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PSIR –HOBBES AND LOCKE

For UPSC CSE 2024
By Vivek Waghmare

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Analysis of important dimensions from PYQ ...... 1
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Thomas Hobbes ................................................. 2 https://t.me/Civilsfront and PSIR - Civils
Introduction .......................................................... 2 Front https://t.me/PSIR_Civils_Front .
You will get everything of PSIR on our
Origin and Background .......................................... 2
telegram channel.
His times and its impact ........................................ 2
Human nature according to Hobbes ...................... 1
State of nature ...................................................... 1 Analysis of important dimensions from
PYQ
Principal cause of conflict was within the nature of
man ...................................................................... 2 PYQs
The nature of Social contract ................................ 2 1. Hobbesian notion of Political obligation. Comment
(2017)
Hobbes on Sovereign Leviathan ............................ 3
2. “How would I and my fellow human beings behave
Major attributes of Hobbesian sovereign .............. 3 if we were to find ourselves in a state of nature, and
what does this behavior tell us about our innate
Rights and Duties of the Sovereign ........................ 4
predispositions?” (Hobbes) Comment (2016)
Hobbes impact on development of Modern Politics 3. “Covenants without swords are but words and of no
............................................................................. 5 strength to secure a man at all.” (Hobbes) Comment
(2013)
John Locke ......................................................... 6
4. Comment on the assertion of Laslett that Filmer and
Introduction .......................................................... 6 not Hobbes was the main antagonist of Locke.
Locke's Times and Influence .................................. 6 (2013)
5. 2018 John Locke is the father of liberalism. Explain
State of Nature In Locke ........................................ 7 20M
6. 2012 Locke is an individualist out and out’.
Why Social Contract? ............................................ 7 Substantiate this statement 20M
Transition from state of nature to state of 7. 2003 Comment on: The reason why men enter into
civil society is the preservation of their property
government .......................................................... 8 (Locke) 20M
Features of Lockean state ..................................... 9 Note: Things highlighted in Red are the important
Separation of Powers and the Dissolution of dimensions which have been asked by UPSC in Previous
Year mostly repeatedly, that’s why it becomes very
Government........................................................ 10 important to study them and try to link them with the
Natural Rights and Private Property .................... 11 current developments.

Locke as an individualist...................................... 11
Locke on Toleration............................................. 12
John Locke as father of liberalism ....................... 13

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Western Political Thinkers: Thomas Hobbes and John Locke
Thomas Hobbes
Introduction
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher and
political thinker whose ideas profoundly influenced the
development of modern political philosophy and social
contract theory. He is best known for his work "Leviathan,"
published in 1651, which remains a cornerstone of political
thought.
Origin and Background
Birth and Early Life: Thomas Hobbes was born on April 5,
1588, in Westport, near Malmesbury, England. He came from
a relatively humble background, and his early education was
informal.
• Education: Hobbes attended the University of Oxford,
where he studied classics and developed a strong interest
in philosophy and science. His exposure to the works of
ancient Greek philosophers, particularly Aristotle and
Euclid, had a significant influence on his thinking.
• Historical Context: Hobbes lived during a tumultuous
period in English history. His lifetime encompassed
events such as the English Civil War (1642-1651), the
execution of King Charles I (1649), and the subsequent
establishment of the Commonwealth of England under
Oliver Cromwell.
• Influences: Hobbes was influenced by the political
turmoil of his time. His experiences during the Civil War
and his observations of the destructive consequences of
conflict and disorder played a pivotal role in shaping his
political philosophy.
• Travels: Hobbes worked as a tutor and traveled
extensively in Europe, where he interacted with
prominent intellectuals of the time. His exposure to the
European Enlightenment and the works of thinkers like
Galileo and Descartes influenced his ideas on science and
politics.
• Return to England: After the restoration of the
monarchy in 1660, Hobbes returned to England. Despite
the controversial nature of his writings, he managed to
live a peaceful life and continued his intellectual pursuits.
His times and its impact
The tumultuous times in which Thomas Hobbes lived had a
profound impact on his philosophical and political ideas.
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• English Civil War and Political Philosophy:
o The English Civil War (1642-1651) was a defining
event in Hobbes' life. He witnessed the chaos and
violence of civil war, which deeply influenced his
views on human nature and the necessity of strong
government.
o In "Leviathan," Hobbes famously described the "state
of nature" as a condition of constant conflict and
insecurity, where life was "nasty, brutish, and short."
He argued that to escape this state, people willingly
entered into a social contract, surrendering certain
rights to a sovereign authority for the sake of security
and order.
• Execution of Charles I and Political Authority:
o The execution of King Charles I in 1649 challenged
the traditional concept of the divine right of kings.
Hobbes grappled with the idea that political authority
could be derived from sources other than divine
mandate.
o In "Leviathan," Hobbes asserted that political
authority is based on a social contract among
individuals, rather than divine right. He argued that
the sovereign's authority derives from the consent of
the governed, not from a divine mandate.
• Scientific Revolution and Empiricism:
o Hobbes was influenced by the empirical and rational
methods of the emerging Scientific Revolution. He
believed that political philosophy should be based on
reason and observation, similar to the methods of
natural science.
o Hobbes' emphasis on using reason and empirical
observation to understand human behavior and
politics is evident in his approach to political
philosophy. He sought to provide a systematic and
scientific analysis of political power and authority.
• Return of Monarchy and Political Pragmatism:
o After the English Civil War, the monarchy was
restored in 1660. Hobbes returned to England during
this period, and his writings reflected a pragmatic
approach to political stability and order.
o Hobbes acknowledged the need for a strong central
authority, even if it was a monarchy, to prevent
political chaos. He believed that maintaining order
and avoiding civil war were paramount, and he was
willing to accept a monarchical form of government
as long as it provided effective rule.
Thomas Hobbes' philosophical ideas were deeply rooted in the
historical and political context of his times. The upheavals,
conflicts, and intellectual developments of the Early Modern
period profoundly shaped his views on the nature of
government, the social contract, and the role of political
authority. His works continue to be influential in modern
political philosophy and social contract theory.
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Human nature according to Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes had a pessimistic view of human nature,
which significantly influenced his political philosophy.
According to Hobbes, human nature is characterized by
several key attributes:
• Self-Preservation: Hobbes believed that at the core of
human nature is the fundamental desire for self-
preservation. He argued that individuals are primarily
motivated by the instinct to protect themselves from harm
and seek their own well-being.
o "During the time men live without a common power
to keep them all in awe, they are in that conditions
called war; and such a war, as if of every man, against
every man." -
• Equality: Hobbes asserted that in the state of nature, all
humans are essentially equal. While individuals may
have differences in physical strength or intelligence,
these differences are not significant enough to prevent
conflicts and competition for resources.
o "Nature hath made men so equal in the faculties of the
body and mind as that, though there be found one man
sometimes manifestly stronger in body or of quicker
mind than another, yet when all is reckoned together
the difference between man and man is not so
considerable."
• Competition and Conflict: Hobbes contended that in the
absence of government or authority, humans naturally
engage in a constant state of competition and conflict. He
famously described the state of nature as a "war of all
against all," where individuals are in perpetual conflict
and struggle for survival.
o "So that in the nature of man, we find three principal
causes of quarrel. First, competition; secondly,
diffidence; thirdly, glory."
• Limited Altruism: Hobbes was skeptical about human
altruism and the willingness of individuals to act in the
interests of others without personal gain. He argued that
genuine acts of altruism are rare and often driven by self-
interest, such as the desire for reputation or reciprocity.
o "Pity and compassion are mingled with some self-
concern, or fear of misery."
• Fear and Distrust: Because of the pervasive competition
and the absence of trust in the state of nature, Hobbes
believed that humans live in a state of fear and distrust.
Individuals fear that others may harm them or take what
they have, leading to a general atmosphere of suspicion.
o "In such condition, there is no place for industry;
because the fruit thereof is uncertain: and
consequently no culture of the earth; no navigation,
nor use of the commodities that may be imported by
sea; no commodious building."
• Rationality: Despite the harsh aspects of human nature
that Hobbes described, he also believed that humans
possess rationality and the capacity to reason. It is this
rationality that drives individuals to seek security and
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peace through the social contract and the establishment of
government.
Hobbes' conception of human nature is essential to his social
contract theory. He argued that the inherent attributes of
human nature, particularly the desire for self-preservation and
the propensity for conflict, make the establishment of a strong
and authoritative government necessary to maintain order and
prevent the chaos of the state of nature. In his view, the social
contract, through which individuals willingly surrender
certain rights to a sovereign authority, is a rational response to
the challenges posed by human nature.
State of nature
Thomas Hobbes' concept of the "state of nature" is a
hypothetical scenario he used to describe the natural condition
of humanity in the absence of government, laws, and social
institutions. It serves as a foundational concept in his political
philosophy and is a central element of his social contract
theory.
• Conflict and Insecurity: Hobbes believed that in the
state of nature, human life is marked by constant conflict
and insecurity, a perpetual struggle for self-preservation.
• "War of All Against All": He famously described this
state as a "war of all against all," where individuals,
driven by self-interest, are willing to use force to protect
themselves and acquire resources.
• Lack of Trust: Trust is nearly nonexistent, as individuals
distrust each other due to the absence of security against
harm or theft.
• Absence of Moral Constraints: Without established
moral codes, there are no moral constraints on behavior,
leading individuals to follow their desires without regard
for right or wrong.
• Natural Equality: Hobbes argued that all humans are
essentially equal in the state of nature, despite differences
in strength or intellect.
• Short and Brutish Life: Life in this state is described as
"nasty, brutish, and short," characterized by violence,
uncertainty, and constant survival struggles.
• Self-Preservation: The driving force is the instinct for
self-preservation, motivating individuals to compete and
conflict for their well-being..
Hobbes used the concept of the state of nature to argue for the
necessity of a strong central authority or sovereign to establish
and enforce laws, maintain order, and prevent the chaos and
violence inherent in this hypothetical condition. According to
his social contract theory, individuals voluntarily enter into a
social contract, surrendering certain rights to the government
in exchange for security and the avoidance of the state of
nature's perils.
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Principal cause of conflict was within the nature of
man
Thomas Hobbes believed that the principal cause of conflict
among humans was rooted in their inherent nature,
particularly their natural instincts and desires for self-
preservation, power, and recognition. He described this
conflict-ridden state as the "state of nature," where life was
"nasty, brutish, and short" due to the constant competition,
fear, and insecurity.
Hobbes proposed a solution to escape from the intolerably
miserable condition of the state of nature through his social
contract theory. According to Hobbes:
• Social Contract: Humans, recognizing the dire
consequences of the state of nature, voluntarily enter into
a social contract among themselves. This social contract
is an implicit or explicit agreement in which individuals
mutually consent to establish a central authority or
sovereign to govern and maintain order.
• Sovereign Authority: The key element of the social
contract is the creation of a sovereign authority, often
referred to as the "Leviathan" by Hobbes. This sovereign
has absolute power and authority over the state and its
subjects.
• Transfer of Rights: In this contract, individuals agree to
transfer certain natural rights, particularly their rights to
use force and violence for self-preservation, to the
sovereign authority. In doing so, they surrender their
individual judgment and right to seek their own justice.
o Example: Citizens agree to give up their
individual right to use force to settle disputes
and instead rely on the legal system and the
police to maintain order.
• Maintaining Peace and Security: The primary role of
the sovereign authority is to maintain peace, security, and
order in society. The Leviathan uses its power to enforce
laws, adjudicate disputes, and prevent conflicts among
individuals.
o Example: The government's police force and
legal system are responsible for preventing and
resolving conflicts, ensuring that citizens can
live in a secure and orderly environment.
• Obligation to Obey: Under the social contract,
individuals are morally and legally obligated to obey the
sovereign authority. Disobedience or rebellion against the
sovereign is seen as a return to the state of nature, where
life is characterized by chaos and violence.
o Example: Citizens are expected to follow the
laws of the land and respect the authority of the
government; failure to do so may result in legal
consequences.
Hobbes believed that the social contract was a rational
response to the inherent nature of humans and their desire for
self-preservation. By creating a strong central authority,
individuals could escape the perpetual conflict and insecurity
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of the state of nature and enjoy the benefits of a structured and
orderly society.
The nature of Social contract
Thomas Hobbes' conception of the social contract is a key
element of his political philosophy, outlined in his work
"Leviathan" (1651).
• Mutual Agreement: The social contract, as proposed by
Hobbes, is a mutual agreement among individuals within
a society. It is a hypothetical pact in which individuals
collectively decide to create a government for their
common benefit.
• Escape from the State of Nature: Hobbes uses the
concept of the social contract to explain how individuals
in the "state of nature" (a condition of perpetual conflict
and insecurity) voluntarily surrender certain natural
rights to establish order and avoid the chaos of this state.
o Example: In the absence of government,
individuals in the state of nature would be in
constant conflict over resources and security,
leading to a precarious and dangerous existence.
• Surrender of Rights: In the social contract, individuals
agree to surrender their natural right to use force and
violence to protect themselves and pursue their self-
interests. They relinquish these rights to the government
or sovereign authority.
o Example: Citizens agree to give up their
individual right to use force to settle disputes
and instead rely on the legal system and the
police to maintain order.
• Establishment of Sovereign Authority: The social
contract leads to the creation of a sovereign authority,
often symbolized as the "Leviathan." This sovereign
holds absolute power and authority over the state and its
subjects. It is entrusted with the task of maintaining
peace, security, and order.
• Obligation to Obey: Under the social contract,
individuals are morally and legally obligated to obey the
commands and laws of the sovereign authority.
Disobedience or rebellion against the sovereign is seen as
a return to the state of nature, where life is characterized
by violence and insecurity.
• Authoritative and Enforceable Laws: The social
contract enables the government to establish and enforce
laws that regulate human behavior and resolve conflicts.
These laws are authoritative and binding on all members
of society.
• End of Anarchy: Hobbes believed that the social
contract effectively ends the anarchy and constant
conflict of the state of nature. It replaces the arbitrary use
of force with a structured system of governance.
• Protection of Rights: While individuals surrender some
rights to the sovereign, they retain the right to self-
preservation. They expect the government to protect their
lives, liberty, and property from external threats and
internal disorder.
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o Example: Citizens rely on the government to
maintain law and order, ensuring their safety and
the protection of their property.
• Security and Stability: The primary objective of the
social contract, according to Hobbes, is to provide
security and stability in society. Individuals seek this
security by agreeing to the authority of the Leviathan.
• Revocability: Hobbes did not advocate for the
revocability or dissolution of the social contract once
established. He believed that the stability of society
required an enduring government with the power to
maintain order.
Hobbes' social contract theory centers on individuals'
voluntary surrender of certain rights to establish a sovereign
authority capable of maintaining peace and security. This
authority, in the form of the Leviathan, becomes the ultimate
source of political power and enforces laws that govern human
conduct within society. Hobbes' social contract theory is
rooted in a pessimistic view of human nature and the need for
strong government to prevent the chaos of the state of nature.
Hobbes on Sovereign Leviathan
Thomas Hobbes conceived of the Sovereign Leviathan as a
central authority with specific attributes that were crucial for
maintaining order and security within society.
• Absolute Authority: The Sovereign Leviathan possesses
absolute and undivided political authority. It is the
supreme source of power within the state, and its
commands and decisions are final. Its authority is not
subject to challenge or limitation by other institutions or
individuals.
• Unifying Force: The Leviathan serves as a unifying force
in society, bringing together diverse individuals who, in
the state of nature, were in conflict. It establishes a
common political identity and purpose for the entire
community.
o Example: In a state governed by the Leviathan,
citizens from different backgrounds and with
varying interests come together under a shared
authority, reducing the likelihood of internal
conflicts.
• Lawmaker: The Leviathan has the authority to create
and enforce laws that regulate human behavior within
society. These laws are essential for maintaining order,
resolving disputes, and preventing conflicts. The
Leviathan's laws are binding on all citizens.
• Enforcer of Contracts: The Leviathan plays a critical
role in enforcing contracts and agreements made among
individuals. Without its enforcement, contracts would be
unreliable, as there would be no guarantee of compliance.
• Safeguarding Rights: While individuals surrender
certain natural rights to the Leviathan in the social
contract, they retain the expectation that their
fundamental rights, such as life, liberty, and property, will
be protected by the government. The Leviathan is
responsible for safeguarding these rights.
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o Example: Citizens rely on the Leviathan to
protect their rights from infringement by others
and to provide a system of justice for addressing
grievances.
• Arbitrator: The Leviathan serves as a neutral arbitrator
in disputes between individuals. It has the authority to
adjudicate conflicts, administer justice, and ensure that
disputes are resolved fairly and impartially.
• Maintenance of Peace: One of the primary functions of
the Sovereign Leviathan is to maintain peace and security
within society. It does so by suppressing violence,
preventing crimes, and deterring individuals from
engaging in behavior that would disrupt the social order.
o Example: The Leviathan's role in maintaining
peace helps create a stable and secure
environment in which individuals can pursue
their interests without fear of violence or chaos.
• Monarchical Imagery: Hobbes often used monarchical
imagery to describe the Leviathan. He saw it as a single,
unified authority akin to a monarch who exercises
absolute control over the state. This imagery emphasizes
the need for a centralized and authoritative government.
• Obligation to Obey: Individuals who have entered into
the social contract are morally and legally obligated to
obey the commands and laws of the Leviathan.
Disobedience or rebellion against the Leviathan is
considered a breach of the social contract.
o Example: Citizens have a duty to follow the laws
and commands of the Leviathan, as they have
voluntarily entered into the social contract for
the sake of security and order.
• Prevention of Anarchy: The Leviathan's existence
marks the end of the state of nature, which Hobbes
described as a state of anarchy and perpetual conflict. It
replaces this chaotic condition with a structured and
orderly society.
• Control of Religious and Moral Matters: Hobbes
believed that the Leviathan's authority should extend to
all aspects of governance, including religion and
morality. He argued that internal religious and moral
disputes could lead to social conflict and should be under
the control of the sovereign.
Hobbes' concept of the Sovereign Leviathan represents an
authoritative and centralized government created through the
social contract to ensure stability, order, and security in
society. It possesses absolute political power and is
responsible for establishing and enforcing laws, protecting
rights, and preventing the return to the state of nature.
Major attributes of Hobbesian sovereign
The Hobbesian sovereign, as envisioned by Thomas Hobbes
in his political philosophy, possesses several major attributes
that are essential to its role as the supreme authority in a
society.
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• Absolute Authority: The Hobbesian sovereign possesses
unlimited political authority, with its commands being
final and binding.
• Unity and Indivisibility: The sovereign is a unified and
indivisible source of political power, preventing
competing governments within the state.
o Hobbes described the sovereign as a unified and
indivisible source of power, writing, "A Multitude
of men, are made One Person, when they are by
one man, or one Person, Represented" (Thomas
Hobbes, Leviathan).
• Legislator: The sovereign has the authority to create laws
and serves as the ultimate legislator.
• Enforcer of Laws: It enforces the laws it creates,
ensuring adherence and accountability.
• Protection of Rights: While individuals surrender some
rights, they expect the sovereign to protect their
remaining rights, especially life, liberty, and property.
• Arbitrator and Judge: The sovereign acts as an
impartial arbitrator and judge in disputes, avoiding
violence.
• Preservation of Peace and Security: It maintains peace,
suppresses violence, prevents crimes, and deters
disruptive behavior.
• Obligation to Obey: Individuals have a moral and legal
duty to obey the sovereign's commands as per the social
contract.
• Monarchical Imagery: Hobbes likened the sovereign to
a monarch, emphasizing centralized authority.
• Resolution of Religious and Moral Matters: The
sovereign regulates religious and moral affairs to prevent
conflicts.
• Stability and Order: It replaces chaos with social order
and stability.
• Protection Against External Threats: The sovereign
also safeguards the state against external threats.
These attributes collectively define the Hobbesian sovereign
as a central and authoritative entity that plays a pivotal role in
establishing and maintaining social order, protecting
individual rights, and preventing the descent into the state of
nature's anarchy and conflict.
Rights and Duties of the Sovereign
In Thomas Hobbes' social contract theory, the sovereign, often
represented as the Leviathan, assumes specific rights and
duties to maintain order and protect the interests of individuals
who have entered into the social contract.
Rights of the Sovereign:
• Right to Absolute Authority: The sovereign possesses
absolute and undivided political authority within the
state. It has the right to rule without interference from
external authorities or institutions.
• Right to Create and Enforce Laws: The sovereign has
the authority to create, enact, and enforce laws that
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regulate human behavior within society. These laws are
essential for maintaining order and resolving disputes.
o "Laws decide what's right and wrong. They're
rules for people who can't protect themselves.
And this definition says that what's right is
decided by the person or people who have the
most power, which is the sovereign."
o The sovereign's power to make laws is vital to
make a society that's organized and well-
behaved.
• Right to Maintain Peace and Security: One of the
primary rights of the sovereign is to maintain peace,
security, and order within the state. It has the authority to
suppress violence, prevent crimes, and deter individuals
from engaging in behavior that disrupts the social order.
o "Life without the sovereign is terrible, with
everyone fighting each other, and it's short."
• Right to Be the Ultimate Judge: The sovereign serves
as the ultimate judge and arbitrator in disputes among
individuals. It has the authority to adjudicate conflicts,
ensure fairness in legal proceedings, and administer
justice.
o "Without a strong authority to keep everyone in
check, we're in a constant state of war, with
everyone fighting each other."
o The sovereign's power to make fair decisions is
really important because it stops people from
using violence to settle arguments.
• Right to Collect Taxes and Resources: In order to carry
out its functions effectively, the sovereign has the right to
collect taxes and resources from the citizens. These
resources are used to support the government and its
activities.
Duties of the Sovereign:
• Protection of Natural Rights: The primary duty of the
sovereign is to protect the natural rights of individuals,
particularly the rights to life, liberty, and property. It must
ensure that citizens can live free from the fear of violence
and insecurity.
• Enforcement of Contracts: The sovereign has a duty to
enforce contracts and agreements made among
individuals. This duty includes upholding the terms of
contracts and ensuring that agreements are honored.
o "Covenants, without the Sword, are but words,
and of no strength to secure a man at all"
(Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan).
o The sovereign's duty includes upholding the
terms of contracts and ensuring agreements are
honored.
• Resolution of Disputes: The sovereign is responsible for
resolving disputes and conflicts that arise within the
society. It must provide a fair and impartial forum for the
resolution of legal disagreements.
o "In the state of nature, Profit is the measure of
Right" (Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan)
• Prevention of Rebellion and Dissent: To maintain order
and stability, the sovereign has a duty to prevent
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rebellion, dissent, and insurrection. It must deter
individuals from challenging its authority or attempting
to overthrow the government.
• Protection Against External Threats: In addition to
internal duties, the sovereign is responsible for protecting
the state against external threats, such as foreign invasion
or aggression. It must ensure the security and sovereignty
of the state.
• Regulation of Religious and Moral Matters: Hobbes
believed that the sovereign should have the authority to
regulate religious and moral matters within the society to
prevent internal conflicts and ensure social cohesion.
• Fair and Impartial Rule: The sovereign has a duty to
rule fairly and impartially, treating all citizens equally
under the law. It should not show favoritism or
discrimination in its governance.
o "For where no Covenant hath preceded, there
hath no Right been transferred, and every man
has right to everything; and consequently, no
action can be Unjust" (Thomas Hobbes,
Leviathan).
o The sovereign should treat all citizens equally
under the law and avoid favoritism or
discrimination in governance.
• Preservation of Peace: The sovereign's fundamental
duty is to preserve peace and prevent the return to the
state of nature, characterized by conflict and insecurity.
o "The Passion to be reckoned upon, is Fear;
whereof there be two very general objects: one,
the power of spirits invisible; the other, the
power of those men they shall see, by whose
conjunction they look to be protected" (Thomas
Hobbes, Leviathan).
o The sovereign's fundamental duty is to prevent
the return to a state of nature characterized by
conflict and insecurity.
These rights and duties collectively define the role of the
sovereign in Hobbes' social contract theory. The sovereign's
authority is justified by the social contract, where individuals
willingly surrender certain rights in exchange for protection
and the maintenance of order within society.
Hobbes impact on development of Modern Politics
Thomas Hobbes' political philosophy, while significantly
different from liberalism in many respects, has had a profound
impact on the development of modern political thought and
liberalism itself.
Influence on Liberalism:
• Negative Liberty: Hobbes' ideas about the need for
government to maintain order and protect individuals
have had a lasting impact on liberal thought. Liberalism
often emphasizes the importance of negative liberty,
which means "freedom from" interference and coercion.
John Locke, one of the liberal thinkers influenced by
Hobbes, emphasized this when he said, "Where there is
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no law, there is no freedom." Liberalism builds on
Hobbes' ideas but also introduces elements of positive
liberty, focusing on individual autonomy and self-
determination.
• Limited Government: Liberalism advocates for limited
government intervention in individual lives. While
Hobbes believed in strong government control, his ideas
have contributed to the debate over the appropriate extent
of government power.
o As John Stuart Mill, a prominent liberal thinker,
stated, "The only purpose for which power can
be rightfully exercised over any member of a
civilized community, against his will, is to
prevent harm to others." This reflects the liberal
concern about limiting government authority.
• The Social Contract Tradition: Hobbes is considered
one of the founders of the social contract tradition, which
explores the relationship between individuals and their
government.
o As Jean-Jacques Rousseau, another thinker in
this tradition, put it, "Man is born free, and
everywhere he is in chains." This tradition has
influenced various political ideologies,
including liberalism, as it provides a framework
for understanding how political authority is
legitimized and what rights and obligations
individuals have in a society.
• Modern Concepts of Rights: Hobbes' focus on
individual rights and the need for a governing authority
to protect them laid the groundwork for modern
discussions on human rights.
o As the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
states, "Everyone has the right to life, liberty,
and security of person." While Hobbes believed
that individuals should surrender certain rights
to the sovereign, his ideas contributed to the
development of modern human rights concepts.
• Modern Political Realism: Hobbes' realistic assessment
of human nature and his emphasis on power and security
in international relations have influenced modern
political realism.
o As Hans Morgenthau, a prominent realist
thinker, argued, "International politics, like all
politics, is a struggle for power." Realism
acknowledges self-interest and the need for
states to secure their survival in a competitive
world, reflecting Hobbes' insights.
• Modern Views on Statehood: Hobbes' ideas on the state
as a sovereign authority with a monopoly on power have
influenced modern views on statehood and political
authority. His concept of the Leviathan continues to
inform discussions on state sovereignty and the role of
governments in contemporary politics.
o As Max Weber, a key figure in political
sociology, stated, "A state is a human
community that (successfully) claims the
monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force
within a given territory."
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• Contemporary Challenges: Hobbes' concerns about
chaos and conflict in the absence of effective government
remain relevant in modern politics. Issues such as the
need for law and order, protection of individual rights,
and the role of government in addressing societal
problems continue to be informed by Hobbes' ideas.
o As the challenges of the 21st century unfold,
Hobbes' insights into the necessity of a strong
governing authority continue to resonate..
Conclusion:
Thomas Hobbes, renowned for his work "Leviathan,"
profoundly influenced political thought. His assertion that
without a controlling authority, life would be a perpetual "war
of every man against every man" underscores the need for
strong government.
Hobbes' ideas continue to shape modern political theory and
international relations, impacting scholars like John Locke
and realists in international politics. His legacy reminds us of
the ongoing relevance of his insights into human nature and
the role of government in preserving peace and order.
John Locke
Introduction
John Locke (1632-1704) was a renowned English philosopher
and political thinker known for his significant contributions to
political philosophy, epistemology, and the philosophy of
mind. He is often regarded as one of the most influential
Enlightenment thinkers and is best known for his ideas on
government, individual rights, and the social contract. Locke's
writings played a pivotal role in shaping modern political
thought and had a profound impact on the development of
democratic and liberal principles.
Locke's Times and Influence
• John Locke lived during a period of profound political
and intellectual change in England and Europe. His
lifetime encompassed the English Civil War, the Glorious
Revolution of 1688, and the emergence of constitutional
government.
o These tumultuous events, along with his
exposure to prominent thinkers of his time,
including Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton,
profoundly influenced his political ideas.
• Locke's most influential works, particularly his "Two
Treatises of Government" (1690), were written during a
time when the legitimacy of monarchical rule was being
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questioned, and ideas of individual rights and limited
government were gaining prominence.
o His writings provided a theoretical foundation
for the political developments of his era and
continue to influence political theory and
practice to this day.
Major Works
• "Two Treatises of Government" (1690): This is
Locke's most famous work and is divided into two
treatises. The First Treatise argues against the concept of
the divine right of kings, asserting that political authority
is not derived from God but from the consent of the
governed. The Second Treatise is a detailed exposition of
Locke's political philosophy, emphasizing natural rights,
the social contract, and the idea that government exists to
protect these rights.
• "A Letter Concerning Toleration" (1689): In this
work, Locke argues for religious tolerance and the
separation of church and state. He contends that religious
belief should be a matter of individual conscience and
that governments should not interfere in matters of
religious faith.
• "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding"
(1690): Although primarily a work on epistemology, this
influential work explores the nature of human knowledge
and the idea that individuals acquire knowledge through
sensory experience, a concept foundational to
Enlightenment empiricism.
Key Ideas and Contributions
• Natural Rights: Locke's philosophy is anchored in the
concept of natural rights, which include the rights to life,
liberty, and property. He believed that these rights were
inherent to all individuals and could not be legitimately
violated by any authority.
• Social Contract: Locke's theory of the social contract
posits that individuals enter into a contractual relationship
with their government. They agree to be governed in
exchange for protection of their natural rights. If a
government fails to fulfill its obligations, individuals
have the right to revolt and establish a new government.
• Limited Government: Locke advocated for limited
government with defined powers. He argued that the
primary role of government is to protect individual rights
and that governments should operate within the
constraints of the law.
• Consent of the Governed: Locke emphasized the idea
that political authority derives from the consent of the
governed. He contended that governments are legitimate
only when they have the consent of the people they
govern.
• Toleration and Religious Freedom: Locke's writings on
toleration were instrumental in advancing the principles
of religious freedom and the idea that government should
not impose a particular religion on its citizens.
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• Influence on Liberalism: Locke's ideas laid the
groundwork for modern liberalism, which champions
individual rights, limited government, democratic
principles, and the rule of law.
State of Nature In Locke
John Locke's concept of the "state of nature" is a foundational
element of his political philosophy. In Locke's theory, the
state of nature represents a hypothetical condition that exists
before the establishment of civil society and government.
• Equality: In the state of nature, all individuals are equal.
Locke contends that no one has a natural right to rule over
others by birthright or divine mandate. Instead,
individuals possess equal natural rights, including the
rights to life, liberty, and property.
o "All mankind... being all equal and independent,
no one ought to harm another in his life, health,
liberty, or possessions" (John Locke, "Second
Treatise of Government").
• Natural Rights: Locke asserts that in the state of nature,
individuals have natural rights that are inherent and pre-
political. These rights include the right to life, which
encompasses the right to self-preservation, the right to
liberty, which involves the freedom to act as one chooses
within the bounds of natural law, and the right to
property, which encompasses ownership of one's body
and the fruits of one's labor.
• Natural Law: Locke argues that in the state of nature,
there exists a natural law that governs human behavior.
This natural law is derived from reason and dictates that
individuals should not harm others in their life, liberty,
and property. It obliges individuals to respect the rights
of others.
• Lack of a Common Judge: One of the defining features
of the state of nature, according to Locke, is the absence
of a common judge or impartial authority to resolve
disputes. In this condition, individuals are responsible for
enforcing the natural law and protecting their rights.
• Conflict and Insecurity: While Locke believes that
individuals have the natural inclination to peacefully
coexist and respect each other's rights, he acknowledges
that the lack of a common judge can lead to conflicts and
insecurity. Disputes may arise, and individuals may
become judges in their own cases, potentially leading to
bias and violence.
• Right to Punish: Locke posits that in the state of nature,
individuals have the right to punish those who violate the
natural law and infringe upon their rights. However, this
right to punish is limited by the principles of
proportionality and reason.
• Limits on War: Locke distinguishes between the state of
nature and a state of war. While conflict may occur in the
state of nature, it is not a state of war unless one party
intentionally seeks to harm or enslave another. In a state
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of war, individuals have the right to use force to defend
themselves and protect their rights.
• Transition to Civil Society: Locke argues that
individuals enter into civil society and establish
governments to escape the inconveniences and insecurity
of the state of nature. The primary purpose of
government, according to Locke, is to protect individuals'
natural rights and administer impartial justice.
John Locke's state of nature represents a hypothetical pre-
social condition where individuals are equal, possess natural
rights, and are governed by natural law. While the state of
nature is characterized by the absence of a common judge and
the potential for conflict, it is distinct from a state of war.
Locke's theory of the state of nature serves as a foundational
concept in his political philosophy, providing the basis for his
ideas on government, the social contract, and the protection of
individual rights in civil society.
Why Social Contract?
John Locke believed that the social contract was needed to
address several fundamental problems and challenges
inherent in the state of nature, as he described it. From Locke's
perspective, the social contract was necessary for the
following reasons:
• Protection of Natural Rights: In the state of nature,
individuals have natural rights to life, liberty, and
property. However, the absence of a common judge and
a recognized authority to enforce these rights often led to
disputes, conflicts, and insecurity. The social contract
was needed to establish a government capable of
protecting these natural rights and ensuring that
individuals could live free from constant fear and
conflict.
o "The state of nature has a law of nature to
govern it, which obliges every one: and reason,
which is that law, teaches all mankind, who
will but consult it, that being all equal and
independent, no one ought to harm another in
his life, health, liberty, or possessions."
• Resolution of Disputes: In the absence of a government,
individuals in the state of nature acted as both parties in
disputes and as judges in their own cases. This lack of
impartiality and a common authority often resulted in
biased judgments and even violence. The social contract
was necessary to create a legal system with impartial
judges and mechanisms for the peaceful resolution of
disputes.
o Locke's ideas influenced the development of
modern legal systems and the principle of fair
and impartial justice.
• Prevention of Vigilantism: In the state of nature,
individuals had the right to punish wrongdoers who
violated the natural law. However, this right to punish
was limited by the principles of proportionality and
reason. Locke recognized that without a government to
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administer justice, individuals might resort to
vigilantism, leading to a cycle of retribution and violence.
The social contract aimed to replace vigilante justice with
a fair and orderly legal system.
o Locke's ideas laid the groundwork for modern
criminal justice systems and the concept of
proportionate punishment.
• Establishment of a Common Authority: Locke's social
contract aimed to establish a common political authority
recognized by all members of society. This authority,
typically in the form of a government, would have the
legitimacy to enact and enforce laws, thereby creating a
stable and secure environment for all individuals.
o Locke's influence on the concept of a common
authority and government legitimacy can be
seen in the development of democratic
governance and the rule of law in modern
societies.
• Protection Against Abuse of Power: Locke was
concerned not only with the protection of individual
rights but also with preventing the abuse of power by
government. He believed that the social contract should
be based on the consent of the governed, and
governments should operate within defined limits. By
establishing a government through the social contract,
individuals could have a say in the formation and
maintenance of that government, reducing the risk of
tyranny and arbitrary rule.
o Locke's ideas on limited government and
consent continue to shape modern political
theory and constitutionalism.
• Consent and Accountability: The social contract was
necessary to ensure that government derives its authority
from the consent of the governed. Locke's theory
emphasized that legitimate governments are those
established with the consent of individuals who willingly
enter into the social contract. This principle of consent
held governments accountable to the people they govern.
o Locke's ideas contributed to the development
of democratic governance, where leaders are
elected by the consent of the governed and are
accountable to them.
• Preservation of Peace: Ultimately, Locke believed that
the social contract was essential for replacing the state of
nature, characterized by insecurity, conflict, and potential
violence, with a civil society governed by laws and a
legitimate authority. The primary goal of government, in
Locke's view, was to preserve peace and protect the well-
being of its citizens.
John Locke argued that the social contract was needed to
address the shortcomings of the state of nature, protect natural
rights, ensure impartial justice, prevent vigilantism, establish
a common authority, and create a government that operates
with the consent of the governed. The social contract, in
Locke's perspective, was a means of achieving a more orderly,
just, and secure society while safeguarding individual rights
and limiting the potential for government abuse of power.
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Transition from state of nature to state of
government
In John Locke's political philosophy, the element of consent
is a fundamental aspect of the transition from the state of
nature to the establishment of a civil government. Locke
argues that individuals must provide their explicit and
voluntary consent to form a government, and this consent is
essential for the legitimacy of political authority.
• Express Consent: Locke emphasizes the concept of
express consent, which means that individuals must
actively and explicitly agree to enter into a social contract
and establish a government. Consent is not assumed or
implied but must be given consciously and voluntarily.
This express consent can take various forms, including
explicit agreements or voting in favor of a government's
formation.
o For example, when individuals vote in favor of
a government's formation or explicitly agree to
abide by its laws, they provide express consent.
• Tacit Consent: Locke also recognizes the concept of tacit
consent, which arises when individuals, by their actions
or choices, effectively consent to the government's
authority. While explicit consent is preferred, tacit
consent can be inferred from an individual's decision to
remain in a territory governed by a particular
government, benefiting from its protection, and abiding
by its laws without actively opposing it.
o An example of tacit consent is someone
choosing to live in a country, use its services,
and pay taxes without explicit objection.
• Consent as a Condition: Locke argues that individuals
conditionally consent to government on the basis that the
government will fulfill specific obligations, primarily the
protection of their natural rights to life, liberty, and
property. If a government fails to uphold its end of the
social contract by violating these rights or becoming
tyrannical, individuals have the right to withdraw their
consent.
o This concept is exemplified when citizens
demand accountability from their government
when they perceive their rights are being
infringed upon.
• Consent of the Majority: Locke suggests that the
establishment of a government should ideally be based on
the consent of the majority of individuals in a society.
While unanimous consent is not always attainable, the
consent of the majority provides a democratic basis for
government legitimacy, and the government should
represent the interests of the majority while respecting the
rights of minorities.
o For instance, democratic elections are a practical
manifestation of this principle, as governments
are elected by the majority of voters.
• Revocable Consent: Locke's theory allows for the
possibility of revoking consent if the government fails to
fulfill its obligations or becomes tyrannical. If a
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government violates its contractual duties and harms the
rights of citizens, individuals have the right to withdraw
their consent, resist oppression, and potentially seek to
establish a new government.
o An example of this principle is found in
movements for self-determination and
independence when people no longer recognize
the legitimacy of their current government.
• Consent and Government Limits: Locke's emphasis on
consent is closely tied to his belief in limited government.
He argues that governments derive their just powers from
the consent of the governed and that these powers are
limited to protecting natural rights. Consent is not a blank
check for government authority but is granted with the
expectation that government will respect the rights and
freedoms of individuals.
o This principle is embedded in the design of
constitutional democracies, where governments
are bound by laws and regulations that safeguard
individual rights.
In Locke's political philosophy, consent is a central element
in the transition from the state of nature to the establishment
of a civil government. Consent can be express or tacit, but it
must be based on the understanding that government's primary
role is to protect the natural rights of individuals. Consent also
carries the implication that individuals have the right to hold
governments accountable and, if necessary, to withdraw their
consent if the government fails to fulfill its obligations or
becomes oppressive.
Features of Lockean state
John Locke's political philosophy envisions a specific set of
features for the state that emerge from his social contract
theory and his beliefs about the role of government in
protecting individual rights and promoting the well-being of
society.
• Protection of Natural Rights: Locke's core idea is that
government exists primarily to safeguard individuals'
natural rights, including life, liberty, and property. People
form governments to better protect these rights than they
could on their own in the state of nature.
o "The great and chief end...of men's uniting into
commonwealths and putting themselves under
government is the preservation of their
property." – John Locke
• Limited Government: Locke advocates for limited
government, where the state's powers are restricted to
specific functions. Its role is to protect natural rights,
ensure justice, and maintain order, without excessive
interference in citizens' private affairs.
o "The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but
to preserve and enlarge freedom. For in all the
states of created beings capable of laws, where
there is no law, there is no freedom." – John
Locke
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• Rule of Law: In Locke's vision, government operates
under the rule of law, bound by a system of equal laws
applicable to all citizens. This ensures predictability and
accountability in government actions.
o "Wherever law ends, tyranny begins." – John
Locke
• Consent of the Governed: A legitimate government
derives its authority from the consent of the governed.
People voluntarily create a civil society and establish a
government through a social contract, holding the
government accountable.
o "Men being...by nature all free, equal, and
independent, no one can be put out of this estate
and subjected to the political power of another
without his consent." – John Locke
• Representative Government: While not explicitly
endorsing modern democracy, Locke supports
representative government, where those in power
represent the interests of the people, paving the way for
democratic theories.
o "The community...must have a power to remove
that governor, for reasons it thinks good, that so
there may be no force used against the people,
but by a legal and indifferent judicature." – John
Locke
• Right to Revolution: Locke introduces the right to
revolution. If a government becomes tyrannical or fails to
protect citizens' rights, individuals have the right to resist,
rebel, and potentially create a new government, as a last
resort.
o "Whensoever, therefore, the legislative shall
transgress this fundamental rule of society...the
legislative acts against the trust reposed in them
and...the forfeiture of their own lives." – John
Locke
• Protection of Property: Locke emphasizes property
rights, encompassing land, possessions, and the fruits of
labor, as fundamental natural rights. The state must
safeguard individuals' property from theft or
infringement.
o "Every man has a property in his own person.
This nobody has a right to, but himself." – John
Locke
• Religious Toleration: Locke advocates religious
toleration and the separation of church and state,
respecting individual conscience and opposing state-
imposed religion.
• Majority Rule: While emphasizing individual rights,
Locke recognizes the importance of majority rule in
government decisions, as long as they do not violate
minority rights.
o "In the state of nature...men...submit to the rules
and restraints of reason, which to do always,
they must be sensible that... majority of voices
have decreed." – John Locke
• Consent-Based Taxation: Locke suggests taxation
should be based on the consent of the governed, allowing
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individuals to participate in decisions about taxation and
government spending.
o "Every tax is a step towards tyranny." – John
Locke
John Locke's vision of the state emphasizes the protection of
natural rights, limited government, the rule of law, consent of
the governed, and the right to revolution when government
fails to fulfill its obligations. His ideas laid the groundwork
for modern democratic and liberal political thought,
influencing concepts of individual rights, representative
government, and the social contract.
Separation of Powers and the Dissolution of
Government
John Locke's political philosophy includes the concept of the
separation of powers as a means to prevent tyranny and
protect individual rights. He also discusses the circumstances
under which government may be dissolved.
Separation of Powers
Locke's idea of the separation of powers is influenced by his
belief in limited government and the protection of individual
rights. He argues that government should be divided into
distinct branches or functions to prevent any one authority
from becoming too powerful and potentially oppressive. The
separation of powers in Locke's theory typically involves
three main branches:
• Legislative Power: This branch makes laws. Locke
suggests it should represent the people and create laws
aligned with the common good and the protection of
natural rights.
o "Wherever law ends, tyranny begins." - John
Locke
o Example: In a Lockean system, the legislative
branch is responsible for making laws that
protect natural rights. For instance, it would
create laws against theft to safeguard
individuals' property rights.
• Executive Power: Responsible for enforcing laws passed
by the legislative branch. It manages daily government
functions, including law enforcement and administration.
o "The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but
to preserve and enlarge freedom." - John Locke
o For instance, it ensures that individuals who
violate others' rights by committing crimes face
appropriate consequences, thus preserving the
freedom and safety of citizens.
• Federative Power: Handles foreign affairs and national
security. Its focus is on safeguarding the state against
external threats.
o "The great and chief end, therefore, of men's
uniting into commonwealths, and putting
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themselves under government, is the
preservation of their property." - John Locke
o For instance, it would handle diplomatic
relations and negotiations to protect the state's
territorial integrity and the property rights of its
citizens against foreign aggression.
Locke argues that these powers should be separated and
distinct to ensure a system of checks and balances. Each
branch has its own functions and limitations, preventing any
one branch from accumulating too much power. The
separation of powers aims to safeguard individual rights and
prevent the abuse of authority by the government.
Dissolution of Government:
Locke also discusses the circumstances under which
government may be dissolved, emphasizing the right of
individuals to resist tyranny and establish a new government
when necessary. According to Locke:
• Violation of Social Contract: When a government
fails to protect natural rights or becomes tyrannical, it
breaks the social contract.
o "The reason why men enter into society is the
preservation of their property." - John Locke
o Example: If a government starts confiscating
citizens' property without justification, it
violates the social contract as it goes against
protecting property rights.
• Right to Resistance: Individuals have the right to resist
and replace a government that violates the social
contract, as a last resort.
o "Whenever the legislators endeavor to take
away and destroy the property of the people,
or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary
power, they put themselves into a state of war
with the people." - John Locke
o Example: Citizens have the right to resist a
government that attempts to enslave them or
seize their property unjustly.
• Right to Establish a New Government: When the
existing government becomes illegitimate, individuals
can create a new government that protects natural
rights.
o Example: When an oppressive government
refuses to respect the rights of its citizens, the
people have the right to establish a new
government that upholds those rights.
• Popular Sovereignty: These ideas are rooted in
popular sovereignty, where ultimate authority rests with
the people to determine their government's form.
o "The power that every individual gave the
society when he entered into it can never revert
to the individuals again as long as the society
lasts." - John Locke
o Example: In a society, the ultimate authority
lies with the people collectively, and they can
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decide on the form and principles of their
government.
Locke's theories on the separation of powers and the
dissolution of government highlight his commitment to
limiting government authority and protecting individual
rights. These ideas have had a significant influence on the
development of democratic and constitutional principles,
emphasizing the importance of checks and balances and the
right of citizens to resist oppressive governments.
Natural Rights and Private Property
John Locke's philosophy is known for its foundational
arguments concerning natural rights and private property.
These concepts are central to his political and ethical theories.
Natural Rights:
• Equality and Natural Law: Locke starts with the idea
that in the state of nature, everyone is equal and guided
by the "law of nature" or natural law, which forbids
harming others in their life, liberty, health, or possessions.
• Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property: Locke identifies
three essential natural rights: the right to life, liberty, and
property. These rights exist independently of government
or society.
• Right to Life: This includes the right to protect one's own
life and the lives of others.
• Right to Liberty: It encompasses the freedom to act
within the bounds of natural law, including freedom of
thought and action.
• Right to Property: Locke's theory states that individuals
have property rights in their bodies and can acquire
property rights in the natural world's resources through
their labor.
Private Property:
• Labor and Property Acquisition: Locke's theory of
private property is grounded in the idea that individuals
acquire property through their labor. When an individual
mixes their labor with unowned resources in the state of
nature, they acquire a property right in those resources.
This acquisition is justified because it respects an
individual's right to the product of their labor.
• Limitations on Acquisition: Locke introduces the
concept of the "spoiler" or "waster" who is seen as
unjustly appropriating more than they can use or allowing
resources to go to waste. He argues that individuals must
take only what they can use without waste and leave
enough for others. This introduces a limitation on
property acquisition based on the principle of sufficiency.
• Property and Common Ownership: Despite private
property acquisition, Locke acknowledges that there
should be a proviso that there must be "enough, and as
good, left in common for others." In other words,
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individuals can acquire property as long as they leave
enough and as good resources available to others to use.
• Social and Economic Benefits: Locke argues that the
private ownership of property has numerous social and
economic benefits. It encourages industry, productivity,
and the responsible use of resources. Private property also
facilitates trade and exchange, which can lead to
economic prosperity.
• Property Rights and Government: Locke believes that
the institution of government is necessary to protect
property rights. Government's role is to safeguard
individuals' property and natural rights, ensuring that they
are not violated by others. When government fails in this
duty, individuals have the right to resist and potentially
establish a new government.
John Locke's arguments concerning natural rights and private
property emphasize the inherent rights of individuals to life,
liberty, and property in the state of nature. His labor theory of
property forms the basis for the acquisition of private
property, and he sets limitations on property acquisition to
ensure that resources are used efficiently and that there is
enough left for others. Locke's ideas have had a profound
influence on modern political thought and the development of
liberal democratic principles.
Locke as an individualist
John Locke is often regarded as one of the key figures in the
development of individualist political philosophy. His works,
particularly his "Two Treatises of Government," contain ideas
and arguments that emphasize the importance of the
individual and individual rights in the realm of politics and
government.
• Natural Rights: Locke's philosophy begins with a strong
emphasis on the concept of natural rights. He asserts that
individuals have inherent and inalienable rights to life,
liberty, and property. These rights are independent of
government and are possessed by individuals as a result
of their humanity.
o "Being all equal and independent, no one ought
to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or
possessions."
• State of Nature: Locke's theory of the state of nature
portrays individuals as free and equal beings with natural
rights. In this hypothetical pre-political state, individuals
are not subject to the authority of a sovereign or
government. They exercise their rights and make
decisions based on their own judgment.
o "The state of nature has a law of nature to govern
it."
• Individual Consent: Locke's theory of government is
rooted in the idea of consent. He argues that legitimate
government derives its authority from the consent of the
governed, meaning that individuals voluntarily come
together to form a civil society and establish a
government through a social contract. Government exists
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to protect individual rights and is accountable to the
individuals who have consented to be governed.
o "The only way whereby anyone divests himself
of his natural liberty and puts on the bonds of
civil society is by agreeing with other men to
join and unite into a community for their
comfortable, safe, and peaceable living."
• Limitations on Government: Locke's political
philosophy places significant limitations on the powers of
government. He contends that government should be
limited in scope and authority, with its primary purpose
being the protection of natural rights. Locke's ideas lay
the groundwork for limited government and the concept
of government by consent, where government serves the
interests of individuals rather than imposing its will upon
them.
o "The great and chief end, therefore, of men's
uniting into commonwealths and putting
themselves under government is the
preservation of their property."
• Right to Revolution: Locke introduces the concept of the
right to revolution, asserting that individuals have the
right to resist and potentially overthrow a government
that becomes tyrannical or fails to protect their rights.
This right reflects the idea that individuals are the
ultimate arbiters of their political destiny.
o "The people have a right to remove their
magistrates."
• Religious Toleration: Locke's advocacy for religious
toleration is another expression of his individualism. He
argues that religious belief should be a matter of
individual conscience, and governments should not
impose religious orthodoxy on citizens. This idea aligns
with the broader principle of individual autonomy and
freedom of thought.
• Property Rights: Locke's labor theory of property
emphasizes the role of individual effort and labor in the
acquisition and ownership of property. This theory
underscores the individual's ability to improve their
condition through personal industry and initiative.
• Individual Consent in Taxation: Locke argues that
taxation should be based on the consent of individuals.
They should have a say in decisions related to taxation,
reflecting their individual rights and interests.
o "The power of the legislative, being derived
from the people by a positive voluntary grant
and institution, can be no other than what that
positive grant conveyed."
Overall, John Locke's political philosophy is deeply rooted in
the principles of individualism, individual rights, and
individual consent. His ideas have had a profound influence
on the development of modern liberal and democratic thought,
shaping concepts of limited government, individual liberty,
and the protection of natural rights.
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Locke on Toleration
John Locke is a prominent advocate of religious toleration in
the history of political philosophy. His ideas on toleration are
articulated in several of his works, most notably in his "Letter
Concerning Toleration" (1689). Locke's arguments for
toleration are grounded in his belief in individual rights,
religious freedom, and the separation of church and state.
• Religious Freedom as a Natural Right: Locke asserts
that religious freedom is a natural right stemming from
human rationality and free will.
• The Role of Government: He distinguishes between
civil government and religious matters, emphasizing that
government should focus on protecting life, liberty, and
property while leaving religion to individual choice.
o "The care of souls cannot belong to the civil
magistrate."
• The Social Compact and Toleration: Locke's theory is
based on a social contract that aims to safeguard natural
rights, not impose religious conformity. Toleration is
fundamental in a just government.
o "The business of laws is not to provide for the
truth of opinions, but for the safety and security
of everyone's estate."
• The Limits of Toleration: While advocating for
toleration, Locke sets limits to ensure compatibility with
civil society, excluding practices that threaten peace and
security.
o "No opinions contrary to human society, or to
those moral rules which are necessary to the
preservation of civil society, are to be tolerated."
• No Religious Establishment: Locke firmly opposes
state-sponsored religion, advocating complete separation
of church and state to prevent religious authorities from
gaining political power.
o "There is no pretense of authority, or ground of
reason, for anyone to erect himself into a
church."
• Toleration as a Pragmatic Solution: Locke views
toleration as a practical solution to religious conflicts,
preventing coercion and persecution that lead to division.
• Consistency with Civil Peace: Locke argues that
toleration promotes civil harmony and cooperation by
allowing individuals to practice their faith freely.
o "Where there is no religion, there is no justice;
and where there is no justice, there can be no
peace."
John Locke's views on toleration are rooted in his belief in the
fundamental rights of individuals, the separation of church
and state, and the social compact theory of government. He
argues that government should protect religious freedom and
refrain from interfering in matters of conscience. Locke's
ideas on toleration have had a lasting influence on the
development of religious freedom and the principles of
secularism in liberal democracies.
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 These handouts are part of our
PSIR Daily Answer Writing Practice through PYQ’s for 2024

John Locke as father of liberalism o "It is not the business of the law to make men
virtuous or religious."
John Locke is often referred to as the "Father of Liberalism"
due to his profound influence on the development of liberal John Locke's political philosophy laid the intellectual
political thought and his contributions to the core principles groundwork for modern liberalism by emphasizing the
of modern liberalism. protection of individual rights, limited government,
government by consent, religious toleration, and other core
• Natural Rights: Locke's philosophy begins with the liberal principles. His ideas have had a profound and lasting
concept of natural rights, particularly life, liberty, and impact on the development of liberal democratic societies and
property. These inherent and inalienable rights are the the protection of individual freedoms.
foundation of individual freedom.
o "Being all equal and independent, no one ought Conclusion: John Locke's political ideas, summed up in
to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or quotes like "No one ought to harm another in his life, health,
possessions." liberty, or possessions," have profoundly shaped modern
• Individualism: Locke emphasizes the importance of the political thought. Scholars like Quentin Gibson, Maurice
individual as the core unit of society, promoting rational Cranston, and Peter Laslett recognize Locke's enduring
thought and moral autonomy. influence on concepts like limited government, individual
• Limited Government: Locke advocates for limited rights, and the social contract. Locke's philosophy,
government whose role is to protect natural rights and emphasizing liberty, reason, and democratic values, continues
deliver justice, a cornerstone of liberal political theory. to provide essential guidance in our pursuit of just and free
o "The end of law is not to abolish or restrain, but societies.
to preserve and enlarge freedom."
• Consent of the Governed: Locke's theory hinges on the
idea of government by consent, where the legitimacy of
authority derives from the consent of the governed
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without his own consent."
• Right to Revolution: Locke introduces the right to resist
and potentially overthrow a tyrannical government,
underlining individuals' control over their political
destiny.
o "In transgressing the law of nature, the offender
declares himself to live by another rule than that
of reason and common equity, which is that
measure God has set to the actions of men, for
their mutual security."
• Religious Toleration: Locke supports religious freedom
and the separation of church and state, championing
individual conscience and belief.
o "No man whatsoever, not even the magistrate,
has any jurisdiction over the souls of men; men
in their public capacities... have no right to any
manner of force upon the consciences of men."
• Property Rights: Locke's labor theory of property
highlights the importance of private property and
individual ownership, essential for personal liberty and
prosperity.
o "Every man has a property in his own person.
This nobody has any right to but himself."
• Consensual Taxation: Locke argues for taxation with
the consent of individuals, aligning with the idea of
government accountability.
• Secularism: Locke's ideas contribute to the
secularization of politics, advocating for the separation of
religion and state, promoting secular governance.

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