PSIR Paper 2 Section A (Short Notes)

PSIR
Political Science & International

Relations Optional
PAPER 2 PART A
COMPLETE FOOTNOTES
Shashank Tyagi
Faculty PSIR Optional, StudyiqIAS
Ex. Consultant, Office of Minister
Social Welfare, GNCTD
FOOTNOTES
COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Quotes ● "Comparative Politics is the study of patterns of national governments

in the contemporary world." – John Blondel
● “Polity is the best practicable form of government.” – Aristotle
Introduction ● Comparative Politics (CP) is a sub-discipline of political science that

focuses on the comprehensive study of political systems,
governments, institutions, and constitutions across the world.
● It is rooted in the examination of countries' political structures and
behaviors, making it a crucial field within political science.
Historical Significance ● Comparative Politics has a long history dating back to the early
philosophers. Aristotle, often considered the father of political
science, compared 158 constitutions and developed theories of
constitutions.
● Prominent thinkers like Machiavelli, Tocqueville, and Montesquieu
contributed to the field by comparing political systems, such as the
United States and France.
Factors for Emergence ● Behavioralism, which gained prominence after World War II, led to
the desire to make political science a more empirical and scientific
discipline. David Easton was a notable figure in this movement.
● The rise of authoritarian regimes like fascism, Nazism, and
communism presented challenges that traditional political theories
could not adequately explain.
● The post-World War II era saw the emergence of newly independent
post-colonial states, where there was a significant difference between
the written text of constitutions and the political realities on the
ground. This context demanded a more nuanced and contextual
analysis.
● Complex, prismatic societies in these new states required an
approach beyond traditional normative methods.
Traditional ● Traditional CP primarily employed a legal-institutional approach,

Comparative Politics focusing on the study of Western countries and their constitutions. It
(Pre-WW2) often emphasized differences in government structures rather than
broader political aspects like culture, society, and economy.
● Key areas of focus included law, constitution, institutions, and
historical studies of government and the state.
● Critics argued that this approach was ethnocentric and limited in its
ability to explain politics in developing countries.
Features of ● Normative: It had a normative and speculative nature, often dealing

Traditional Approach with prescriptive and idealized concepts.
● Static: The approach tended to be static, focusing on established
institutions and structures.
● Ethnocentric: Traditional CP was criticized for its ethnocentrism, as it
often took Western liberal democracies as the standard paradigm.
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FOOTNOTES
Conclusion and ● The traditional approach to Comparative Politics provided a

Evolution foundational base for the development of modern methods and
approaches.
● While it is still relevant for the study of developed countries,
Comparative Politics has evolved to incorporate more dynamic,
contextual, and cross-cultural perspectives.
● Neo-institutionalism is one example of how traditional institutional
approaches have re-emerged and adapted to contemporary political
analysis.
General Conclusion Comparative Politics is a dynamic field that has evolved from its historical
for CP roots to incorporate a broader and more inclusive approach to the study
of political systems, governments, and institutions worldwide.
APPROACHES TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS
Systems Approach by ● Politics is viewed as a system where various components interact to

David Easton maintain equilibrium.
● Easton replaced the term "state" with "political system" to encompass
all elements affecting a state and affected by it.
● Traditionalists saw the state as a decision-making authority, while
Easton considered the system as an entity for the authoritative
allocation of values.
● Feedback is a crucial element in maintaining the system's equilibrium.
Criticism of Easton's ● Critics, including traditionalists, argued that Easton's approach

Model brought little improvement and introduced costly terminologies.
● Marxists criticized it for not being value-neutral, being ethnocentric,
and assuming the Western model as perfect. They saw it as an
ideological stance against socialist countries.
● Some critics noted that the model failed to explain phenomena like
protests and tended to present Western countries without
contradictions.
Structural-Functional ● Developed primarily for studying developing nations and influenced

Approach by David Easton's work.
● Almond and Powell's approach emphasizes that structures must
perform essential functions for their existence but allows for
variations in how these functions are carried out.
● Inspired by anthropologists like Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown.
● It provides a more detailed and dynamic perspective compared to
Easton's model but has also been criticized for its focus on system
survival and stability.
Political Development ● Focuses on equality among people, the capacity to deliver, and
Model differentiation (functional specialization) as key elements of
development.
● Developed by Lucian Pye and used by scholars like Gunnar Myrdal
and F.W. Riggs to analyze the development status of countries.

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● It assesses whether these three dimensions of development (equality,

capacity, differentiation) are growing at the same pace.
Political ● Advocates modernization over development and highlights three

Modernization parameters: science, secularism, and the capitalist mode of
Approach production.
● Samuel P. Huntington and Edward Shils contributed to this approach.
● Suggests that different countries can adopt various paths to
modernization without imposing Westernization or democracy.
Political Culture ● Defined as a set of norms, values, and orientations of people towards
Approach the political system that shape their political behavior.
● Developed by Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba.
● Identified four prominent types of political culture: parochial, subject,
participant, and civic. Civic culture is often considered the most
favorable for stable democracy.
Conclusion David Easton's Systems Approach brought a new perspective to political

science, viewing politics as a dynamic system with feedback mechanisms.
This approach has evolved and been complemented by other models,
such as the Structural-Functional Approach, Political Development Model,
Political Modernization Approach, and Political Culture Approach, each
offering unique insights into the study of politics and governance.
POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY APPROACH
Quotes ● “Political Sociology is like a marriage of political science and sociology,

wherein, the child has characteristics of both disciplines, but also
different from its parents.” – Prof AK Mukopadhyaya
Introduction The Political Sociology Approach in the field of political science focuses on
the interplay between politics and society, examining how political
institutions are influenced by underlying social forces.
Key Scholars ● Aristotle is often considered the father of political sociology, with his
theories on revolution, particularly the role of rising inequalities and
class disequilibrium, serving as an early example of this approach.
● Other notable scholars in political sociology include Alexis de
Tocqueville, Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim, and Max Weber, who
explored the relationship between politics and society from various
angles.
Relevance in ● The Political Sociology Approach is particularly relevant in developing
Developing Countries countries where there is often a disconnect between the
constitutional text and the societal context.
● It assumes that political institutions are shaped by and reflect the
underlying social and cultural dynamics of a society.
Huntington's ● Samuel P. Huntington emphasized the enduring influence of religion

Perspective and culture on politics. He argued that identities are more resistant to
change than ideologies and that politics increasingly revolves around
identity-based mobilization.

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FOOTNOTES
● In the modern age, where socio-economic issues are less

differentiating for political parties, identity has become a central tool
for political mobilization.
Marxism as a ● Karl Marx's perspective underscores the importance of understanding

Hegemonic School the basic structure of society to comprehend the nature of politics,
making Marxism a dominant school of thought within political
sociology.
Other Examples ● Machiavelli's advice on choosing between republic and monarchy

based on the virtue or corruption of society reflects a political
sociological perspective.
● The works of C. Wright Mills on power elites and Robert Dahl's
concept of polyarchy also fall within the purview of political sociology.
● Scholars like Andre Béteille, Yogendra Yadav, Christophe Jaffrelot, and
Atul Kohli have studied the impact of caste, religion, and ethnicity on
Indian politics.
Relevance and ● Maurice Duverger emphasized that political sociology broadens the
Contributions understanding of political phenomena, connects politics to broader
social phenomena, and highlights the essential unity of social
sciences.
● It encourages interdisciplinary research and expands the scope of
political science to encompass politics beyond government
institutions.
Criticism ● Critics argue that the approach overly relies on sociocultural factors,
which may not always be the most relevant determinants of political
outcomes, especially in cases where the state has actively shaped
society.
● Society is complex and multifaceted, making it challenging to compare
societies as definitively as institutions and constitutions.
● Giovanni Sartori emphasized the need to establish the autonomy of
politics, as politics also shapes society, and the two are
interdependent.
Neo-Institutionalism ● Theda Skocpol's "bring back the state" perspective advocated for the
study of the state as a core subject of political science, leading to the
development of neo-institutionalism.
● Neo-institutionalism, influenced by scholars like James March and
Johan Olsen, acknowledges that institutions both shape and are
shaped by actors and their rules.

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FOOTNOTES
POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROACH
Quotes “Political Economy is the science of the laws governing the production and
exchange of the material means of subsistence in human society.” –
Friedrich Engels
Introduction The Political Economy approach in political science focuses on comparing
political systems based on their economic policies and the impact of these
policies on a country's politics.
Founders and Early ● Adam Smith is often considered the father of political economy, and
Thinkers his book "The Wealth of Nations" defines political economy as the
"science of statesmen." Smith advocated for laissez-faire economics.
● Other early thinkers in political economy include Malthus and Ricardo,
who also supported laissez-faire policies.
Alternative Schools of ● Karl Marx criticized the laissez-faire approach and introduced an
Thought alternative school of thought. Scholars like Samir Amin and Immanuel
Wallerstein contributed to dependency theory, which explored the
development of underdevelopment in developing countries.
Role in Critiquing ● Political economy plays a crucial role in highlighting the weaknesses
Mainstream Political of mainstream political theories, particularly in checking the excesses
Theories of capitalism and income inequality.
● Neo-Marxists like Thomas Piketty have emphasized the growing
income inequality caused by unregulated capitalism.
Development of ● Political economy contributed to the development of welfare models

Welfare Models that focus on poverty reduction and equitable wealth distribution.
Metrics like the Human Development Index (HDI) and the
Multidimensional Poverty Index (MDPI) are products of this approach.
Contemporary ● Milan Vaishnav's idea that "good economics leads to good politics"
Perspectives underscores the importance of sound economic policies in political
outcomes.
● In the era of globalization, neo-liberal perspectives based on the
Washington Consensus have gained prominence. However, they have
faced criticism from scholars like Rawls, Dworkin, and Sen, who
advocate for welfare models.
Ancient Roots in India ● The tradition of political economy is visible in ancient Indian texts like
Kautilya's Arthashastra, where the king's role is seen as ensuring the
material well-being of the people.
Understanding ● Political economy helps in understanding poverty and provides

Poverty and solutions to address it. Amartya Sen, in his book "An Uncertain Glory,"
Development compares economic growth in India and other South Asian nations.
Limitations ● The approach can be criticized for focusing too much on economics,
leading to economic reductionism.
● It often relies on quantitative techniques that require specialized
knowledge and resources for data collection.

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FOOTNOTES
Conclusion ● The Political Economy approach is of paramount importance, as

evident in works like "Why Nations Fail," which identifies poor
economic institutions as a key factor in a nation's failure. It enriches
our understanding of the relationship between economics and politics
and informs policy discussions on poverty, development, and
equitable wealth distribution.
STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE: CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGING

NATURE OF THE STATE IN CAPITALIST AND SOCIALIST ECONOMIES, AND
ADVANCED INDUSTRIAL AND DEVELOPING SOCIETIES
Quotes “If liberal states are dictators for capitalists, the socialist states are
dictators for proletariats.” – Karl Marx
Capitalist States ● Characteristics include being driven by capitalist class interests, core
countries (according to Immanuel Wallerstein), and varying
perspectives from laissez-faire to elitism.
● The nature of these states has evolved from laissez-faire to welfare
states and now oscillates between social liberalism and neo-
liberalism.
● They have faced challenges like the rise of authoritarian leaders and
protectionist policies.
Socialist States ● Characteristics involve common ownership of the means of
production, influenced by Marx, Lenin, and others, and the ideal of
each according to their ability to each according to their need.
● Many socialist states saw the dictatorship of the Communist Party,
leading to totalitarian regimes.
● After the fall of the USSR, many socialist states transitioned to
democracy, and some faced economic challenges due to excessive
welfare policies.
● Even countries like Russia and China now have mixed economies with
elements of capitalism.
Developing Societies ● These countries in the global south show wide variations in socio-
economic and political systems.
● They have been affected by globalization, witnessing conflicts
between Western liberal and Asian values.
● Various terms like "overdeveloped state" (Hamza Alavi), "prismatic
societies" (FW Riggs), and "soft states" (Gunnar Myrdal) have been
used to describe their political development challenges.
● They are often linked to the world through the division of labor, with
some being peripheral and others semi-peripheral.
● Many have adopted neoliberal economic models and are under neo-
colonial influence.
● They face challenges related to terrorism, climate change, and
migration.

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Advanced Industrial ● These countries were among the first to experience industrialization
Economies and colonialism.
● They established global institutions like the UN, WB, IMF, and WTO to
further their economic interests.
● They can be referred to as the global North and include G7 and OECD
members.
● Economic inequality has been increasing, and there has been a shift
in global power dynamics.
● The rise of right-wing and nationalist movements, economic crises,
migration issues, and Islamophobia have affected them.
CHANGING NATURE OF THE MODERN STATE IN RELATION TO

TRANSNATIONAL ACTORS
Shift from State- ● The traditional state-centric model is evolving into a society-centric
Centric to Society- model, where the focus is on the interconnectedness of various actors
Centric Model: within and beyond states.
Transnational Actors ● Terrorists:

(Asymmetrical Actors) ○ Instances like the collapse of Afghanistan, the rise of ISIS in
Iraq and Syria, and state-sponsored terrorism have
highlighted the role of non-state actors in shaping global
politics and security.
● Civil Society Groups:
○ Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) and policy think
tanks play significant roles in influencing policies, advocating
for human rights, and promoting global governance.
● Assessing Democratic Institutions:
○ Organizations like Freedom House assess the performance of
democratic institutions worldwide, contributing to
discussions on the state of democracy. Larry Diamond has
referred to declining democracy as a "democracy slump."
● Human Rights Advocacy:
○ Amnesty International is an example of a transnational actor
working to protect and promote human rights globally.
● Multinational Corporations (MNCs):
○ MNCs like Facebook's involvement in the Cambridge
Analytica scandal illustrate how corporate interests can
influence political processes, including elections.
● Clientalist Regimes:
○ Many third-world countries have clientelist regimes where
power is concentrated among elites with strong ties to
transnational actors.
● Dependency Theory:
○ Marxist perspectives, particularly the dependency theory,
highlight how core countries (often Western) use MNCs to
make the periphery (often Eastern) dependent on them
economically and politically.
● Cultural Influence:

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○ Western MNCs have also been used to promote Western

culture and values in non-Western societies, leading to
cultural and identity consciousness, as discussed in Samuel P.
Huntington's "Clash of Civilizations."
Conclusion These examples emphasize the growing influence of transnational actors

on state policies, governance, and global dynamics. The modern state is
no longer the sole determinant of political and economic outcomes; it
operates within a complex web of interactions involving various actors
across borders.
Politics of Representation and Participation
Significance of ● In representative democracies, political parties serve as vital

Political Parties components, acting as the connecting link between citizens and
their governments.
● Development of the Study of Political Parties: The study of
political parties gained prominence, especially with the advent of
the behavioral movement in political science, which led to the
development of statistiology.
● Political Parties as Powerhouses: Max Weber aptly described
political parties as powerhouses within democratic systems.
● Interest Aggregation Function: Almond and Powell highlighted
that political parties perform the critical function of interest
aggregation, effectively channeling the interests of various groups
and individuals.
● Essential to Democracy: Laski emphasized that democracy is
inconceivable without the existence of political parties.
● Historic Function of Transformation: Scholars like Zoya Hassan
and Y. Yadav have recognized the historic role of political parties
in driving social and economic transformations.
Theories and Models ● Lenin made significant contributions to political party theory with his
of Political Parties pamphlet "What Is to Be Done," wherein he referred to the
Communist party as the vanguard of revolution.
● Communist parties operate through secret cells, follow a pyramidal
structure, and adhere to democratic centralism, where policies are
decided at the base and communicated to top leadership.
Robert Michels' Robert Michels, in his book "Political Parties," posited that regardless of
Insights whether they are liberal or communist, political parties tend to centralize
power within their leadership. Once in power, they often lose their
revolutionary zeal and may become new despots.
Type of Competitive ● Various types of competitive party systems exist, including single-
Party Systems party dominant systems (e.g., Congress or BJP in India, AKP in Turkey),
two-party systems, turnover ideological systems (e.g., the UK),
turnover pragmatic systems (e.g., the USA, with minimal ideological
differences), multiparty systems, consociational systems based on
consensus (found in Germany and other European countries), and
adversarial systems.

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FOOTNOTES
Contributions by ● Scholars like Myron Weiner and Joseph LaPalombara have also made
Myron Weiner noteworthy contributions to the understanding of political parties
and their functions.
Conclusion ● The Law Commission has underscored that political parties are the
lifeblood of the entire constitutional system in democratic societies.
Pressure groups
Quotes “An interest group is a collection of individuals who try to realise their
common objectives by influencing public policy.” – Hitchner & Levine
Introduction ● Pressure groups, often referred to as "invisible empires" by Finer, play
a crucial role in the political landscape. They serve the vital function
of interest articulation, aligning with Gabriel Almond and Powell's
Structural-Functional approach.
Classification of ● Institutional Pressure Groups:

Pressure Groups by ○ These groups are formed by individuals who are part of the
Almond and Powell government or associated with government entities. Examples
include interest groups for civil servants, bank employees, and the
Army Welfare Association.
○ Institutional pressure groups are exceptionally influential as they
operate within the system, allowing them to directly influence
policy-making with minimal effort.
● Associational Pressure Groups:
○ Associational pressure groups are primarily driven by specific
interests, representing a wide array of groups like trade unions,
student unions, and business associations, such as SEWA.
○ In comparative terms, these groups tend to be more prominent in
Western countries, where the dominance of rationality drives
society's interests.
● Non-Associational Pressure Groups:
○ Non-associational groups are often rooted in communal or
community-based affiliations and membership is typically
determined by birth.
○ Examples include groups like the Gujjar and Jat Sabhas,
characterized by their exclusivity and focus on communal
interests.
● Anomic Pressure Groups:
○ Anomic groups lack a standardized and institutionalized approach.
They are often informal and short-term in nature.
● Anomic groups, such as those demonstrating crowd behavior, are
more prevalent in developing countries, reflecting the absence of
democratic institutionalization and awareness of rights and grievance
redressal mechanisms.
Operation of Pressure ● Developed countries, like the United States, tend to have more robust
Groups in Developed interest-based pressure groups, particularly corporate lobbies. As
and Developing

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FOOTNOTES
Societies described by C. Wright Mills, these elitist groups exert significant

control over the politics of developed nations.
● In contrast, developing countries often witness the predominance of
non-associational and anomic pressure groups.
● According to Hamza Alvi, a post-colonial structural Marxist scholar,
South Asian states, like Pakistan, are themselves influential pressure
groups due to their overdeveloped nature.
● In India, there is a rising presence of interest-based groups like FICCI,
although traditional non-anomic groups like the Karni Sena continue
to exist.
Conclusion ● Pressure groups contribute significantly to the deliberative and

participative nature of democracies through communicative action
in the public sphere. Their classification highlights the diverse roles
these groups play in shaping political dynamics within various
societies.
Social movements
Quotes “Social movement is a loosely organised effort by a large group of people

to achieve a particular goal within the limit of constitution.” – Turner and
Kilhan
Introduction Social movements are collective efforts aimed at challenging the existing
social order, power structures, and advocating for social transformation,
justice, and change.
Social Movements in ● Old Left Movements: These movements in developed countries
Developed Countries historically targeted the exploitative nature of capitalism and sought
to address inequalities, primarily representing the working class.
● New Left Movements (1960s Onward): These movements, inspired
by thinkers like Herbert Marcuse and Young Marx, focus on human
emancipation and the quality of life rather than basic necessities.
● New social movements encompass diverse ideas and values, making
it challenging to classify them as strictly socialist, capitalist, right, or
left.
● They often center around post-materialist issues like sustainable
development, disarmament, LGBT rights, and social media
movements such as #MeToo and Change.org.
Social Movements in ● In developing countries, the distinction between old and new social
Developing Countries movements is less clear, and there is significant overlap, as these
societies are in transition. For instance, India witnesses movements
against corruption alongside working-class struggles.
The Theory of ● New social movements emerge when citizens believe that the
Legitimation Crisis government has violated the terms of the social contract, reflecting
an alternative social imaginary.
● These movements challenge both capitalism and socialism, as they
perceive elements of domination and unfairness in both systems.

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FOOTNOTES
● Drawing from Foucault and Laski, they argue that social power is no
longer solely concentrated in the state or the economy but is
exercised and resisted at the societal level.
● New social movements signify people's refusal to accept exclusionary
developmental paradigms and their desire for greater participation.
● Examples include Occupy Wall Street in the USA, Yellow Vest protests
in France, and recent protests in Hong Kong, Algeria, Sudan, India
(against corruption, #MeToo), and environmental movements (e.g.,
Tuticorin).
● Critical Marxists like Habermas view these movements as
exemplifying radical democracy, expanding the public sphere through
communicative action in ideal speech situations.
Responses to ● Shashi Tharoor discusses two backlashes against globalization: one

Globalization against economic globalization and another against cultural
globalization.
● David Goodhart highlights the tension between "Anywheres"
(globalists) and "Somewheres" (localists) in the context of
globalization.
● Globalization has shifted power from elected governments to
unelected international institutions, leading to a crisis of democracy,
as noted by Huntington.
● In developing countries, socially dominant groups have benefited
from globalization, leading to grassroots movements opposing it due
to identity factors.
● Joseph Stiglitz emphasizes the need for transparency in global
institutions and criticizes the overselling of globalization, which has
eroded confidence in elite proponents.
● He advocates for "progressive capitalism" that prioritizes people over
profit.
Conclusion ● Social movements unite diverse individuals around a common cause,

mobilizing them to advocate for the defense of all living beings, both
born and unborn. These movements play a vital role in challenging the
status quo, advocating for social justice, and driving societal
transformation.
GLOBALISATION
Quotes ●“Globalisation is also defined as compression of time and space.”

– Anthony Giddens
● “Integration of the world into one single unit or a ‘Global village.”
– M. Mcluhan
Introduction ● Globalization is the increasing interconnectedness of the world's
economies, cultures, and populations, facilitated by cross-border
trade, technology, investment, migration, and information flow.
Proponents of Kofi Annan: Advocates for globalization, likening opposition to it to
Globalization questioning the force of gravity.

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FOOTNOTES
● Marshall McLuhan: Describes globalization as turning the world into

a "global village."
● Thomas Friedman: Believes globalization has flattened the world,
making it more interconnected, and introduced the Golden Arches
Theory of Conflict Prevention, suggesting that countries with
McDonald's franchises are less likely to go to war.
● Friedman suggests that the COVID-19 pandemic has revitalized
globalization as nations collaborated intensely to combat the global
crisis.
● Jagdish Bhagwati: Argues that globalization, despite its challenges,
has a human face and has been the most potent force for human
upliftment.
Critics of Globalization ● Joseph Stiglitz: In "Globalization and Its Discontents," Stiglitz calls for
transparency in global institutions and criticizes the overselling of
globalization. He argues that it has led to economic disparities and
undermined democracy, shifting towards "one dollar, one vote."
● Stiglitz advocates for "progressive capitalism" focusing on people over
profit in "People, Power, and Profits."
● Prof. Ramesh Thakur: Highlights the dark side of globalization,
including the rise of non-state actors, decreased power for developing
countries due to capital mobility and labor immobility.
● Arundhati Roy: In "Capitalism: A Ghost Story," criticizes globalization
for increasing inequality, environmental degradation, and child labor.
She describes it as a mutant form of capitalism.
● Scholars like Immanuel Wallerstein, A.G. Frank, and Samir Amin apply
dependency theory to illustrate the drain of wealth in global systems
theory.
● Thomas Piketty: His work, "Capital in the Twenty-First Century,"
reveals rising global inequalities.
De-Globalization ● The world is moving toward de-globalization, with debates shifting

Trends from left vs. right to open vs. closed.
● Events like the 1999 Battle of Seattle marked protests against
organizations like the WTO.
● Globalization has disproportionately benefited younger, educated
urban workers, while older, less educated workers in industrial areas
have lost jobs.
● Recent waves of globalization are moving from the global periphery
to the core, with protectionist policies, migration restrictions, and
nationalism.
● The divide in international relations will be between globalization
winners and losers.
● Events like the 2008 Lehman Brothers crisis, Trump's election, and
changes in trade agreements signify de-globalization efforts.
● In Europe, Brexit and Grexit have strained EU cohesion.
● Rising right-wing parties in Germany (e.g., AfD) and France (e.g.,
Marine Le Pen) oppose globalization.

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FOOTNOTES
● Harvard economist Dani Rodrik's trilemma suggests that it's

challenging to have globalization, democracy, and national
sovereignty simultaneously.
● Rising intolerance toward migrants, Islamophobia, and inequality are
associated with globalization's backlash.
Conclusion ● Social movements have arisen in response to the challenges and

disparities brought about by globalization, reflecting the complex
interplay of economic, political, and social factors in today's
interconnected world.
APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
Systems approach: ● The systems approach in International Relations (IR) examines

Introduction international relations as a system of interactions among states that
are interdependent and interconnected, stemming from the
behavioral revolution in IR.
● Morton A. Kaplan's work, "Systems and Processes in International
Politics," aimed to establish a comprehensive theory of international
politics capable of explaining past, present, and future dynamics.
● This approach is particularly well-suited for the study of international
politics due to its interdisciplinary nature, non-normative stance,
value-neutrality, and absence of biases.
● It treats international politics as a holistic concept rather than a mere
sum of foreign policies.
Critical Evaluation by ● Traditionalists like Robert J. Lieber criticize this approach as more of a
Traditionalists model-building exercise than theory-building.
● They argue that many of the models proposed are hypothetical and
lack concrete analysis.
● The systems approach tends to overlook the significance of domestic
and individual factors and doesn't aid in making predictions.
● Stanley Hoffmann describes it as a "strange parlour game" with little
analytical value.
● Ernst Haass critiques this approach for neglecting sub-national
factors.
Kenneth Boulding's ● Kenneth Boulding acknowledges that the effort invested in systems
Perspective theory goes beyond merely assigning fancy labels, indicating its
significance.
Conclusion ● The systems approach has contributed to a more scientific and

analytical understanding of the structure of IR, and it continues to be
employed by scholars for analyzing the contemporary world order

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FOOTNOTES
LIBERALISM
Quotes "Different issues generate different coalitions, both within governments

and across them, and involve different degrees of conflicts. Politics does
not stop at the water's edge". – Keohane
Introduction ● Liberalism in IR is an ideology that aims to create a peaceful world

through free trade, norms, values, and international organizations. It
was the dominant school of thought from 1991 to 2001.
● Key features of the liberal international order, as described by
scholars like Daniel Deudney and John Ikenberry, include the rejection
of power-centric views in favor of a cosmopolitan perspective that
transcends national boundaries. It emphasizes the role of
international organizations, liberal internationalism, the spread of
free trade, capitalism, and the promotion of international norms.
Influences ● Notable thinkers who have influenced liberalism in IR include John
Locke, Immanuel Kant, Norman Angell, Woodrow Wilson, and others.
Schools in Liberalism ● Liberal Institutionalism: This approach applies domestic politics

principles at the international level, emphasizing the importance of
international institutions in dispute resolution and diplomacy.
● Hedley Bull's English School: It argues that there is a "society of
states" in international politics, despite the anarchy of the
international system, highlighting the role of international rules,
regulations, and laws.
● Social Liberalism: This perspective shifts from a state-centric to a
society-centric approach, emphasizing people-to-people interactions
and building security communities based on trust.
● Functionalism: Propounded by David Mitrany, it promotes
incremental development through functional cooperation,
emphasizing cooperation on specific issues as a means to build a
peaceful world.
● Neo-Functionalism: Ernst Haas's extension of functionalism, which
recognizes the role of political actors in shaping institutions.
● Interdependence: This theory highlights economic interdependence,
suggesting that countries with extensive economic ties are less likely
to go to war. It promotes the idea of "trading states."
● Democratic Peace Theory: Developed by Michael Doyle, it posits that
democracies tend to form zones of peace due to public debates and
people's opinions influencing foreign policies.
● Complex Interdependence: John Keohane and Joseph Nye describe
post-Cold War international relations as marked by intricate
interdependence in multiple areas, such as economics, security,
climate change, and terrorism.
Current Relevance ● Liberalism has faced challenges, including the rise of populism,
and Criticisms economic crises, and skepticism about globalization.
● Critics like Robert Kagan argue that the liberal world order is under
pressure from populism and economic challenges.

14
FOOTNOTES
● Realist scholars like John Mearsheimer contend that liberalism thrives

in unipolar but not multipolar worlds.
● The Bush Doctrine's implementation in the Middle East is criticized for
failing to create liberal democracies and increasing insecurity.
Conclusion ● The relevance of liberalism in IR remains a subject of debate. While

some argue that it's essential for freedoms, the rule of law, and
human rights, others believe it faces challenges and may not be
suitable for all international contexts.
REALISM
Quotes "The strong do what they can and the weak suffer what they must" –
Thucydides
Introduction ● Realism is an empirical paradigm in IR that focuses on the world as it

is, rather than how it should be. It's considered the predominant
school of thought and is state-centric, emphasizing power as the
primary means to safeguard national interests.
● The roots of realism can be traced back to the great debate of the
1930s and 1940s, during which idealists and realists argued about
how to deal with Nazi Germany.
Context ● The realist perspective contends that the world is characterized by
conflicts driven by the self-interest of different individuals and groups.
In such a world, order is established through power rather than moral
considerations.
Classical Realism ● Classical realism in IR is based on assumptions about human nature,

specifically drawing from Hobbesian views. It asserts that individuals
are primarily motivated by self-interest rather than higher moral or
ethical ideals.
Hans Morgenthau ● Hans Morgenthau is often considered the father of realism and the
first scholar to systematically formulate realist theory in IR.
● He introduced key principles, such as the concept of humans as
"power-seeking animals".
● Morgenthau emphasized that national interest is the driving force
behind foreign policy.
● He viewed power both as a means and an end, highlighting its dual
nature.
● National interest, according to Morgenthau, is dynamic and requires
continuous adjustment to the evolving reality of international politics.
● Morgenthau argued that ideology holds no significant role in
international politics and is often used to mask real intentions.
● On ethics, he maintained that morals apply to individuals, not to
nation-states. In international politics, pragmatism is the ethical
approach.

15
FOOTNOTES
● Morgenthau believed that maintaining peace in international politics

can be achieved through mechanisms like the balance of power,
deterrence, or diplomacy.
● He had little faith in international organizations like the UN and
concepts like collective security.
Criticism of ● Kenneth Waltz, a neorealist scholar, criticized Morgenthau for his

Morgenthau essentialist view of human nature. Waltz argued that reducing
international politics to a single factor, human nature, was
problematic.
● J. Ann Tickner critiqued Morgenthau's concept of state security,
suggesting that human security and a multidimensional view of
national interest were more important.
● Tickner emphasized that power had not only a coercive dimension but
also a constructive one, involving empowerment.
● She argued that ignoring ethics in international politics was
detrimental, as it neglected moral responsibilities and took a narrow
view of the field.
Conclusion ● Realism in IR often revolves around the debate between its

proponents, who support Morgenthau's ideas, and its critics, who
challenge various aspects of his theory.
NEO-REALISM
Introduction ● Coined by Robert Cox and popularized with the publication of

Kenneth Waltz's "Theory of International Politics" in 1979.
● Central principles include the belief that states are unitary, anarchy
characterizes the international system, and power distribution is the
key variable influencing state behavior.
Defensive Realism ● Waltz, a structural and defensive realist, wrote during a period of
(Kenneth Waltz) international cooperation known as detente (1969-1979).
● He emphasized structural-level analysis over actor-level analysis and
argued that the structure of the international system, not internal
state characteristics, drives state behavior.
● For Waltz, the pursuit of security, not power maximization, should
guide states' actions.
● He critiqued the policy of unlimited power as counterproductive due
to its role in causing arms races and security dilemmas.
Criticism of Waltz ● Social constructivist scholars like Alexander Wendt argue that
anarchy's impact depends on state preferences and that anarchy
alone cannot compel states to pursue power if they lack ambitions.
● Randall Schweller and neoclassical realists argue that Waltz's
reductionist approach simplifies international politics by focusing only
on the structure, neglecting domestic influences and their complex
interplay.

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FOOTNOTES
Offensive Realism ● Offensive realists, represented by John Mearsheimer, assert that

(John J. Mearsheimer) great powers must maximize power and seek hegemony to ensure
their survival.
● Mearsheimer's "Tragedy of Great Power Politics" posits that states
are forced to engage in conflict to ensure their security.
● He rejects Waltz's idea of security maximization and argues that true
security is unattainable; therefore, power maximization is the path to
survival.
● Mearsheimer's theory is based on five core principles, including the
rationality of states and their pursuit of survival above all else.
Criticism of Realism ● Post-modern critiques challenge realism's concept of anarchy,

highlighting the importance of international organizations.
● Realists' focus on hard power and the maximization of power is
criticized for neglecting the role of norms and ideas as sources of
power in international relations.
● Neo-classical realists introduce domestic actors into the realist
framework.
● Critiques from various schools, including critical theory, feminism, and
social constructivism, challenge realist assumptions and propose
alternative perspectives.
● Hedley Bull's concept of an anarchical society extends beyond anarchy
in international relations.
Conclusion ● Realism, with its timeless wisdom, remains a cornerstone in the study
of international relations.
● While criticisms and alternative theories exist, realism's enduring
influence underscores its significance in understanding the
complexities of international politics. Other schools of thought often
serve as footnotes to realism's core principles.
MARXISM
Introduction ● The Marxist theory of international politics delves into the realm
of political economy, offering insights into the economic policies
of states and their global repercussions.
● While Karl Marx's original focus was not on international
relations, his ideas on capitalism and proletarian internationalism
have transcended national boundaries, making Marxism relevant
to the study of international relations.
● Marxist scholars have sought to understand the workings of
capitalism in the international context, shedding light on the
impact of economic systems on global affairs and borders.
Instrumentalists ● Also known as the dependency school, instrumentalists analyze the

(Dependency School) influence of capitalism on poverty in Southern countries.
● Core concepts include the core-periphery framework, unequal
exchange, uneven development, and the development of
underdevelopment (as articulated by A.G. Frank).

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FOOTNOTES
Immanuel Wallerstein ● Wallerstein's world-system theory introduces the concept of a

multicultural territorial division of labor where the production and
exchange of goods, raw materials, and capital take place.
● The theory comprises three elements: spatial dimensions (core,
periphery, and semi-periphery), temporal dimensions (capturing the
cyclical nature of capitalism), and cultural dimensions (addressing
liberalism and science).
● Wallerstein challenges the political modernization theory, advocating
for autonomous national development rather than greater
integration with the world.
● His theory highlights the consequences of capitalism, linking
phenomena like Balkan conflicts and African poverty to the needs of
capitalist countries.
● Wallerstein's theory carries both empirical and normative elements,
offering the options of socialism or barbarism as potential outcomes.
● It can also help understand contemporary challenges to the liberal
world order based on neoliberalism.
Criticism ● Critics argue that Wallerstein's theory, like mainstream Marxism, can
be reductionist by attributing all developments to economic factors.
Neo-Marxists like Robert Cox call for a more comprehensive study of
both the material and ideological aspects of capitalism.
● The critical school of thought views mainstream theories, including
instrumental Marxism, as problem-solving theories that often neglect
the emancipation of the masses.
● Post-colonial scholars point out that even Marxist perspectives can be
Eurocentric, overlooking non-Western experiences.
● Feminist critiques argue that Marxist perspectives, including
Wallerstein's, can be masculinist and fail to incorporate women's
perspectives.
● Post-modernist perspectives critique world-system theory as
constructing a grand narrative or meta-narrative.
Gramscian/Neo- ● Gramscian or neo-Marxist scholars, influenced by the works of

Marxist Scholars Antonio Gramsci, emphasize the role of culture and ideological
phenomena, particularly hegemony.
● They argue that theory is always developed by someone for a specific
purpose, and they often focus on the cultural and soft power
dimensions of international relations.
● Neo-Marxist perspectives, as exemplified by Robert Cox, critique
instrumentalism for its economic determinism and its failure to
account for the role of culture and soft power. They argue that the
United States, for example, exercises influence not only through its
economic power but also through its soft power, including cultural
exports like media, entertainment, and education.
Critical School ● The critical school, represented by scholars like Andrew Linklater,
draws inspiration from the ideas of Immanuel Kant and Karl Marx.

18
FOOTNOTES
● This school places a strong emphasis on the concept of emancipation,

which involves freeing people from the constraints imposed by the
modern state and economic system.
● Critical theorists argue that people, rather than states, should be at
the center of political analysis, and they seek to critique political
arrangements based on their capacity to promote emancipation and
expand moral boundaries.
● Unlike problem-solving theories like realism and idealism, critical
theories have an emancipatory orientation, aiming to challenge the
status quo and bring about social and political change.
Conclusion Marxist and critical perspectives in international relations critique the

current global structure, particularly the dominance of capitalist nations,
and focus on how this structure could be transformed to create a more
equitable distribution of wealth and power. These theories highlight the
importance of culture, ideology, and human emancipation in
understanding and reshaping international politics.
FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE
Introduction ● The feminist perspective in international relations challenges

conventional views by emphasizing the role of gender in global
politics.
● While women have played significant roles in global affairs, they
have often been relegated to the periphery of power, both at the
state and international levels.
● Feminists argue that women are frequently seen as
complementary to men, both in terms of their status and how
they perceive the world.
● Unlike traditional security studies, which often take a top-down
or structural approach to conflict analysis, feminists adopt a
bottom-up approach, examining the micro-level impacts of war
and conflict.
Feminist Concerns in ● Feminist scholars are particularly concerned with the
International consequences of war, focusing on the impact of armed conflicts
Relations on women and civilians.
● They challenge the myth that wars are fought to protect
vulnerable groups, such as women and children, and bring issues
like wartime sexual violence and military prostitution to the
forefront of security discussions.
● Inspired by radical feminists, they argue that the personal is
international, advocating for global fora to address women's
issues and find solutions.
● Feminist perspectives also question the role of the state as a
security provider, suggesting that in many contemporary
conflicts, states may pose threats to their own populations.
● They view women not merely as victims but as agents of change
in international relations.

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FOOTNOTES
Key Feminist Scholars ● Cynthia Enloe: In her work "Bananas, Beaches, and Bases," Enloe
examines the limited roles assigned to women in international
relations, including being wives of diplomats, organizing state
dinners, working in banana plantations, or engaging in sex work.
She highlights how women's contributions have often been
overlooked.
● J. Ann Tickner: Tickner, in her work on "Gender in International
Relations," criticizes traditional notions of state security and
emphasizes the importance of human security. She argues that
national interest is a multidimensional concept and that power
encompasses both coercion and empowerment. She stresses the
need to integrate ethics into international politics and challenges
the idea that international politics operates independently of
ethical considerations.
Impact and ● Since the end of the Cold War, feminist perspectives on world
Recognition politics have gained increasing recognition.
● Key resolutions, such as UN Security Council Resolution 1325,
have urged member states to incorporate gender perspectives
into all fields of international relations and promote women's
participation in peace processes and security decision-making.
● While progress has been made, it is clear that international
politics is not exclusively the domain of men, and feminist insights
have played a crucial role in reshaping the discourse on global
affairs.
SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST
Quotes ● “There is no objective international world apart from the

practices and institutions that states arrange among them.” –
Wendt
● "Self-help and power politics are institutions, not essential
features of anarchy”. – Wendt
Influences ● Giambattista Vico: Vico's influence can be seen in the idea that the
natural world is created by God, while the social world is a product of
human actions. This perspective aligns with the constructivist view
that social realities and perceptions are shaped by human agency and
interpretation.
● Immanuel Kant: Kant's notion that our perception of the world is
influenced by our cultural "glasses" resonates with constructivism.
Constructivists emphasize that international relations are not
objective but are interpreted through the lens of social, cultural, and
historical contexts.
● Alexander Wendt: Wendt is a prominent constructivist scholar who
has critiqued structural realists like Kenneth Waltz. He argues that
anarchy in international politics is not an inherent structure but rather
a product of how states perceive and interact with one another. This

20
FOOTNOTES
perspective challenges the realist notion of anarchy as a fixed

constraint.
● Nina Tannenwald: Tannenwald's work in constructivist thought has
focused on issues related to norms and non-proliferation. She
explores how norms and ideas shape state behavior in the realm of
international security.
● Nicholas Onuf: Onuf's book "World of Our Making" underscores the
constructivist idea that the international system is socially
constructed. He argues that the Cold War, for example, was not an
inevitable outcome but a product of human choices and
interpretations.
● Anthony Giddens: Giddens' concept of "structuration" suggests that
structures do not only constrain actors but that actors can also
influence and change structures through their actions and thinking.
This aligns with the constructivist view that international politics is a
dynamic interplay between agents and structures.
Criticism of ● Dale Copeland's critique highlights that constructivist analyses

Constructivism may downplay the challenges and uncertainties that states face
when trying to understand the motives of other states.
● Constructivists, according to Copeland, may not sufficiently
address the problem of uncertainties in international relations.
This criticism suggests that neorealism and neoliberalism, which
both emphasize the role of uncertainty in international politics,
remain strong contenders in explaining the nature of
international relations alongside constructivism.
Power
Quotes ● “Whatever may be the ultimate end, power is always the

immediate end of foreign policies.” – Morgenthau
● “Power as the capacity to command services or compliance of
others.” --- Robert M. MacIver
Introduction ● Power is a fundamental concept in political science and
international relations, and it plays a central role in shaping the
behavior of states and actors on the global stage.
● Max Weber defined power as the ability to impose one's will on
the behavior of others, highlighting its coercive nature. In
international politics, power is often seen as the driving force
behind state actions and decisions.
Key Definition Morgenthau: "International politics is nothing but a struggle for power."
Hans Morgenthau emphasized the paramount importance of power in
international relations and saw it as the driving force behind state
behavior.

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FOOTNOTES
Elements of Power
● Geographical Element: This includes a country's size, location,
topography, resources, and demography, which can impact its power.
● Political Factors: A politically stable nation with domestic consensus
on foreign policy positions can wield power more effectively in the
international arena.
● Social Structure: The homogeneity or heterogeneity of a country's
population can influence its ability to formulate and implement
foreign policies.
● Leadership: Strong leadership can compensate for weaknesses in
other elements of power.
● Technology: Advancements in technology, such as digital capabilities,
can enhance a nation's power.
● Intelligence: A strong intelligence apparatus is crucial for gathering
information and influencing international events.
● Military Power: Military strength remains the ultimate determinant
of power.
● Ideational Power: The power of ideas and ideology has played a
significant role in shaping the international order.
Types of Powers
● Superpower: An extraordinary level of power that cannot be easily
challenged, exemplified by the United States.
● Great Power: States capable of protecting their interests
independently, such as China and Russia.
● Middle Power: Countries that can protect their interests through
alliances and cooperation with others, including India, Germany, and
Japan.
● Small Power: Nations with limited international influence, like Bhutan
or Sri Lanka.
Soft Power Joseph Nye introduced the concept of soft power, which refers to a
nation's ability to attract and co-opt others through culture, values, and
persuasion rather than coercion. It plays a crucial role in international
relations, as it can help countries achieve their goals through attraction
and influence.
Development of the ● Joseph Nye initially emphasized soft power as the ability to shape the
Soft Power Concept preferences of others through appeal and attraction.
● Nye later recognized that soft power alone might not be sufficient and
proposed the concept of "smart power," which combines soft and
hard power effectively. Smart power involves a strategic use of
diplomacy, defense, and development to achieve national objectives.
Soft Power and India India has actively worked to enhance its soft power by promoting its
culture, values, and international initiatives like "Vaccine Diplomacy." This
has led to increased global recognition and influence for India.
Fast Power James Chipman Fletcher introduced the concept of fast power,
emphasizing that speed and adaptability have become essential in the

22
FOOTNOTES
modern world. The ability to respond quickly to changing circumstances

and challenges is seen as a determinant of power.
● Klaus Schwab's statement, "It is not the world where the big eat the
small, but where the fast eat the slow," underscores the significance
of agility and adaptability in today's global landscape.
Conclusion Power is a multifaceted concept with various dimensions, including

geographical, political, social, and technological elements. Soft power and
smart power play vital roles in international relations, and the ability to
adapt quickly to changing circumstances has become increasingly
important. In a rapidly evolving world, the ability to influence through
attraction, persuasion, and agility can be just as crucial as traditional
forms of power. Ultimately, the narratives and stories that win in
international politics can also shape the distribution of power.
Polarity of Power Thesis
Introduction ● The Polarity of Power thesis is a concept in international relations

that refers to the structure of international systems based on the
distribution of power among states.
● It categorizes systems into different forms, including unipolar,
bipolar, and multipolar, based on the number of dominant great
powers within the system. The theory suggests that the system's
polarity has a significant impact on state behavior, alliances, and
international dynamics.
Types of Polarity Unipolarity: Unipolarity exists when a single great power, often referred
to as a superpower, dominates the international system. In such a system,
there is a lack of checks and balances, making it potentially unstable.
Unipolar systems can lead to the abuse of power, overextension, and
challenges in maintaining world order. For example, the United States'
invasions of Afghanistan and Iraq in the early 21st century are often cited
as examples of unipolar excess.
Challenges of Unipolarity:
● Overextension of the hegemon's resources and capabilities.
● Free-rider problem, where other states take advantage of the
hegemon's security provision without bearing a proportional
burden.
Bipolarity: Bipolarity occurs when there are two dominant great powers
in the international system. This structure tends to be more stable
because the two superpowers can balance each other's actions, leading
to a state of equilibrium. Bipolar systems often involve the establishment
of zones of influence by the two superpowers.
Characteristics of Bipolarity:
● Tendency toward a balance of power.
● Superpowers establish order within their respective spheres
of influence.
● Reduced chances of anarchy and unchecked power.
Multipolarity: Multipolarity is characterized by the presence of multiple

great powers within the international system. This structure is considered

23
FOOTNOTES
the most unstable and conflict-prone, as the greater number of actors can
lead to confusion, miscalculation, and competition for influence. The
multipolar system can result in a higher likelihood of accidental conflicts
and the use of nuclear weapons.
Characteristics of Multipolarity:
● Greater potential for confusion and misjudgment.
● Increased chances of accidental nuclear weapon use.
● A complex web of alliances and rivalries.
Nonpolarity: Some contemporary scholars, such as Richard Haass, have

argued that the 21st century is characterized by nonpolarity. In a nonpolar
world, power is dispersed among numerous state and non-state actors,
making it challenging to identify dominant players. This concept highlights
the diverse sources of power and influence in the modern global
landscape.
Conclusion ● The Polarity of Power thesis is a fundamental concept in

international relations that helps classify and understand the
structure of international systems based on the distribution of
power.
● Unipolarity, bipolarity, and multipolarity each have their unique
characteristics and implications for international stability and
conflict. The evolving nature of global power dynamics in the 21st
century has led to discussions about nonpolarity, reflecting the
complexity of contemporary international relations.
Balance of Power
Quotes ●
“The notion of the balance of power is notoriously full of
confusions”. – Wight
● “Balance of Power is nearly a fundamental law of politics.” —
Martin Wright
Introduction The concept of Balance of Power (BOP) is a fundamental principle in
international relations, particularly within the realist paradigm. It revolves
around the idea that states in an international system seek to ensure their
security and prevent domination by rivals or adversaries through a
combination of external balancing (alliance formation) and internal
balancing (building up military capabilities).
Key Assumptions of ● Anarchy in International Politics: It assumes that the international
Balance of Power system lacks a central authority or world government, resulting in a
state of anarchy where states must rely on themselves for security.
● Security Dilemma: Nations are believed to face a security dilemma,
wherein efforts by one state to enhance its security are perceived as
threats by others, leading to a cycle of insecurity and arms buildup.
● Self-Help and Survival: The concept asserts that self-help is the only
means for states to survive in an anarchic system, and power is both
the means and the end in achieving security.
● Regional Setting: BOP is considered most relevant in regional settings
with several major powers, typically ranging from 5 to 6 states. It is

24
FOOTNOTES
less applicable in situations dominated by a universal actor or

superpower, or where nuclear deterrence is a significant factor.
Historical Perspectives ● The concept of BOP has been a maxim in international politics for
centuries. Absent a world government, balances of power naturally
emerge, as noted by scholars like Morgenthau.
● Kenneth Waltz, a neorealist, argued that regardless of state
preferences, the anarchic nature of the international system would
naturally lead to a balance of power.
Criticism of Balance of ● Complex Interdependence: Liberal theorists argue that the world has
Power moved beyond the Westphalian model and now operates in a state of
complex interdependence, where countries are linked through
various non-military means, reducing the likelihood of war.
● Nervous State of Peace: Some critics, including Jawaharlal Nehru,
have described BOP as a "nervous state of peace" because it can lead
to arms races and conflict.
● Non-State Actors: The rise of non-state actors and asymmetrical
threats challenges the traditional BOP framework, which primarily
considers states as the main actors.
● Global Politics: While BOP is a regional concept, contemporary
politics is increasingly global in nature, making it less applicable in
today's interconnected world.
Modifications and ● Scholars like Stephen Walt have proposed the concept of the "balance
Alternatives of threat," which argues that states balance against perceived threats
rather than just power.
● Power Transition Theory, developed by Kenneth Organski, posits that
wars are more likely when there is a transition of power, as rising
powers threaten the existing order.
● Some states, like North Korea, have adopted nuclear deterrence as an
alternative to BOP to safeguard their security.
Relevance Today ● BOP remains relevant in some contexts, particularly when states view
non-state actors as proxies of rival states.
● While nuclear deterrence has changed the dynamics of war, BOP still
plays a role in conventional and technological warfare.
Conclusion The concept of Balance of Power has deep historical roots and continues
to be a significant factor in international relations, even as the nature of
global politics evolves. Its relevance is context-dependent, and its
principles are still considered by states when formulating foreign policy
and security strategies.

25
FOOTNOTES
Collective Security
Quotes “Collective security is an arrangement arrived at by some nations to

protect their vital interests, safety or integrity, against a probable threat
or menace over a particular period, by means of combining their powers.”
– A. K. Chaturvedi
Introduction Collective Security is a concept in international relations where states
agree to defend each other against aggression, with the principle that an
attack on one member is considered an attack on all members. It involves
formal alliances or international organizations aimed at maintaining
peace and deterring aggression.
Key Points ● Collective Security is often seen as a liberal counterpart to the realist
Balance of Power concept, but its core principle remains the same:
ensuring state security.
● It can be viewed as the institutionalization of the Balance of Power, as
countries come together through international organizations to
maintain the balance and deter aggression.
● Unlike the Balance of Power, which operates in a state of anarchy,
Collective Security is implemented through international
organizations like the League of Nations (LON) or the United Nations
(UN).
● Collective Security aims to provide a more assured state of peace
compared to the "nervous state of peace" associated with the Balance
of Power.
● It is particularly conducive to peace for smaller powers, as they can
escape the burden of engaging in arms races through reliance on their
partners within a collective security arrangement.
Criticism of Collective ● Practicality: Critics argue that outsourcing a nation's security to an

Security international organization is not always practical, as member states
may prioritize their national interests over collective security.
● Utopian: Some view Collective Security as an idealistic concept that
may not align with the realities of international politics, where states
often prioritize their own interests.
● Operational Challenges: Historical attempts at implementing
Collective Security, such as the League of Nations, faced significant
operational challenges. The League was undermined by the absence
of major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union, as well
as the reluctance of Britain and France to fully commit their forces.
● Lack of Commitment: The idea that all states would commit their
forces to repel aggression by any aggressor has been questioned, as
not all states may view an issue as a direct threat to their security.
Working of Collective ● Under the League of Nations, Collective Security could not be fully
Security operationalized due to the absence of major powers like the USA and
USSR, as well as skepticism among existing powers.
● The United Nations (UN) has sought to overcome some of the
operational challenges faced by the League, but its effectiveness has
been hindered by the Cold War rivalry between the USA and USSR.

26
FOOTNOTES
● The UN has used peacekeeping missions to help maintain peace and

security, although these missions have their limitations and rely on
the consent of the parties involved.
Security
Definition Security in international relations refers to the measures taken by states

and international organizations to ensure mutual survival, safety, and
protection from threats, both internal and external.
Different Notions of ● Realist View: Realists prioritize state security as the most important
Security form of security. They believe that security is achieved through the
acquisition of power, as seen in concepts like the Balance of Power
and deterrence.
● Liberal View: Liberals consider both state security and the security of
individuals (human security) as important. They believe that
insecurity arises from factors like anarchy, protectionist policies,
militarism, lack of democracy, and limited international interaction.
Liberal concepts like democratic peace theory and economic
interdependence promote peace and security.
● Marxist View: Marxists focus on security from the impact of
capitalism, emphasizing class struggle and the need for a socialist
revolution to achieve true security.
● Social Constructivist View: Social constructivists argue that security
dilemmas arise from socially constructed prejudices and
misconceptions. They emphasize the importance of communication
and changing perceptions to enhance security.
● Feminist View: Feminists highlight the need for security from gender-
based violence and discrimination. They consider women's security a
crucial aspect of international politics.
Changing Notions of ● Security concerns have evolved in the modern era, with issues like
Security climate change, nuclear disarmament, terrorism, and human security
gaining prominence.
● Concepts such as human security, which encompasses economic,
food, health, environmental, and political security, reflect the
multidimensional nature of security in the 21st century.
● Security issues have been securitized or framed as threats in various
contexts, affecting international politics and decision-making. For
example, issues like migration, data security, Islamophobia, and
climate change have been securitized in different ways.
Conclusion Security is a core concept in international relations, and different schools

of thought offer varying perspectives on its nature and importance. In the
contemporary world, the notion of security has expanded beyond
traditional military concerns to encompass a wide range of economic,
environmental, and human security issues, reflecting the complex and
interconnected nature of global politics.
National Interest

27
FOOTNOTES
Quotes “National interest is static as well as dynamic.” – Morgenthau
“The main aim of national interest is to ensure survival, i.e., protection of

physical, economic, political and cultural identity against encroachments
by other nation-states”. – Morgenthau
Introduction National interest is a fundamental concept in international relations that

refers to the interests, objectives, and goals pursued by a nation-state to
ensure its security, prosperity, and well-being. It serves as a guiding
principle in the formulation of foreign policies and the conduct of
international relations.
Key Points Kautilya's Definition: Kautilya, in his ancient Indian treatise

"Arthashastra," defines national interest as those areas that have the
potential to threaten the very existence of a state. It implies that a state
is willing to go to war, if necessary, to protect these critical interests.
● Realist Perspectives: In realist theories of international relations,
national interest is often associated with the pursuit of power.
Morgenthau argued that the primary national interest is the
achievement of power, while Kenneth Waltz emphasized security as
the central national interest. John Mearsheimer extended this
perspective to argue that national interest is the pursuit of hegemony,
where a state aims to establish dominance over other states.
● Critical Theorists: Critical theorists, inspired by Marxist and
emancipatory ideologies, see national interest as the pursuit of
human emancipation. They question the interests of elites and
emphasize the importance of social justice, equality, and liberation.
● Liberal Views: Liberals view national interest as promoting economic
development through international trade and seeking world peace
through cooperation and diplomacy. Economic prosperity,
cooperation, and the protection of individual rights and freedoms are
considered essential national interests.
● Feminist Perspective: Feminists argue that national interest should
also encompass the protection and empowerment of women,
highlighting the importance of gender equality and security for
women in international relations.
● Examples: Historical examples of national interest include the U.S.
invasion of Afghanistan (counterterrorism), the Vietnam War
(anticommunism), and the Iraq War (oil resources). Russia's
annexation of Crimea was driven by the perceived national interest in
securing access to the Mediterranean through the port of Sevastopol.
Criticism ● Charles Beard: Beard critiqued the concept of national interest,

arguing that it often serves the interests of elites rather than the
general population. He questioned why citizens should support a
government that prosecutes wars, leading soldiers to die for policies
that may not align with their interests.
● Raymond Aron: Aron criticized the vagueness and subjectivity of the
concept of national interest, as it can be defined differently by
different states and individuals.

28
FOOTNOTES
● Md Yunus: Yunus argued that national interest often serves the

interests of the elites, such as the Pakistani army, rather than
benefiting the broader population.
Hegemonic Stability Theory
Definition Hegemonic Stability Theory is an international relations concept that

suggests a single dominant power, known as a hegemon, plays a crucial
role in maintaining global stability and order. The hegemon's power and
willingness to enforce international norms and rules help prevent conflicts
and provide public goods for the international system.
Key Points Role of a Hegemon: According to the theory, a hegemon must possess
both the capacity and the willingness to ensure that other actors (states)
adhere to international norms and rules. The hegemon is responsible for
establishing a liberal world order that promotes cooperation, free trade,
and collective security.
● Benefits of Hegemony: A hegemon derives benefits from the
international system it helps create. It can shape the rules of the
system to its advantage, ensuring favorable economic and political
conditions. Hegemony allows the dominant power to dictate the
terms of international engagement.
● Duration of Hegemony: Hegemonic stability theory suggests that
hegemony typically lasts for a period of about a hundred years.
Beyond this point, the hegemon may become megalomaniacal and
overextend itself politically, economically, and militarily. Additionally,
free riders may take advantage of the system, leading to the decline
of the hegemon.
● Bipolar World Order: Some scholars, such as Waltz and Mearsheimer,
argue that bipolarity, where two superpowers balance each other's
power, is conducive to peace. They view bipolarity as a stable
configuration that reduces the likelihood of major conflicts.
Criticism of ● Unilateralism: Critics argue that the pursuit of hegemony can lead to
Hegemonic Stability unilateralism, where the dominant power disregards multilateral
Theory constraints and demonstrates a tendency to act unilaterally in its own
interests.
● Resentment and Hostility: The existence of a single dominant state
can breed resentment and hostility among other states, potentially
destabilizing the international system.
● Overextension: The theory's prediction of overextension by the
hegemon is criticized as speculative and not universally applicable.
Some argue that a hegemon can effectively manage its power and
resources.
Notable Scholars ● Robert Gilpin: A prominent scholar of international political economy,
Gilpin contributed to the understanding of hegemonic stability and its
effects on the international system.
● Charles Kindleberger: Kindleberger's work focused on the role of a
dominant power in maintaining global economic stability,
complementing the concept of hegemonic stability.

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FOOTNOTES
Deterrence
Introduction Deterrence is a concept in international relations that revolves around the

idea of discouraging potential adversaries or enemies from taking certain
actions, especially military aggression, by convincing them that the costs
or consequences of such actions would outweigh any potential benefits.
Deterrence is a psychological and strategic approach that assumes
rationality on the part of actors and relies on the credible threat of
retaliation to prevent undesirable actions.
Key Points ● Origin: The term "deterrence" is derived from the Latin word "de
terre," meaning to frighten or discourage. It gained prominence
during the Cold War when the United States and the Soviet Union
engaged in a nuclear arms race.
● Game Theory: Deterrence is often analyzed using game theory, a
mathematical approach to strategic decision-making. Game theory
helps policymakers understand how actors might behave under
various conditions and what strategies are likely to deter aggression.
● Thomas Schelling: Thomas Schelling, a prominent scholar of
deterrence, emphasized the use of power to hurt as a form of
bargaining power. He argued that the foundation of nuclear
deterrence is the ability to inflict unacceptable harm on an adversary.
● Psychological Concept: Deterrence operates on the psychological
level, influencing the calculations and decision-making of potential
adversaries. It assumes that actors are rational and will make choices
based on perceived costs and benefits.
● Credibility: Effective deterrence depends on the adversary's belief in
the credibility of the threat. The threat of retaliation must be
communicated clearly and convincingly. The adversary must believe
that the costs of initiating aggression or conflict are not worth the
potential gains.
● Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD): MAD is a concept closely
associated with deterrence during the Cold War. It is based on the
idea that both superpowers, the USA and the USSR, possessed enough
nuclear weapons to ensure that any nuclear conflict would result in
the total destruction of both sides. This served as a powerful
deterrent against the use of nuclear weapons in a direct
confrontation.
● K. Subrahmanyam: Subrahmanyam emphasized that deterrence is
more about perception than posture. The adversary's perception of a
credible threat plays a crucial role in deterrence.
● Bernard Brodie: Brodie's definition of credible nuclear deterrence is
one in which nuclear capabilities are always ready but never used.
This reflects the idea that the mere existence of a credible nuclear
arsenal can deter aggression.
● Arms Race: Deterrence can lead to arms races, as there is no absolute
upper limit to guarantee deterrence. States may seek to build up their
military capabilities in pursuit of greater deterrence.

30
FOOTNOTES
● 21st Century Challenges: In the 21st century, deterrence faces

challenges due to complex interdependence, non-state actors, and
low-level warfare. Nuclear deterrence is less effective against non-
state actors, and the political and moral taboo against using nuclear
weapons has increased.
● Selective Proliferation: Some scholars, like Waltz and Mearsheimer,
advocate for selective proliferation, suggesting that non-P5 countries
should be allowed to possess nuclear weapons to enhance deterrence
and maintain peace.
Criticism and ● Complex Interdependence: In an era of complex interdependence,

Relevance there is a reduced scope for hard power and traditional deterrence
strategies. Interconnectedness and interdependence between states
can limit the effectiveness of deterrence.
● Non-State Actors: The main security threats in the 21st century often
come from non-state actors, such as terrorist organizations, against
whom nuclear weapons are not a practical deterrent.
● Moral and Political Taboos: Nuclear deterrence is constrained by
political and moral taboos. The use of nuclear weapons is widely seen
as unacceptable by civil society, which can limit their utility as a
credible threat.
● Rationality Assumption: Deterrence relies on the assumption of
rationality on the part of adversaries. If adversaries are not rational or
are driven by non-calculative motives, deterrence may fail.
Conclusion Deterrence remains a central concept in international relations and

security studies. Its effectiveness depends on the credibility of threats and
the willingness to use force if necessary. While deterrence has been
successful in some cases, it faces new challenges in the 21st century due
to changing security dynamics and the emergence of non-state actors. The
moral, political, and strategic aspects of deterrence continue to be
subjects of debate and analysis.
Transnational Actors
Quotes "If competition in the biological field leads indirectly to the road of
progress, competition in the economic field is the very secret of that
progress.” – Seligman
Introduction ● Transnational actors are non-state entities that operate across
national borders, engaging in various activities, such as
commerce, advocacy, or even terrorism.
● These actors have gained increasing prominence in the
international system, challenging the traditional dominance of
nation-states.
● Examples of transnational actors include non-governmental
organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations (MNCs), and
terrorist organizations. Their growing influence reflects a shift
toward "post-sovereign governance" and "super-territoriality,"
signifying a diminishing emphasis on state actors in global affairs.

31
FOOTNOTES
Reasons for the

● Society-Centric World: John Burton's "cobweb model" suggests that
Growth of
international relations are increasingly influenced by societal
Transnational Actors
interactions, including those facilitated by transnational actors. This
model recognizes the importance of non-state actors in shaping
global dynamics.
● Complex Interdependence: The concept of "complex
interdependence," proposed by scholars like Robert Keohane and
Joseph Nye, highlights the multifaceted connections and
interdependence among states and non-state actors in contemporary
international relations.
● 3D Chessboard Model: This model recognizes the existence and
influence of non-state actors, alongside states and intergovernmental
organizations, in global politics.
Analysis of the Role of ● Realist Perspective: Realists often do not acknowledge the role of
MNCs MNCs in international relations, as they primarily focus on state actors
and power struggles among them.
● Liberal Perspective: Liberals recognize the importance of MNCs,
viewing them as positive agents that promote economic
interdependence, prosperity, and international cooperation. MNCs
are seen as contributors to globalization and the spread of liberal
values.
● Marxist Perspective: Marxists offer a critical view of MNCs,
highlighting their role in perpetuating global inequalities. They argue
that MNCs often prioritize profit over the well-being of workers and
communities, leading to the development of underdevelopment in
many countries. MNCs have been criticized for environmental
degradation and exploiting cheap labor in developing nations. Some
argue that they contribute to the core-periphery divide in the world
system.
● Political Influence: MNCs can exert significant political influence,
often acting as pressure groups through political funding and
lobbying. Their interests may align with those of their home states,
and they may influence foreign policy decisions.
● Military-Industrial Complex: In the United States, the military-
industrial complex has a vested interest in maintaining global
instability, as it ensures a constant demand for weapons and defense
spending.
● Economic Power: Some MNCs have revenues that exceed the GDP of
many smaller countries, giving them considerable economic power
and influence on the global stage.
Role of NGOs ● Realist Perspective: Realists tend to downplay the role of NGOs, as
they focus on state-centric power dynamics and competition among
states.
● Liberal Perspective: Liberals see NGOs as positive actors that uphold
human rights, promote humanitarian values, and provide valuable
services. The United Nations recognizes the role of NGOs as
consultative bodies attached to the Economic and Social Council
(ECOSOC).

32
FOOTNOTES
● Political Influence: NGOs often engage in political activism and

advocacy, making them influential in shaping public opinion and
influencing policy decisions. Their annual budgets can surpass the
GDP of many small countries.
● Regime Change and Controversies: Some NGOs have been accused
of attempting regime change in certain countries, leading to tensions
with national governments. In some cases, NGOs have faced criticism
and accusations of undermining national sovereignty.
Role of Terrorist ● Historical Context: Terrorist organizations have played a role in
Organizations international politics throughout history. The assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian extremist, leading to World
War I, is one example.
● Proxy Warfare: In the aftermath of the creation of Israel and the
failure of direct wars by Arab nations, terrorist organizations have
sought to engage in proxy wars to achieve their objectives.
● State Sponsorship: Several countries, particularly in the Middle East
and South Asia, have been accused of sponsoring terrorism as part of
their foreign policy, leading to increased security challenges globally.
● Contemporary Threats: The rise of organizations like ISIS and Al-
Qaeda presents new challenges to global security, as these groups
operate on a transnational scale, using asymmetrical tactics.
Conclusion ● Transnational actors have become integral to the landscape of

international relations, challenging the dominance of nation-
states.
● They play diverse roles, from promoting economic
interdependence to advocating for human rights or engaging in
acts of terrorism. The influence and impact of these actors
continue to evolve, posing both opportunities and challenges for
the international community.
● Understanding their roles and motivations is essential for
navigating the complexities of contemporary global politics.
COLD WAR
Quotes “Cold war is a brain war, a nerve war and a propaganda war in operation.”
– Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru
“The Cold War is over. The world has become much more complicated” –
Vladimir Putin
Cold War Chronology 1917 - Bolshevik Revolution and Lenin's Foreign Policy:
● The Bolshevik Revolution in Russia marked the rise of communist rule
under Vladimir Lenin.
● Lenin's foreign policy emphasized the need to spread communism
beyond Russia's borders, forming the basis for international
communist expansion.
● Lenin established the Communist International (Comintern) to
promote communist ideologies globally.
Stalin's Cominform and Pacts:

33
FOOTNOTES
● Joseph Stalin, Lenin's successor, formed the Cominform (Communist

Information Bureau) to support communist guerrillas in European
countries and establish pro-Soviet regimes.
● Stalin entered into a non-aggression pact with Nazi Germany in 1939
(Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) and a neutrality pact with Japan in 1941.
● These actions were viewed with suspicion by Western powers,
indicating an attempt by the Soviet Union to challenge the existing
international order.
World War II and Delayed Second Front:

● World War II saw a delay by the Western Allies, particularly the United
States and the United Kingdom, in opening a second front against Nazi
Germany.
● Stalin believed that the delay was intentional, as he suspected that
Western powers wanted the Soviet Union and Germany to weaken
each other.
Post-World War II Developments:

● The Manhattan Project, a secret U.S. nuclear program, led to the
development and use of nuclear weapons against Japan, marking the
end of World War II.
● The United States claimed significant credit for ending the war.
Cold War Initiatives ● 1946: George Kennan (Mr. X) sent the "Long Telegram," outlining the
containment policy that guided U.S. strategy during the Cold War. It
depicted the Soviet Union as a permanent adversary committed to
the eradication of capitalism.
● 1947: The Truman Doctrine was announced, symbolizing the active
U.S. involvement in global affairs. It offered assistance to nations
fighting for freedom and self-determination, effectively marking the
end of the Monroe Doctrine.
● 1947: The Marshall Plan, designed to rebuild Europe, aimed to
prevent the spread of communism. In response, the Soviet Union
initiated the Molotov Plan to provide aid to Eastern European
countries.
Key Developments ● Europe: The Berlin Blockade heightened tensions and established a
During the Cold War strategic bipolarity in Europe. The construction of the Berlin Wall in
1961 symbolized the division of Europe.
● Asia-Pacific: The victory of communism in China shifted influence
away from the United States and limited U.S. influence to Taiwan. The
Vietnam War showed the limitations of U.S. containment efforts.
● Middle East: The establishment of Israel in 1948 marked a U.S.
outpost in the Mediterranean. The Suez Crisis in 1956 signaled the
end of British hegemony in the region.
● Cuba: The Cuban Revolution led to the rise of communism in Cuba,
resulting in the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, a major Cold War
standoff.

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FOOTNOTES
Détente and Arms ● Détente was a phase of improved relations between the United States
Control and the Soviet Union, marked by the signing of several arms control
agreements, including the Partial Test Ban Treaty (PTBT), Outer Space
Treaty, Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), and Anti-Ballistic
Missile (ABM) Treaty.
● Both superpowers were engaged in an arms race during the Cold War,
leading to significant advancements in military technology.
End of the Cold War The presidency of Ronald Reagan saw the end of détente. The U.S. support
for the Afghan mujahideen was part of efforts to challenge communism
in Afghanistan.
● The Malta Summit in 1989 between Soviet President Gorbachev and
U.S. President Bush signaled the official end of the Cold War.
● Subsequent agreements, such as the START-1 treaty and the
dissolution of the Warsaw Pact, marked the conclusion of the Cold
War era.
Reasons for the ● Several theories attempt to explain the collapse of the Soviet Union,
Disintegration of the including internal factors, policies of external actors, and economic
USSR issues.
Present State and Cold ● The Cold War era is over, and the world is no longer characterized by
War Comparisons bipolarity.
● Contemporary geopolitics involve different dynamics, including the
rise of China and multipolar power structures.
China's Role and ● China has emerged as a significant global player, and Russia maintains
Russia's Continued influence in international affairs.
Influence ● China's rise has led to discussions about Cold War 2.0, but some argue
that the primary threat today is posed by China, rather than a revived
Cold War with Russia.
Conclusion ● The Cold War was a defining era in international relations,
characterized by ideological, political, and military tensions between
the United States and the Soviet Union. Its end brought significant
changes to the global political landscape, with the dissolution of the
Soviet Union and the reconfiguration of power dynamics. Today's
international politics differ in many ways from the Cold War era, with
new actors, challenges, and opportunities shaping the global order.
Non-Aligned Movement

35
FOOTNOTES
Quotes ● “Non-alignment can be best defined as not entering into

military alliances with any country and in particular with any
country either of the western or of the communist bloc.” –
Appadorai
Introduction
● NAM 🡪The movement of third world country which emerged after
2nd WW.
● The term first coined by George Liska
o describes the policies of the states which decided not to
join either of the two power blocs.
o They sought a level playing field in global geopolitics that
emerged in post war period
● Focused 🡪 preserving the newly gained freedom and sovereignty
of third world countries.
● During its early days, its actions were key factors in the
decolonization process.
● And it has played an important role in preserving world peace and
security.
Bandung Conference
● Bandung Asian-African conference in 1955 is considered as the
most immediate antecedent to the creation of NAM.
● Newly independent states of Africa and Asia gathered to
inaugurate a new approach to inter-state relations.
● Objective 🡪 identify and assess world issues and pursuing joint
policies in international relations.
● Another important reason 🡪 For newly independent Development
and increasing standard of living was main concern.
o Therefore, they did not want to be part of either Western
or Eastern block and become part of the cold war.
● ‘Ten Principles of Bandung’ were proclaimed at the conference.
● These principles were later adopted as the main goals and
objectives of NAM.
10 Principles of Bandung 1. Respect for fundamental human rights and for the purposes and
the principles of the Charter of the United Nations.
2. Respect for the sovereignty and territorial integrity of all nations.
3. Recognition of the equality of all races and of the equality of all
nations large and small.
4. Abstention from intervention or interference in the internal affairs
of another country.
5. Respect for the right of each nation to defend itself singly or
collectively, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations.

36
FOOTNOTES
6. Abstention from the use of arrangements of collective defense to

serve the particular interests of any of the big powers, abstention
by any country from exerting pressures on other countries.
7. Refraining from acts or threats of aggression or the use of force
against the territorial integrity or political independence of any
country.
8. Settlement of all international disputes by peaceful means, such as
negotiation, conciliation, arbitration or judicial settlement as well
as other peaceful means of the parties’ own choice, in conformity
with the Charter of the United Nations.
9. Promotion of mutual interests and cooperation.
10. Respect for justice and international obligation.
Belgrade Summit
● Six years after Bandung the Movement of Non-Aligned countries
was founded at the First Summit Conference of Belgrade.
● The conference was attended by members of 25 countries from
Asia, Africa and Europe, and Latin America (Cuba).
● The NAM was declared as ‘movement’ through an initiative of
o Indian Prime Minister J.L. Nehru
o Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah
o Indonesian President Sukarno
o Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser
o Yugoslav President Josip Broz Tito
Nehru’s Views on NAM
● For Nehru, NAM did not mean isolation or neutrality.
● He held that NAM stands for
o An active role in world affairs (like India’s mediation in
drafting an armistice in the Korean war)
o Friendship and cooperation with all countries
o Taking independent positions based on merit of each issue
and requirements of national interest.
Early Objectives and
● Support of self-determination, national independence,
Achievements
sovereignty and territorial integrity of states.
● Opposition to apartheid, non-adherence to multilateral military
pacts,
● Struggle against imperialism and colonialism, racism, foreign
occupation etc.
● Strengthening of United Nations, democratization of International
Relations, socio-economic development as well as international
cooperation.
● In the 1950s the movement played an important role in support of
nations struggling for independence and against colonization.
● The Third world showed great solidarity under leadership of NAM
and the movement gained considerable diplomatic prestige.
Evolution and present
● In the 1960s and 1970s nearly all Asian and African countries
status of Movement
included.
● Economic and political rights of third world countries included.

37
FOOTNOTES
● Algiers conference in 1973 concept of ‘New International

Economic Order’.
● By the end of the 1980s, questions were raised about the
relevance of NAM.
o End of Cold War and collapse of Socialist Block.
o It was assumed that the existence of antagonistic blocks
was the prime reason for its emergence.
● Nevertheless, the principles and objectives of NAM are still
relevant at present international juncture.
o The end of one block has not done away with the problems
of the world.
o On the contrary, new issues like terrorism and climate
change have emerged which necessitate global
coordination.
● 14th NAM summit in Havana 🡪 Member countries reaffirmed their
commitments to the ideals, principles and purposes of NAM.
o The leaders stated their firm belief that absence of two
conflicting blocs in no way reduced the need to strengthen
the movement.
o It also adopted renewed Purposes and Principles of the
movement in the present international scenario.
Summit during Covid-19
● Online summit of NAM in the wake of covid19. Indian PM
participated-
● Called for all NAM members to pool in their resources, experiences
and best practices
● Today humanity faces its most serious crisis. At this time, the NAM
can help promote global solidarity
● Stating NAM as “world’s moral voice” he called for Nam countries
for a cooperative global response in line with founding principles
of the movement
● Suggested to promote human welfare and not focus on economic
growth alone
● Said democracy, discipline and decisiveness can come together to
create a genuine people’s movement to fight COVID-19
Views of C Rajamohan
● When questions were raised on NAM’s relevance, India should
have agreed to disband the movement.
● Best time for the graceful exit for a platform with no achievement
in the past and no prospects for the future.
● It was the best time as the NAM issue had taken the credit of
ending the cold war.
o NAM countries should have declared the ‘mission
accomplished’.
Prime Minister Narsimha
● It is wrong to think that the main agenda of NAM was related to
Rao’s Views
the superpower rivalry.

38
FOOTNOTES
● It was just a coincidence that NAM was born at the time of cold
war.
● NAM has a broader agenda, to address the concerns of third world
countries.
● He held that even when there is a single superpower, it does not
mean that we have to align with the single superpower.
Critics of NAM: School of
● India was never truly non-aligned.
Realism: Tanvi Madan
o Aligned with the US in 50s & 60s and
o With the soviet after 1971 🡪 tackle China challenge
● In both cases alignment was designed to
o Help India build its own military and economic capabilities
o Deter malign behaviour from Beijing
C Rajamohan
● Says NAM is in a state of coma.
● It is passing through the crisis of identity and agenda deprivation.
● Said it was developed and used as a vehicle to pass through the
troubled waters of cold war and hence has no relevance now.
● India's obsession with NAM clouds its judgments in joining critical
alliances.
T P Srinivasan: A new
● NAM did benefit India
NAM for new norm
o Allowed India to promote its national interest as per its
preferences,
o Allowed India to manage through the situation of
bipolarity.
● NAM is relevant for India and India has stakes in the integrity of
NAM.
● India has to seek partnership with the countries so that India is
able to exercise its freedom of thought and action, away from the
influence of great powers like the US, Russia and China.
● In this regard K. Subramanyam says 🡪 “NAM as a policy doesn’t
mean neutrality i.e., Abdication of Choice, rather it means
Opportunity i.e., Freedom of Choice”.
Views of T V Paul
● Non alignment 🡪 rejection of military alliance
o Not any other politico-economic or cultural-intellectual
relations
● NAM never got the credit which it deserves.
● There has been an intellectual biasness against NAM.
● Despite all blemishes, NAM acted as the limited soft-balancing
mechanism.
● Some of the achievements of NAM can be listed as
o De-legitimizing the threatening behaviour of
superpowers.
o NAM does enjoy the partial credit towards ending
colonialism.

39
FOOTNOTES
o PTBT, nuclear weapon free zones, the development of

taboo against nuclear weapons has been because of
sustained pressure by NAM countries.
● NAM has used ‘naming and shaming’ tools against great powers.
● The intellectual biasness against NAM, a coalition of weaker states,
is natural and expected.
o Similar to biasness against the subaltern class movements
among upper classes and upper castes in hierarchical
societies.
Martand Jha
● Whether NAM is relevant for India or not depends on the prism
through which we look at NAM.
● NAM was started as a policy for autonomy, to establish peace and
security, to contain superpower’s hegemonic ambitions.
● Thus, NAM needs to be reinvented.
● It is the biggest platform of developing countries outside the
United Nations.
● It provides a platform for natural leadership of India.
● However, India needs to provide a concrete program of action,
goals and leadership.
Relevance of NAM in 21st
● A new Cold War is beginning to unfold, this time between the
century
United States (US) and China.
● India has every reason to try and preserve some political space in
between the two giants.
● Through BRICS and Quad, the focus has been on great power
politics rather than promoting the interests of the developing
world NAM can plug this gap.
● Finally, as a nation wants to become an independent pole in global
affairs, India could do more with forums like the NAM.
o For example, an independent Indian voice backed by
support within the NAM can make a big difference to the
outcomes of the impending contentions at the WHO, UN,
WTO etc.
Rethink of NAM
● Nehru after the 1962 conflict 🡪 “there could be no non-alignment
with regard to China,”
● India had failed to understand and grasp ‘neutralist realism’ and
had been pursuing ‘neutralist idealism’
● Thiruvalluvar 🡪 wisdom is to live in tune with the mode of the
changing world.
● PM Modi 🡪 there was a time when people were neutral by creating
equal distance but now, we are neutral by creating equal
partnership.
o The present regime has redefined Non alignment from
strategic autonomy to strategic alignment.
o India is now going for issue-based partnerships.

40
FOOTNOTES
● S. Jaishankar 🡪 “Multilateralism is undoubtedly under strain today.

o It is important that NAM continues to work together and
take the lead in building multilateral governance
structures that are capable of meeting the 21st Century
challenges.”
NAM 1.0 vs NAM 2.0
● One talks of staying away, other talks of building partnerships
● Strategies may change but underlying essence remains same
o Ensure India’s strategic autonomy and provide a
framework to navigate through the complexities of great
power politics
o From non-alignment to multi-alignment
UNITED NATIONS
Quotes
● United nations was not created to create heaven on earth, but to
prevent it from becoming hell 🡪 Dag Hammarskjöld
● No other body invokes as many dreams yet so many frustrations like
United Nations 🡪 Gareth Evans, former foreign minister of Australia.
● “UN is the creation of member states and is therefore malleable to
their wishes. It will succeed, if they wish, otherwise it will become
the relic of the past” – Harry S Truman
● “The UN is the mirror of our society. It cannot be more successful
than we want. It is not the UN's failure. It is our failure.” – Tharoor
● “If we don’t change the council, we risk a situation where the
primacy of the council may be challenged by some of the new
emerging countries.” – UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan
● “The LoN went into meltdown because it was unwilling to accept the
need for reform. We must not make that mistake.” – Former EAM
Shushma Swaraj
● “We need only reformed multilateralism with a reformed United
Nations at its centre to meet the aspirations of humanity.” – Modi
Objective of United
● As mentioned in the preamble, the envisaged role of the UN is to
Nations
save the succeeding generations from the scourge of war.
● It also aims to promote the respect for human rights, recognition of
equality of status of nations, big or small, social progress and better
standard of life in larger freedom.
● The three pillars of UN system are:
1) Protection of World Peace
2) Protection of Human Rights.
3) Promotion of development
Actual record
● The actual record of the UN has to be measured with respect to the
United Nations achievements in realizing the core objectives.
● UN’s achievement in maintaining peace.

41
FOOTNOTES
o Unfortunately, because of east and west conflict, UN could

not take any effective role in its prime objective.
o Collective security has remained paralyzed and at present,
the commitment of countries for peacekeeping is
weakening.
o The UN could not play any effective role towards the
resolution of the crisis.
o E.g., in the Korean Peninsula, Between India and Pakistan.
Even the Palestinian issue remains unresolved.
● UN’s role towards the protection of Human rights
o The Rohingya crisis, the crisis in Syria, and the crisis in many
countries of Africa show the failure of the international
community towards protecting human rights.
o Even the human rights regime has become prey to the
geopolitical ambitions of great powers.
● Development
o To a certain extent, if there is some achievement of the UN,
it is in the field of development. We can say the most
successful UN agency has been WHO.
o However, the UN's role as a major platform for
development partnership has been taken by other
institutions. Even the WTO, IMF have sidelined the UN with
respect to the development agenda.
Present situation
● The UN is facing multiple crises and is in the need of urgent reforms.
● In the age of America first, the USA has even threatened to come
out of the UN also.
● The UN has been a platform to establish the hegemony of the USA.
● However once the USA realized that other countries prefer to utilize
the platform to counter US hegemony, the USA started undermining
the platform.
● USA has been the biggest defaulter in paying the membership dues.
● One of the major weaknesses of the UN is finances.
● As per 2013 data, the UN budget was $45 bn, which implied per
capita expenditure of $6 per person per year.
● It is highly inadequate considering the global challenges. We are
living in an age when multilateralism as such is coming to an end.
● Like NAM, the UN is also facing the crisis of credibility and relevance.
● Gareth Evans, the former foreign minister of Australia was right in
his assessment of the UN when he held that ‘no other body invokes
as many dreams yet so many frustrations like the United Nations ‘.
Do we need the UN?
● According to former Secretary General Ban Ki Moon, ‘we need more
UN than less UN ‘.
● The rise of global threats has gone beyond the capacity of a single
nation including the superpower to deal on its own.
Has the UN failed?
● It is not the UN's failure; it is our failure.

42
FOOTNOTES
● We can quote former US president Truman. On the event of

inauguration of UN he held that
o The UN is malleable to the wishes of those who are running
the institution. It cannot be more successful than what we
desire. We should not forget the sacrifices of those, because
of whom we are here and creating this body. If we do not
fulfil the objectives of the UN, we will be betraying such men
and women who sacrificed their lives in hope of peace and
justice.
UN Reforms
Why are reforms
● Some form of the institution of global governance is always needed.
needed?
● Even if we end the UN, we will have to recreate the UN.
● Hence it is better to reform the UN. Reform is natural in the
evolution of any institution so that it remains relevant.
What reforms are
● Institutional reforms
needed?
● Reform of the UN Charter.
o Art 2(7) prohibits the UN from intervention in domestic
affairs.
o UN charter still mentions certain states as enemy states
(Axis powers) they are all now UN members, aspiring for
permanent membership.
● Reform in General Assembly
o No reform is needed but better coordination is required
between the general assembly and security council.
● Reforms in the UN Security Council – Discussed in detail below.
● ECOSOC (Economic and Social Council).
o Number of agencies has grown too much in number with
huge overlapping. Hence streamlining is needed.
● Trusteeship council
o This body has no work now. It has long completed its work.
Either abolish this body or give a new mandate to the body.
E.g., Governing the global commons. (Space, Antarctic etc.)
● UN Secretariat’
o Address Red tapeism, right sizing of bureaucracy, greater
representation from developing countries, training and
capacity building
● Peacekeeping
o It needs more budget; however, the US administration had
announced a cut of $600mn.
● Refer separate article on UN Peacekeeping.
● Financial reforms
o Increase the budget. All countries should pay their due in
time. Ensure an independent source of income. E.g. Towing
tax (tax on international financial transactions). Handling
corruption.

43
FOOTNOTES
How to reform?
● Institutional reforms except secretariat reforms require amendment
of the UN Charter.
● Art 108 of the UN charter deals with amendment. It is extremely
rigid. That is why the UN Charter has been reformed only five times
since its birth e.g. to increase the strength of non-permanent
members in UNSC, to increase the strength of members of ECOSOC.
● Proposal for amendment has to be initiated by 2/3 members of the
General Assembly, passed by 2/3 members. This 2/3 requires
consent of P5 also.
● Then it has to be ratified by the domestic ratification procedure in
2/3rd of the countries.
WTO
Quotes “The market is a good servant but a bad master.”
INTRODUCTION ● The World Trade Organization (WTO) plays a crucial role in

regulating global trade and ensuring that it flows as smoothly,
predictably, and freely as possible.
● It was established in 1995 under the Marrakesh Treaty,
succeeding the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).
● The WTO is based on the principles of liberal institutionalism and
interdependence, aiming to promote peace through enhanced
trade relations among countries, creating complex
interdependence.
Foundations and ● The WTO is rooted in the liberal ideology of promoting peace and
Principles economic development through increased international trade.
● It is based on David Ricardo's model of comparative advantage, which
posits that countries should focus on producing goods and services in
which they have a comparative advantage to stimulate job creation
and economic growth.
● The WTO operates on the premise that trade, rather than aid, can
address the economic challenges faced by developing countries.
Principles of the WTO ● Non-Discrimination: Member countries are expected not to

discriminate against one another in their trade practices.
● Reciprocity: Concessions made by countries in trade negotiations
should be mutual, leading to fair trade.
Pillars of the WTO Dispute Resolution Mechanism: Provides a platform for resolving trade
disputes, giving confidence to smaller countries.
● Ensuring Free Trade: Works to reduce trade barriers and open
markets further.
● Monitoring Mechanism: Monitors member countries to ensure they
adhere to their commitments.

44
FOOTNOTES
Challenges and Issues ● The trade war between the United States and China, marked by tariff
impositions.
● Consensus-based decision-making has led to a stalemate in key
negotiations.
● The WTO's dispute resolution mechanism is costly and time-
consuming.
● Issues related to WTO principles, such as the grant of Most-Favored
Nation (MFN) status and self-declaration of "developing country
status" by some countries.
● Disputes regarding Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPS), particularly concerning generic medicines, compulsory
licensing, and import substitution.
● Many countries are finalizing e-commerce rules outside the WTO
framework.
● The WTO's appellate body has ceased functioning due to the lack of
judges, impacting its dispute resolution mechanism.
Relevance of WTO ● The WTO regulates 98% of global trade flows and has significantly
reduced average tariff values since its establishment.
● Trade as a share of world GDP has grown from 24% in 1960 to 60%
today, fueling economic growth, job creation, and increased incomes.
● The interdependence of national economies makes the breakdown of
the WTO a major threat to the international trade order.
Importance for India ● India is not a member of major regional trade agreements like RCEP
and CPTPP, making the WTO a significant platform.
● It provides a forum for developing countries to unite against
developed countries' policies.
● India sees the WTO as a democratic institution where each country
has one vote, unlike the quota system of Bretton Woods or the
permanent membership of the UN Security Council.
Challenges for India ● India faces scrutiny over its subsidies to sugarcane farmers and may
need to address these concerns.
● Cooperation between developed and developing countries is crucial
for progress within the WTO.
● The WTO should ensure transparency and openness in trade in
services, which constitute two-thirds of global GDP.
Conclusion India advocates for a rules-based, transparent, non-discriminatory,

equitable, open, and inclusive multilateral trading system through the
WTO. While the organization faces challenges and issues, it remains a vital
forum for promoting global trade and economic development while
ensuring a level playing field for all member countries.

45
FOOTNOTES
REGIONALISATION OF WORLD POLITICS

ASEAN
Difference in
● EU is intrusive on member countries even in domestic sphere.
approach of EU and
o Imposes lot of conditionalities
ASEAN
● ASEAN follow ASEAN way.
o It is based on Panchsheel – Non-interference in domestic
affairs and respect for sovereignty and territorial integrity.
● EU is supranational
o Having power that transcends national boundaries
● ASEAN is international
o System that respects national boundaries
● EU has introduced qualified majority whereas ASEAN follows
consensus-based approach.
● EU has gone for unified currency whereas ASEAN did not, rather 🡪
currency swap arrangement.
Comparison between
● Both are examples of the regional integration in third world.
ASEAN and SAARC
● If ASEAN is the most advanced example, SAARC is the worst example
of regional integration.
o According to former foreign secretary S Jaishankar, SAARC is
a jammed vehicle.
o According to C Rajamohan, Pakistan is a camel in the caravan
of SAARC, which slows down the traffic.
Milestones in ASEAN
Bangkok declaration
● 5 Original countries
1967
o Singapore
o Malaysia
o Thailand
o Philippines
o Indonesia
● ASEAN was seen as pro-US block.
o With the exception of Indonesia which was non-aligned,
other countries were pro-US.
● India was invited to become the original member,
o However, India refused because India didn’t want to be a part
of pro-US coalition.
● It states the basic principles of ASEAN: co-operation, amity, and non-
interference.
o The date is now celebrated as ASEAN Day. (8 August 1967)
● One theory suggest ASEAN was formed as a display of solidarity
against communist expansion in Vietnam and communist insurgency
within their own borders.
o However, there is nothing from ASEAN written that actually
says this.

46
FOOTNOTES
● Issues resolved
o Prevention of Communism
o Tensions between Neighbours
Comparison with
● In 1965 India and Pakistan had gone for war.
South Asia
● 1971 – ASEAN countries declare ASEAN as a zone of peace, friendship
and neutrality 🡪 ZOPFAN
o Why? To avoid arms race.
● 1976 – Treaty of Amity and Cooperation (TAC treaty) – All countries
will resolve the dispute in a peaceful manner.
o ASEAN enters into TAC treaty with its partner countries also
e.g., India has also signed TAC with ASEAN.
o No such treaty exists among the countries of South Asia.
● 1976 – Bali Concord 1.
o The program for social development of ASEAN region.
o No such program for South Asia.
● 1977 – ASEAN preferential trading arrangement.
o In 1997 i.e. After 20 years, SAARC countries entered into
SAPTA. (South Asian Preferential Trading Agreement).
● 1992 – ASEAN free trade agreement.
o In 2004 SAARC countries agreed to create SAFTA (South Asian
FTA)
o So far it has not materialized.
● 1994 – ASEAN regional forum.
o It is ASEAN’s initiative for regional security.
o This is the only security dialogue platform in Asia which
includes North and South Korea, India and Pakistan.
● 1995 – ASEAN countries declared ASEAN as a nuclear weapon free
zone.
o In 1998 India and Pakistan became nuclear weapon states.
● 1997 – ASEAN adopted vision 2020. They achieved target 5 years
earlier, hence the new vision was adopted in 2015.
o In 1997 ASEAN free trade agreement in investment.
o No such agreement in South Asia
●
Overall Assessment
● Thus, ASEAN has been a very successful model of regional integration.
● Intra-ASEAN trade has gone to 25% of their total trade whereas Intra-
SAARC trade has stagnated to 5% of the total trade South Asian
countries have with the world.
● EU countries have Intra-regional trade of 64% of their total external
trade.
Views of Kishore
● ASEAN is an example of pragmatic regionalism.
Mahbubani
● Means instead of blindly imitating EU, ASEAN countries develop their
own model as per the situation prevailing in the region.
● ASEAN way is slower but politically viable.

47
FOOTNOTES
o ASEAN movement has been like a crab, but ASEAN progress

is tangible.
● Book: ASEAN MIRACLE 🡪 South East Asia has achieved very high
degree of peace and stability.
Views of C A Fisher
● Academic community was sceptical of success of ASEAN.
(British Historian)
● British historian C A Fisher called the region as ‘Balkans of Asia’.
● There have been wars between
o Vietnam and Cambodia
o China and Vietnam
● Conflicts between
o Singapore and Malaysia
o Thailand and Philippines
● Territorial disputes in South China Sea.
Challenges to ASEAN
US China rivalry
● Present rivalry is limited to trade war.
o Trade war will have global ramifications i.e., slowdown of
global growth/demand.
● It is predicted that there is huge possibility of war between the
revisionist power (China) and status-quoist power USA (Thucydides
trap).
How is rivalry
● ASEAN solidarity is breaking down.
affecting ASEAN?
● Why?
● USA’s economic decline also reduces the attraction of other countries
towards USA.
● In such situations, it is natural for ASEAN countries to go for either
o Bandwagoning with China (Philippines, Laos, Cambodia,
Vietnam, Australia).
o Balancing – to counterbalance the regional hegemon, some
countries of ASEAN region are looking for greater strategic
engagement with India.
Internal Issues in
● Regional divide e.g., Singapore is one of the most advanced
ASEAN
economies, Myanmar is one of the weakest.
● According to IMF report, there are governance challenges which
undermine business environment.
o Some of the families are owning huge enterprises, crony
capitalism exists.
▪ Similarly, in some of the states, there are state
controlled enterprises.
o The problem of corruption and red-tapeism.
o There is lack of inclusive growth.
o Failure to control organized crimes
● One of the two major challenges in front of ASEAN is how to deal with
Rohingya issue.

48
FOOTNOTES
o Rohingya issue is one of the spin-offs of US-China rivalry but

more of a India-China rivalry.
o One of the reasons for Rohingya crisis is to defeat the Indian
initiative of BIMSTEC.
● South China Sea dispute.
BRICS
Overview BRICS, an acronym representing Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South
Africa, was coined by Jim O'Neill, the chief economist of Goldman Sachs,
in 2001. The group represents a collection of major emerging economies
that are expected to play a significant role in the global economic
landscape.
Key Points About
● Economic Significance: The BRICS countries collectively account for a
BRICS
substantial portion of the world's population (43%) and GDP (37%).
They also hold a 17% share in global trade.
● Platform for Cooperation: BRICS serves as an important platform for
South-South cooperation, enabling member countries to collaborate
on various global issues.
● Areas of Cooperation: The BRICS nations cooperate on a range of
issues, including international terrorism, climate change, food and
energy security, and the reform of international institutions such as
the Bretton Woods organizations.
● BRICS Summits: Regular BRICS summits provide leaders with the
opportunity to discuss and coordinate on various matters. India,
during the 2016 summit, introduced the I4C approach, emphasizing
Institution building, Implementation of decisions, Integration of
existing mechanisms, and Innovation.
● BRICS Economic Partnership Strategy 2020-25: At the 12th BRICS
summit in 2020, member countries signed a strategy with three
pillars: trade and investment, the digital economy, and sustainable
development. India advocated for increasing intra-BRICS trade to
$500 billion.
● BRICS Payment System: BRICS has explored the development of a
payment system as an alternative to the Western-dominated SWIFT
banking system. Transactions would be conducted in member
nations' currencies rather than the USD.
● Contingent Reserve Agreement (CRA): BRICS members established
the CRA with an initial size of $100 billion to address short-term
liquidity demands, providing a financial safety net.
● New Development Bank (NDB): The NDB, also known as the BRICS
Bank, finances infrastructure and sustainable development projects in
member countries.
Challenges and Issues

● Divergence on Certain Issues: While there is consensus on reforming
international institutions like the World Bank, World Trade

49
FOOTNOTES
Organization (WTO), and International Monetary Fund (IMF), there

are differences on matters such as United Nations Security Council
(UNSC) reform, Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) membership, and
counter-terrorism efforts.
● Geopolitical Differences: There are significant geopolitical
differences among BRICS members, including China's dominant
position within the group, concerns about the growing Sino-Russian
alliance, and India's alignment with the Quad, which includes the
United States, Japan, and Australia.
● Interdependence with the West: BRICS nations have greater
economic interdependence with the United States and Europe than
among themselves.
Future of BRICS
● BRICS has the potential to leverage its vast natural resources, military
capabilities, and manpower to become a formidable global bloc.
● The group plays a role in shaping the evolving world order and
collaborates with other regions like Africa and Latin America on
developmental projects.
● The future of BRICS will depend on its ability to overcome geopolitical
differences, strengthen economic ties, and effectively address global
challenges.
Conclusion BRICS, at 15 years old, represents an important forum for major emerging
economies to coordinate on global issues. While it faces challenges and
differences among its members, it continues to be a platform for dialogue,
cooperation, and repositioning its member countries in a changing world
order. The forum's future relevance will depend on its ability to navigate
these challenges and foster greater unity among its diverse members.
SAARC – Past Performance & Future Prospects
SAARC
● Brainchild of Bangladesh President Zia-ur-Rehman.
● It came into existence in 1985.
● Afghanistan joined in 2007.
● SAARC can be called as one of the worst examples of a regional
integration.
● The SAARC caravan is like a jammed vehicle.
● SAARC has been in deadlock since 2016 after the Pathankot attack
in Jan 2016.
● SAARC is based on the principles of Panchsheel.
o Panchsheel 🡪 Westphalian idea i.e., respect for sovereignty,
non-interference in domestic affairs.
Features of South Asia
● South Asia is the least integrated of all regions with the exception of
the Middle east.
● The largest number of poor in the world.

50
FOOTNOTES
● Most vulnerable to natural disasters.

● Extremely vulnerable to nuclear war.
● Extremely vulnerable to conventional and non-conventional
security threats.
o Like 🡪 human trafficking, organised crime, religious
extremism.
● Extremely vulnerable to the great power politics because of its
strategic location.
● South Asia is a conflictual region in the arc of instability starting from
Eastern Africa to the Middle East and reaching to South East Asia.
o Hence there is an urgent need for regional integration.
Achievements of SAARC
● According to former prime minister Manmohan Singh, it depends
upon how we look at SAARC. There can be two ways
o Glass is half filled.
o Glass is half empty
● In comparison to EU and ASEAN, SAARC has no significant
achievements
o Intra-regional trade stagnated.
o No chance of SAFTA coming into existence.
o The idea of South Asian community is unthinkable
● But It Still has few achievement
o SAARC satellite
o South Asian University
o South Asian food bank
o South Asian Film Festival
o South Asian milk grid
o South Asia agency for DMM
o South Asian federation games
Reasons of the failure
● Reasons of the failure of SAARC
of SAARC
● Indo-Pak relations are responsible for the failure of SAARC to a great
extent.
● Yet there are some structural problems also in SAARC.
● Structural problems
o Negative mindset 🡪
▪ Formed with the view to challenge India’s regional
hegemony
▪ Perceived as coalition of Indian neighbours, to
balance India
▪ Pakistan thought, not to leave India free and joined
SAARC to oppose Indian proposals
o No external push factor like USA & EU, rather South Asia
became prey to superpower rivalry.
o A huge asymmetry exists among countries of South Asia.
o South Asian economies have been inward looking 🡪 no
scope for economic interdependence.

51
FOOTNOTES
o Pakistan is still suffering the crisis of its identity.

▪ The two-nation theory suffered setback in 1971
▪ Pakistan wants to strengthen its separate identity
rather than strengthening South Asian identity.
o The foreign policy followed by India towards smaller
neighbours has been a continuation of British Foreign
Policy.
▪ Since the integration of Sikkim, formation of
Bangladesh, IPKF mission in Sri Lanka, Indian
neighbours look at India as an imperialist power.
o The SAARC decision making based on consensus is also
problematic and there is a need that SAARC countries
should adopt some sort of qualified voting.
o Connectivity is the key to regional integration to promote
trade.
▪ So long the trust deficit exists between India and
Pakistan, SAARC will not be able to achieve the
transit agreement, which is crucial.
Future prospects of
● No light at the end of the tunnel.
SAARC
o India is following the policy of SAARC minus Pakistan 🡪
shifted the focus towards BIMSTEC
o Once CPEC becomes a reality 🡪 no motivation for Pakistan
to have regional integration with South Asia.
● Why does Pakistan want SAARC to be alive?
o China wants entry into SAARC.
o Since India is avoiding an FTA with China, RCEP is uncertain,
China’s presence in South Asia will appear more legitimate
through SAARC.
● What is India’s attitude towards China’s entry in SAARC?
o India does not want China’s entry as India will become weak
in its own region.
o South Asian neighbours will go to China to counterbalance
India.
● What is India’s position?
o India is not against expansion of SAARC but India insists first
on the consolidation of SAARC.
o Since China included India in SCO, it becomes difficult for
India to oppose China’s entry.
Should China be
● Yes, China should be allowed in SAARC.
allowed in SAARC?
● Reasons
o China is already there in South Asia.
o If China comes, SAARC may start working.
o The smaller countries of South Asia may get more
confidence.
o South Asia needs lot of investment for infrastructure
development 🡪 China capable
● However, it is just an academic view that China should be in SAARC.

52
FOOTNOTES
o India will never agree to China’s presence, specifically in the

North East.
o Even Pakistan would not be willing that SAARC becomes
successful because the success of SAARC would mean
annulment of partition.
Views of Indian PMs
Manmohan Singh
● “I dream of a day, while retaining our respective national identities,
one can have breakfast in Amritsar, lunch in Lahore, dinner in Kabul,
that is how my forefathers lived and that is how I want our
grandchildren to live.”
● “We have created institutions for regional cooperation, but we have
not yet empowered them adequately to enable them to be more
proactive.”
Narendra Modi
● The full potential of SAARC can only be realised in an atmosphere
free of terror and violence.
Views of Scholars
Sanjay Baru
● Book – INDIA AND THE WORLD: ESSAYS ON GEOECONOMICS AND
FOREIGN POLICY.
● The three factors have shaped the formation of regional
organizations.
o Market driven economy.
o Movement of people across borders.
o Political factors.
● All are missing; Instead of a trade deficit, there is a trust deficit.
● At present, out of three processes – Govt. to Govt. (G2G), People to
People(P2P), Business to Business (B2B) – only G2G operates.
● In South Asia, there has been no flying geese factor.
Happymon Jacob
● India’s attitude with the neighbourhood has not been so good.
● Delhi considers them irritants and challenges rather than
opportunity.
● India must deal with tricky situations in a more diplomatic manner.
● The way India dealt with Nepal during constitution making in 2015
was very sad.
● India should not meddle with domestic politics.
● New Delhi must not fail to follow up on its promises to its
neighbours.
● There is no point in competing with China, especially in domains
where China has advantage.
o e.g., Infrastructure projects.
● India should better invest in institution building and use of soft
power.
o e.g., SAU (South Asia University) can become a point of
integration.

53
FOOTNOTES
World Bank’s 2018

● A glass half full: points towards intra-SAARC trade to be 5%
report
amounting to $23B as compared to Intra-ASEAN trade
● The share of the bloc’s overall trade is 25% amounting to $67B and
intra-EU trade is 40%.
India’s efforts @ SAARC
● Building soft power in the region
o South Asian food bank
o Liberalising visa norms in SA university
o Extending its National Knowledge Network NKN to South
Asia
● During Covid, India:
o Created a COVID19 Emergency Fund with an initial
contribution of $10M
o Supplied essential drugs, PPE kits etc.
o Developed COINEX, a platform for exchange of specialised
info on COVID
Conclusion
● SAARC is not a choice but a necessity for meaningful regional
cooperation in South Asia.
● India should be the tide in South Asia that lifts all boats.
● Hence, India’s engagement with SAARC must be based on its
Neighbourhood first policy
BIMSTEC
INTRODUCTION The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic
Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is a regional organization formed in 1997 through
the Bangkok Declaration. It brings together countries from South Asia and
Southeast Asia, creating a unique platform for cooperation and
connectivity across the Bay of Bengal. Here are some key points about
BIMSTEC:
Composition and ● BIMSTEC comprises seven member countries: India, Bangladesh,
Significance Bhutan, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
● The organization represents a significant population of 1.6 billion
people and a combined GDP of $2.8 trillion.
● BIMSTEC plays a crucial role in connecting South and Southeast Asia,
with initiatives spanning various sectors.
Initiatives and Areas ● BIMSTEC conducts various initiatives and programs, including military
of Cooperation exercises (MILEX), disaster management, combating drug and human
trafficking, counter-terrorism efforts, tourism promotion (particularly
India's Buddhist tourist circuit), cultural cooperation, agriculture,
poverty alleviation, and the blue economy.
● The Bay of Bengal serves as a critical route for 25% of world trade, and
the region is rich in untapped natural resources, making it strategically
important for development.
● Connectivity projects, such as the Kaladan Multi-Modal Project and
the BIMSTEC Motor Vehicle Agreement, aim to enhance regional
connectivity.

54
FOOTNOTES
● A trilateral highway involving India, Myanmar, and Thailand is under

development.
● Negotiations are ongoing for a BIMSTEC Free Trade Agreement (FTA)
and a BIMSTEC Coastal Shipping Agreement.
India's Focus on ● India's interest in BIMSTEC is driven by the desire to bridge the geo-
BIMSTEC economic connectivity gap between the Indian subcontinent and
Southeast Asia.
● The region holds strategic importance due to its proximity to the
Malacca Strait, a critical maritime choke point.
● India views BIMSTEC as complementary to its "Act East" policy and a
means to strengthen its influence in the Indo-Pacific region.
● It also allows India to bypass the challenges posed by the Indo-
Pakistan rivalry, which affects cooperation within the South Asian
Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).
Concerns and ● BIMSTEC faces challenges such as limited intra-regional trade,

Challenges investment, and connectivity.
● The organization has had limited success in implementing key
initiatives and agreements.
● Critics argue that BIMSTEC is a reaction to the stalled SAARC process
and may not adequately address complex regional issues.
● While BIMSTEC provides a platform for connectivity, some member
countries have close economic ties with China through the Belt and
Road Initiative (BRI).
BIMSTEC vs SAARC ● BIMSTEC connects South Asia and Southeast Asia, while SAARC
focuses exclusively on South Asia.
● BIMSTEC enhances India's "Act East" policy and expands its influence
in the Indo-Pacific, bypassing Indo-Pak rivalry.
● However, BIMSTEC cannot replace SAARC, as SAARC includes Pakistan
and Afghanistan, and complex regional issues cannot be ignored.
Conclusion BIMSTEC is a regional organization with a mix of energy, mindset, and

possibilities. India sees it as a crucial platform for promoting cooperation
and connectivity across the Bay of Bengal, enhancing regional
development and strengthening its strategic position in the Indo-Pacific
region. While challenges exist, BIMSTEC continues to play a significant role
in facilitating regional cooperation and integration.
SHANGHAI COOPERATION ORGANIZATION
INTRODUCTION The Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), celebrating its 20th

anniversary in 2021, is a significant political, economic, and security
alliance comprising eight member states. Here are some key points about
the SCO:
Formation and ● The SCO was founded in 2001, evolving from the Shanghai Five Group,
Purpose which included China, Russia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan.
● It is guided by the "Shanghai Spirit," which emphasizes mutual trust,
mutual benefit, equality, and respect for cultural diversity.

55
FOOTNOTES
● The organization represents a substantial portion of the global

population, with member countries accounting for 42% of the world's
population and 20% of global GDP.
● Four SCO member states possess nuclear capabilities, and two are
permanent members of the United Nations Security Council (P5).
India's Role in SCO ● India was initially an observer in the SCO, gaining observer status in
2005, and subsequently became a full member in 2015.
● SCO membership enhances India's status as a major player in pan-
Asian affairs, extending its influence beyond the confines of South
Asia.
● It provides India with opportunities to connect with landlocked
Central Asian countries and aligns with India's "Connect Central Asia"
policy.
● The SCO also offers a platform for informal meetings between India
and regional neighbours, including China and Pakistan.
Key Functions and ● Since its inception, the SCO has primarily focused on addressing
Bodies regional non-traditional security issues, with a strong emphasis on
countering terrorism.
● The organization has two permanent bodies: the SCO Secretariat
located in Beijing and the Regional Anti-Terrorist Structure (RATS)
headquartered in Tashkent, Uzbekistan.
● A significant development in recent years has been the establishment
of the SCO-Afghanistan Contact Group, aimed at addressing the
situation in Afghanistan and promoting peace, stability, and economic
development in the region.
Regional Influence ● The SCO is often referred to as the "alliance of the East" and plays a
and Centrality central role in the Asia-Pacific region.
● It has emerged as the primary security pillar for the region, fostering
cooperation and dialogue among its member states.
India's Stance on BRI ● Notably, India is the only SCO member that has not endorsed China's
Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), raising concerns about the potential
strategic implications of the initiative.
Challenges and ● Despite its focus on countering terrorism, the SCO has faced
Concerns challenges in effectively addressing Pakistan's alleged use of terrorism
as an instrument of state policy.
● The organization continues to grapple with regional security issues
and achieve its objectives in Afghanistan.
Conclusion The SCO, in its 20 years of existence, has evolved into a significant regional
organization with a focus on promoting stability, security, and
cooperation among its member states. India's participation in the SCO
extends its influence and connectivity into Central Asia, contributing to
the realization of its foreign policy objectives in the region. While
challenges persist, the SCO remains an important platform for fostering
regional dialogue and cooperation in the Asia-Pacific region.

56
FOOTNOTES
IBSA (India, Brazil, South Africa)
Formation and ● Established in 2003 after Doha development agenda disagreements.

Purpose ● Comprises major democracies from different continents.
● Promotes inclusive sustainable development, democracy, human
rights, and multilateralism.
Cooperation Areas ● Includes government consultations, trilateral projects, and the IBSA
Fund.
● Executed 31 projects in 20 developing countries, contributing to SDGs.
● Conducts the IBSAMAR naval exercise.
India's Engagement ● India participates actively, reinforcing South-South cooperation.

● The success of IBSA showcases the feasibility of South-South
collaboration.
APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation)

Formation ● Founded in 1989, consisting of 21 Pacific Rim economies.
● Represents a significant share of the world's population, trade, and
GDP.
Features ● Operates on "open regionalism" principles, promoting non-

discrimination and open dialogue.
● No treaty obligations, and countries are regarded as member
economies.
● Focuses on trade, business facilitation, and economic cooperation.
India's Inclusion ● India's inclusion in APEC is desired for several reasons, including
boosting multilateralism.
● It offers access to India's labor force, markets, and investment
opportunities.
World Health Organization (WHO)

Mandate ● Established in 1948 as a UN specialized agency to address global
health challenges.
● Coordinates global efforts against diseases like polio, HIV, and
pandemics.
● Sets norms and standards for healthcare.
Structure ● Comprises the World Health Assembly, Executive Board, and a

Secretariat.
● Funding comes from member states (assessed contribution) and
voluntary contributions.
Achievements ● Notable accomplishments include the Alma Ata declaration and

smallpox eradication.
● Proactive in controlling epidemics like SARS, MERS, and HIV.

57
FOOTNOTES
USMCA (United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement)

Background ● Replaced NAFTA to strengthen North American economies.
● Governs over $1 trillion in trade.
● Addresses concerns about job losses and trade imbalances.
Key Changes ● Contains provisions on dairy, dispute settlement, automobile

manufacturing, and intellectual property.
● Requires periodic reviews of the agreement.
Implications ● Expected to restore jobs and manufacturing in the US.

● Raises concerns about the impact on Indian exports.
● Grants the US significant influence over trade deals involving
Canada and Mexico.
G7 (Group of Seven)
Formation ● Established in 1975 after the 1973 oil crisis.
● Represents high-income democracies, though their global share
has decreased.
Recent Developments ● Recent G7 meetings focus on addressing China's influence,

COVID-19, and climate change.
● Calls for the expansion of the group to include India, South Korea,
South Africa, and Australia.
Joint Communiqué ● Agreements on global taxation, vaccine distribution, climate

change, and a "Build Back Better World" initiative.
Criticism and ● Criticisms include outdated representation and divergent

Challenges interests.
● Some members, like Germany and France, pursue independent
strategies.
Conclusion The effectiveness of these organizations depends on diplomatic efforts,

proactive engagement, and realistic approaches. Each organization serves
specific purposes, addressing global challenges and fostering cooperation
among member states.
CONTEMPORARY GLOBAL CONCERNS
DEMOCRACY “Democracy is something that gives the weak the same powers as the
strong” --- Gandhi
“Democracy is not merely a form of government. It is essentially an

attitude of respect and reverence towards fellow men” --- Dr. B. R.
Ambedkar
HUMAN RIGHTS “Culture is not destiny” --- Donnelly

58
FOOTNOTES
“Rights are those circumstances of human life without which, usually a

person cannot do the best development of his personality.” --- Laski
“Rights are that power of working of a man to achieve his objectives which
is defined by the social community on the condition that he will do the
welfare of the community also through these works.” --- T.H. Green
“Every state is known by the rights it maintains.” --- Herold Laski

ENVIRONMENT "Polluted skies, dead rivers, disappearing forests, falling water tables, ever
increasing hills of untreated waste, displaced peasants and tribes is what
we see after 35 years of Chipko Movement" – R.C Guha
“Environment is not about saving tigers and planting trees. Environment

is about democracy. Without giving powers to the people,
decentralisation planning and Grassroot democracy, we won’t be able to
achieve sustainable development.” – Sunita Narayan.
GENDER JUSTICE “History owes an apology to these people and their families.
Homosexuality is part of human sexuality.” – Justice Indu Malhotra
TERRORISM “It's like an ancient story - you can't keep snakes in your backyard and
expect them only to bite your neighbours. Eventually those snakes are
going to turn on whoever has them in the backyard too”. – US diplomat
Hillary Clinton
NUCLEAR “Safety will be the sturdy child of terror and survival, the twin brother of
PROLIFERATION annihilation.” – Winston Churchill
“Nuclear weapons have changed every aspect of our lives. However, it has
not changed the mode of our thinking yet. And because we have not
changed our mode of thinking, we might continue to drift towards
unparalleled catastrophe.” – Albert Einstein

59
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PSIR

Political Science & International

Quotes ● "Comparative Politics is the study of patterns of national governments

● “Polity is the best practicable form of government.” – Aristotle

Introduction ● Comparative Politics (CP) is a sub-discipline of political science that

Traditional ● Traditional CP primarily employed a legal-institutional approach,

Features of ● Normative: It had a normative and speculative nature, often dealing

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Conclusion and ● The traditional approach to Comparative Politics provided a

APPROACHES TO COMPARATIVE POLITICS

Systems Approach by ● Politics is viewed as a system where various components interact to

Criticism of Easton's ● Critics, including traditionalists, argued that Easton's approach

Structural-Functional ● Developed primarily for studying developing nations and influenced

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● It assesses whether these three dimensions of development (equality,

Political ● Advocates modernization over development and highlights three

Conclusion David Easton's Systems Approach brought a new perspective to political

POLITICAL SOCIOLOGY APPROACH

Quotes ● “Political Sociology is like a marriage of political science and sociology,

Huntington's ● Samuel P. Huntington emphasized the enduring influence of religion

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● In the modern age, where socio-economic issues are less

Marxism as a ● Karl Marx's perspective underscores the importance of understanding

Other Examples ● Machiavelli's advice on choosing between republic and monarchy

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POLITICAL ECONOMY APPROACH

Development of ● Political economy contributed to the development of welfare models

Understanding ● Political economy helps in understanding poverty and provides

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Conclusion ● The Political Economy approach is of paramount importance, as

STATE IN COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE: CHARACTERISTICS AND CHANGING

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CHANGING NATURE OF THE MODERN STATE IN RELATION TO

Transnational Actors ● Terrorists:

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○ Western MNCs have also been used to promote Western

Conclusion These examples emphasize the growing influence of transnational actors

Politics of Representation and Participation

Significance of ● In representative democracies, political parties serve as vital

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Classification of ● Institutional Pressure Groups:

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Societies described by C. Wright Mills, these elitist groups exert significant

Conclusion ● Pressure groups contribute significantly to the deliberative and

Quotes “Social movement is a loosely organised effort by a large group of people

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Responses to ● Shashi Tharoor discusses two backlashes against globalization: one

Conclusion ● Social movements unite diverse individuals around a common cause,

Quotes ●“Globalisation is also defined as compression of time and space.”

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● Marshall McLuhan: Describes globalization as turning the world into

De-Globalization ● The world is moving toward de-globalization, with debates shifting

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● Harvard economist Dani Rodrik's trilemma suggests that it's

Conclusion ● Social movements have arisen in response to the challenges and

APPROACHES TO INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Systems approach: ● The systems approach in International Relations (IR) examines