by its Constitution. The Constitution of India provides a
comprehensive framework for the formation and reorganization of states.
• Article 1: This article declares India to be a Union of States, indicating a federal structure. It defines
the territory of India, which includes the states, union territories, and any acquired territories.
• Article 2 and 3: These articles grant the Parliament the power to admit new states, create new states
or alter state boundaries. It also allows for the formation of new states by separating territory from
any existing state.
• Article 4 - Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First Schedule

State formation and its impact on Indian federal structure

• Language-Based Reorganization: Neera Chandhoke "The linguistic reorganization of states in India
was a historic response to the imperative of accommodating linguistic diversity within the federal
structure. It reinforced the principle of unity in diversity by allowing people to be governed in their
mother tongue."
• Promotion of Regional Identities: Paul Brass "State reorganization in India has played a crucial role in
the promotion of regional identities. The interaction between regionalism and the federal structure
has given rise to complex dynamics, shaping the political landscape in diverse ways."
• Balancing Regional Aspirations: Suhas Palshikar "State formation in India is deeply intertwined with
the aspirations of regions for greater autonomy and self-governance. Understanding these regional
aspirations is essential in comprehending the functioning of Indian federalism."

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• Resource Allocation: M. Govinda Rao "Resource allocation and financial transfers are central aspects
of fiscal federalism in India. The impact of state formation on these mechanisms influences the fiscal
dynamics of the federal structure, a topic of significant discussion and debate."
• Political Dynamics: Zoya Hasan "Regional parties are key actors in Indian federalism, influencing state
politics and engaging with the central government."
• Impact on Representation: Suhas Palshikar and C. B. Macpherson "Changes in state boundaries can
have repercussions on representation within India's Parliament. The balance of power, decision-
making, and political dynamics is shaped by these shifts, with implications for federal governance."
• Challenges and Opportunities: Niraja Gopal Jayal "The administrative and governance aspects of
state formation present both challenges and opportunities within Indian federalism."

Creation of smaller states

Arguments in favor of Smaller States:
• Administrative Efficiency: Louis Tillin "Smaller states facilitate efficient governance." Example:
Creation of Telangana for better administration.
• Enhanced Regional Development: Christophe Jaffrelot "Smaller states enable region-specific
development." Example: Uttarakhand's development focus on the Himalayan region.
• Effective Representation: Suhas Palshikar "Smaller states offer improved local representation."
Example: Haryana's state government addressing local issues.
• Cultural and Linguistic Homogeneity: Neera Chandhoke "Smaller states preserve local cultures."
Example: Manipur's emphasis on cultural preservation.
• Reduced Bureaucratic Complexity: Raghav Gaiha "Smaller states promote ease of business."
Example: Goa's streamlined bureaucracy attracting investments.

Against Smaller States:

• Administrative Overheads: Paul Brass "Smaller states may entail higher administrative costs."
Example: Sikkim's administrative expenses per capita.
• Fragmentation of Resources: Niraja Gopal Jayal "Limited resources can hinder economic
sustainability." Example: Arunachal Pradesh's challenges in resource allocation.
• Potential for Ethnic Tensions: Zoya Hasan "Ethnic focus may lead to identity-based conflicts."
Example: Assam's ethnic tensions affecting stability.
• Political Division: C. B. Macpherson "Proliferation can complicate national coordination." Example:
Jharkhand's impact on political landscape.
• Economic Viability: M. Govinda Rao "Limited resources may affect global competitiveness." Example:
Meghalaya's economic challenges due to scale.

Regionalism in India
"Regionalism in India, as articulated by scholar Paul Brass, is the deep-seated attachment and allegiance of
people to specific geographic regions within the nation. It stems from the country's linguistic, cultural, and
geographical diversity and is expressed through politics, culture, language, and economic disparities. This
dynamic significantly influences the relationship between the central government and the regions within
India's federal system."
• Linguistic and Cultural Diversity: India's diverse languages and cultures highlight regional identities.
The 1956 state reorganization aimed to address linguistic regionalism. Example: Tamil Nadu, known
for its unique Tamil language and culture.

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o Lloyd I. Rudolph and Susanne Hoeber Rudolph: "Linguistic reorganization has been
instrumental in addressing regional aspirations."
• Political Regionalism: Regional parties influence Indian politics. They focus on regional issues and
often form national coalitions, impacting governance. Example: Shiv Sena (Maharashtra) advocating
for Marathi regional interests.
o Rajni Kothari: "Regional parties are essential for accommodating the diverse interests and
identities within the country."
o Subrata K. Mitra: "Regional parties influence national politics and coalition governments."
• Economic Regionalism: Economic disparities between regions can lead to demands for autonomy and
resources, sparking discussions on special status and financial assistance. Example: Bihar, a state with
economic diversity and developmental challenges.
o Ashutosh Varshney: "Economic disparities link closely to regional tensions, and violence can
play a role in shaping regional identities."
o Dipankar Gupta: "Regionalism often emerges from economic backwardness and a sense of
deprivation in certain regions."
• Interstate Water Disputes: Water-sharing disputes, like the Cauvery and Krishna rivers, can lead to
tensions and legal battles among states. Example: The Cauvery River dispute between Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.
• Cultural and Artistic Expressions: Each Indian region boasts unique cultural expressions, fostering
pride and identity. Example: Rajasthan's rich folk art, music, and traditional dance forms.
o Suhas Palshikar: "Regionalism encompasses social and cultural aspects, with languages,
identities, and cultural expressions playing integral roles."
• Regional Media: Local newspapers, TV channels, and radio stations cater to specific linguistic and
cultural groups, shaping regional identities and addressing local issues. Example: Bengali newspapers
in West Bengal.
• Administrative and Political Decentralization: India's federal system grants states autonomy in
governance, promoting decentralized decision-making. Example: The Panchayati Raj System
empowering local self-governance.
o Myron Weiner: "Federalism, with its division of powers between the center and states, can
both accommodate regional aspirations and create tensions."
• Development and Infrastructure: Regional disparities in infrastructure and development can create
feelings of neglect in certain areas. Example: Uttar Pradesh, with variations in development across
regions.
• Demands for Statehood or Autonomy: Some regions seek statehood or more autonomy, as seen in
the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Example: The Telangana movement leading to the
creation of the Telangana state.
o Paul Brass: "Regionalism is often a response to the perceived neglect or suppression of
regional interests by the central government."
• Unity in Diversity: India upholds the principle of unity in diversity, recognizing and respecting its
regional differences within a strong nation. Example: India's diverse regions, languages, and cultures,
united as one nation.

Do you think that there has been a gradual shift in the basis on which the demands for the creation of new
states have been raised in the different regions of India? Explain. (UPSC 2021)

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Is regionalism good or bad?

• Regionalism is a Threat : This perspective posits that regionalism poses a significant challenge to the
unity and integrity of a nation. It is viewed as a manifestation of parochial interests and identity
politics, potentially leading to separatist movements and conflicts. In this view, regionalism has the
potential to undermine the overall strength and stability of a nation.
o Scholars like Paul Brass, have pointed out that regionalism can indeed have divisive
implications when regional interests are perceived as being suppressed by the central
government. It may lead to political mobilization along regional lines, which can be
destabilizing.
• Regionalism in Itself is Not a Threat. It Depends on How We Manage Regionalism: This perspective
suggests that regionalism, by itself, need not be detrimental to a nation. It recognizes the diversity
within a country and acknowledges the importance of accommodating regional interests and
identities. The impact of regionalism, according to this view, hinges on how it is managed and
integrated into the national framework. Effective governance and policies can address regional
concerns and prevent them from escalating into divisive conflicts.
o Scholars like Rajni Kothari have emphasized the significance of regionalism in Indian politics.
They argue that regional parties play a vital role in accommodating diverse interests and
identities within the country, which can contribute to political stability.

While regional parties have certainly contributed to the strengthening of democracy by bringing pluralism and
decentralization to the political process, the complexities of managing a nation as diverse as India mean that
their influence is a balancing act between regional aspirations and national unity.

Government's Record in Dealing with Regionalism:

The Indian government has tackled regionalism by reorganizing states on linguistic lines and forming coalitions
with regional parties to ensure diverse representation. Despite these efforts, challenges like interstate water
disputes and regional economic disparities remain, underscoring the balancing act between national unity and
regional autonomy.
• Paul Brass: "The creation of linguistic states in 1956 was a crucial step in addressing linguistic
regionalism in India."
o Formation of Andhra Pradesh.
• Myron Weiner: "Accommodating regional aspirations through coalition governments has been a key
strategy in dealing with regionalism."
o For instance, the BJP's alliance with regional parties in various states demonstrates the key
strategy of dealing with regionalism by forming coalitions that represent diverse regional
interests."
• Ashutosh Varshney: "Economic development programs can play a significant role in addressing
regional disparities and mitigating regional tensions."
o States like Kerala and Tamil Nadu their emphasis on education, healthcare, and social welfare
programs has significantly contributed to addressing regional disparities and mitigating
regional tensions by improving the living standards of their residents."
• Rajni Kothari: "Recognizing the role of regional parties is essential for accommodating diverse
interests within the country."
o States like West Bengal, where the Trinamool Congress has played a pivotal role in
representing the state's unique interests and accommodating the diverse demands of its
people.

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• Subrata K. Mitra: "The Indian federal structure allows for regional parties to influence national politics
and shape coalition governments."
o Parties like the DMK and AIADMK in Tamil Nadu have had a substantial impact on shaping
coalition governments at the national level, showcasing the power of regional parties in India's
political landscape
• Atul Kohli: "Effective governance is crucial in managing regionalism and preventing it from becoming
a threat."
o For instance, the implementation of policies like Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and the
promotion of industrial corridors in underdeveloped regions demonstrate the government's
commitment to managing regionalism through economic development and infrastructure
projects."

Conclusion
Scholars like M. Govinda Rao and Nirvikar Singh assert that Indian federalism has exhibited adaptability and
resilience, effectively balancing central and regional powers. They recommend continual reforms to address
new socio-economic challenges and to promote equitable development among India's varied states.

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