GEOLOGY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
IN CIVIL ENGINEERING
Geology – the study of the earth and the
processes that shape it.
Geo = Earth, ology = study of a subject
➢ Physical Geology – mainly concerned
with natural materials, physical
features, and their changes.
➢ Historical Geology – concerned with
the origin and evolution of our planet
through time
➢ Environmental Geology - the study of
the interactions between humans and
their geologic environment: rocks,
water, air, soil, life.
Engineering Geology may be defined as
the branch of applied science which
deals with the application of geology for a
safe and economic design and
construction of a civil engineering
project/s.
ROLE OF KNOWLEDGE OF GEOLOGY IN
CIVIL ENGINEERING
1. Provides Knowledge about materials
used for construction.
2. Knowledge is helpful for river control
and shipping work
3. Constructing dams, and tunnels.
4. Soil Tests are done before any project.
5. Knowledge is required for the
foundation of faults.
6. Nature of soil materials can be found
out.
7. Economical Design is advanced.
IMPORTANCE OF ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
1. To recognize potential difficult ground
conditions prior to detailed design and
construction
2. It helps to identify areas susceptible to
error.
3. To establish design specifications.
4. To have best selection of site for
engineering purposes.
5. To have best selection of engineering
materials for construction.
DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with
the “various processes of physical
agents such as wind, water, glaciers
and sea waves”, run on these agents
go on modifying the surface of the
earth continuously.
➢ Physical geology includes the study of
Erosion, Transportation and Deposition
(ETD).
➢ The study of physical geology plays a
vital role in civil engineering thus:
o It reveals constructive and
destructive processes of physical
agents at a particular site.
o It helps in selecting a suitable site
for different types of projects to be
under taken after studying the
effects of physical agents which
go on modifying the surface of the
earth physically, chemically and
mechanically.
MINERALOGY such as dams, tunnels, multistoried
buildings, etc.
➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with
‘the study of minerals. A mineral may PALEONTOLOGY
be defined as a naturally occurring,
➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with
homogeneous solid, inorganically
‘the study of fossils’ and the ancient
formed, having a definite chemical
remains of plants and animals are
composition and ordered atomic
referred to as fossils.
arrangement.
➢ Fossils are useful in the study of
➢ The study of mineralogy is most
evolution and migration of animals
important.
and plants through ages, ancient
o For a civil engineering student to
geography and climate of an area.
identify the rocks.
o In industries such as cement, iron HISTORICAL GEOLOGY

and steel, fertilizers, glass industry

➢ As a branch of geology, it includes
and so on.
“the study of both stratigraphy and
o In the production of atomic
paleontology”. Its use in civil
energy.
engineering is to know about the land

PETROLOGY and seas, the climate and the life of

early times upon the earth.
➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with
the study of rocks. A rock is defined as MINING GEOLOGY

“the aggregation of minerals found in

➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with
the earth’s crust”.
“the study of application of geology to
➢ The study of petrology is most
mining engineering in such a way that
important for a civil engineer, in the
the selection of suitable sites for
selection of suitable rocks for building
quarrying and mines can be
stones, road metals, etc.
determined”.

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
CIVIL ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with

➢ As a branch of geology, it deals with
the study of structures found in rocks. It
“all the geological problems that arise
is also known as tectonic geology or
in the field of civil engineering along
simply tectonics.
with suitable treatments”. Thus, it
➢ Structural geology is an arrangement
includes the construction of dams,
of rocks and plays an important role in
tunnels, mountain roads, building
civil engineering in the selection of
stones and road metals.
suitable sites for all types of projects
PHOTO GEOLOGY muds and the shells of tiny sea
creatures, coat the seafloor.
➢ As a branch of Geology, it deals with
➢ Continental Crust is made up of many
“the interpretation of aerial
different types of igneous,
photographs”.
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks.
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY The average composition is granite,
which is much less dense than the
➢ As a branch of Geology, it deals with
mafic igneous rocks of the oceanic
“the study of minerals, rocks and
crust.
materials of economic importance like
LITHOSPHERE
coal and petroleum”.
➢ The lithosphere is the outermost
mechanical layer, which behaves as a

EARTH’S STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION brittle, rigid solid.

EARTH’S STRUCTURE ➢ Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses

➢ It is divided into four major act on the lithosphere, it breaks.

components: the crust, the mantle, the MANTLE

outer core, and the inner core. ➢ The two most important things about

➢ Each layer has a unique chemical the mantle are:

composition, physical state, and can (1) it is made of solid rock, and (2) it is

impact life on Earth's surface. hot.

EARTH’S COMPOSITION ➢ Heat flows in two different ways within

➢ Core, mantle, and crust are divisions the Earth: conduction and convection.

based on composition. ➢ Conduction is defined as the heat

➢ Lithosphere and asthenosphere are transfer that occurs through rapid

divisions based on mechanical collisions of atoms, which can only

properties. happen if the material is solid.

➢ Convection is the process of a material

CRUST that can move and flow may develop

➢ Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, convection currents.

thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. CORE

➢ There are two very different types of ➢ At the planet’s center lies a dense

crust, each with its own distinctive metallic core.

physical and chemical properties. ➢ Also, metallic meteorites are thought

➢ Oceanic Crust is composed of magma to be representative of the core. If

that erupts on the seafloor to create Earth’s core were not metal, the

basalt lava flows or cools deeper planet would not have a magnetic

down to create the intrusive igneous field.

rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily

➢ Metals such as iron are magnetic, but
rock, which makes up the mantle and
crust, is not.
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON
CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
➢ Continental drift describes one of the
earliest ways geologists thought
continents moved over time.
➢ It was Alfred Wegener’s theory that all
continents had once been joined
together in a single landmass and
have drifted apart since. o Wegener
named this supercontinent Pangaea
(all earth).
➢ Wegener’s theory was rejected by
scientists because he could not
explain what force pushes or pulls
continents.
THREE MAIN EVIDENCES FOUND BY ALFRED
WEGENER:
➢ GEOLOGIC
o Evidence in the layers of rocks
across continents.
o The east coast of South America
and the west coast of Africa seem
to fit together like pieces of a
jigsaw puzzle, and Wegener
discovered their rock layers “fit” just
as clearly. South America and
Africa were not the only continents
with similar geology.
o Identical rocks, of the same type
and age, are found on both sides
of the Atlantic Ocean. Wegener
said the rocks had formed side-by-
side and that the land had since
moved apart.
o Mountain ranges with the same
rock types, structures, and ages
are now on opposite sides of the
Atlantic Ocean.
➢ FOSSIL
o Evidence in the places certain
fossils is found.
o Fossils of the ancient reptile
Mesosaurus are only found in
southern Africa and South
America. Mesosaurus, a freshwater
reptile only one meter (3.3 feet)
long, could not have swum the
Atlantic Ocean. The presence of
Mesosaurus suggests a single
habitat with many lakes and rivers.
o These plants were not the hardy
specimens adapted to survive in
the Arctic climate. These fossils
were of tropical plants, which are
adapted to a much warmer, more
humid environment.
➢ CLIMATE
o Evidence in the changing climates
during the past.
o Glacial striations (scratches) and
erratics (rocks moved away by
glacial ice from original bedrock)
correspond between continents.
This would indicate that the
glaciers either formed in the
middle of the ocean and/or
covered most of the Earth. Today
glaciers only form on land and
nearer the poles.
 o Coral reefs and coal-forming
swamps are found in tropical and
subtropical environments.
WEGENER’S PROBLEM:
He could not find the force that was
causing the continents to drift. Because of
this, he could not convince anyone that
continents could move. He died in
Greenland on an expedition. At the time
of his death, no one believed his
hypothesis.
SEAFLOOR SPREADING
➢ New ocean basins form from
volcanism.
➢ Ocean floor forms in between pieces
that have split.
PLATE TECTONICS
➢ Surface of earth composed of “plates”
(LITHOSPHERE) that move on a
“conveyor belt” (ASTHENOSPHERE).
KEY POINTS:
➢ Convection takes place in the mantle,
keeping the asthenosphere hot and
weak.
➢ Earth has Seven major lithospheric
plates that account for 94% of the
Earth's surface.
➢ North American Plate, South American
Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate,
Eurasian Plate, Indo-Australian Plate,
and Antarctic Plate.
THREE MAIN TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
CONVERGENT
➢ Two plates move towards each other.
➢ Ocean floor is being destroyed.
o OCEANIC - OCEANIC
Where different oceanic plates run
into each other, the older – and
therefore cooler and denser – one
dives beneath the other; in other
words, it subducts.
o OCEANIC – CONTINENTAL
Where oceanic and continental
plates collide, the former subducts
beneath the latter because ocean
crust – rich in iron and magnesium
– is denser than continental rock.
o CONTINENTAL – CONTINENTAL
Continental lithosphere is too
buoyant to subduct deeply, so
rather than a subduction zone and
trench these boundaries
encompass a thick mess of folded,
piled-up crust. This compression
results in massive mountain belts
rather than the volcanic arcs
powered by subduction-zone
magma in the other two cases.
DIVERGENT
➢ Two plates move away from each
other.
➢ New ocean floor is created.
TRANSFORM
➢ Two plates just move past one
another.
PARTS OF CONTINENTAL MARGIN
➢ CONTINENTAL SHELF
o Gently sloping submerged portion
of the continent.
➢ CONTINENTAL SLOPE ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
o Deep slope after the continental
➢ Associated with the energy originating
shelf.
in the interior of the solid Earth.
➢ CONTINENTAL RISE
o Gently-sloping area after the This energy is called THERMAL ENERGY.

continental slope and before the

➢ The forces within the Earth that is
ocean floor.
causing the ground to move are
➢ TRENCHES
known as ENDOGENIC FORCES.
o Deepest parts of the ocean.
o Narrow depressions caused by Earth’s Geosphere is subdivided into three

subduction zones. main layers; core, mantle, and crust.

➢ MID-OCEANIC RIDGE CRUST

o The mountain range system in the
• Continental Type
ocean.
• Oceanic Type
TYPES OF CONTINENTAL MARGIN
Combination of these two is what we call
➢ ACTIVE the tectonic plates.
o Only has a continental shelf and a
MANTLE
continental slope.
o Main feature of this boundary is a • Upper Layer
trench. • Lower Layer
➢ PASSIVE
The Lithosphere of the Earth consists of the
o Consists of continental shelf,
crust and the uppermost solid mantle,
continental slope, and continental
while the asthenosphere also known as
rise.
the plastic layer of the Earth, it is where the
o Very little tectonic activities.
molten materials is located. Since the
lithosphere rest on the asthenosphere, the
reaction occurs between the molten
EARTH’S GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES
materials in the asthenosphere causes the
➢ ENDOGENIC PROCESSES lithosphere to move.
o MAGMATISM
CORE
o VOLCANISM
o METAMORPHISM • Inner Core
➢ EXOGENIC PROCESSES • Outer Core
o WEATHERING
Both inner and outer is made up of iron
o EROSION
and nickel.
o MASS WASTING
o SEDIMENTATION
The inner core is in solid state because it
experiences high pressure from three layer;
outer core, mantle, and crust, while the
pressure in the outer core is not high
enough to make it solid the reason why it is
molten or in liquid state.
WHERE DOES THE EARTH’S INTERNAL HEAT
COME FROM?
The driving force is the mantle’s “THERMAL
ENERGY”, which mostly originated from
the decay of radioactive elements in the
Earth’s core. These radioactive elements
are unstable, when these elements
undergone decay, it releases energy as
the product of the reaction.
ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
➢ MAGMATISM
o It is the formation of magma.
o Magma is the original material that
make up igneous rock.
o It is responsible for the
development of intrusive and
extrusive igneous rocks.
It happens when magma is generated
and develops into magmatic rock or
igneous rock. The process can take place
under or on the surface of the Earth.
➢ VOLCANISM
o Is a process that usually happens
after the magma is formed.
Magma tries to escape from the source
through opening in volcano or existing
cracks on the ground.
➢ METAMORPHISM
o The process of changing the
materials that make up a rock.
Chemical components and geological
characteristics of rock changed due to
increasing or decreasing heat and
pressure.
Endogenic and exogenic processes are
significant in the metamorphosis of rocks.
Due to endogenic processes igneous and
metamorphic rocks are formed. On the
other hand, the formation of sedimentary
rocks is because of the exogenic
processes.
STRESS ON ROCKS
The geological processes that occur on
Earth causes stress on rocks. Geological
stress is the force acting on the rock.
➢ COMPRESSIONAL
o Rocks are pushing or squeezing
against one another, the stress
produced is directed towards the
center.
o Compressional stress is usually what
take place in folding which result in
mountain building.
When rocks meet the orientation can be
either horizontal or vertical. Horizontally the
crust may thicken or shorten. Vertically the
crust may thin out or break out.
Compression pushes rock together, the
stress on both sides is directed towards the
center, and the product can be the
formation of mountain.
➢ TENSIONAL
o Rocks are pulled apart which may
separate in opposite directions or
moved farther away from one
another.
o This stress is what separated all the
continents in the world.
Tension stretches the bed of rocks, tension
at the center causes the rocks to pull
apart.
➢ SHEARING
o Some of the portions of the plates
at the edges may break away in
different directions, eventually
making the plates smaller in size.
The friction brought by this stress
can cause earthquakes.
Depending on the condition of the
environment, shear stress usually happens
at different rates at the boundaries of the
plates. Shearing can cause masses of
rocks to slip on opposite direction.
➢ CONFINING
o The crust becomes compact, and
it look smaller. Unlike in shearing,
none of the crust's edges break
away.
o This can cause sinkhole where the
inside portion of the ground has
already been disintegrated.
Uniform confining pressure breaking away
of rocks happen and it could come from
the inside. This may retain the shape of the
crust but not its mass. Nothing may seem
to change in the appearance of the crust
because deformation occurred inside.
EXOGENIC PROCESSES
➢ It occurs on or near the surface of the
Earth.
➢ These are usually influenced or driven
by gravity, water, wind, and organisms.
These processes could be destructive
occurrences that leave significant
changes in the landscape and even in the
ecosystem of an area. In extreme cases,
exogenic processes can wipe out majority
of the organisms inhabiting in a particular
area.
➢ WEATHERING
o WEATHERING is the disintegration of
rocks, soil, and some minerals
together with other materials
through contact with the earth's
subsystems.
This happens even without movement or
transportation. There are three types of
weathering, the physical or mechanical,
biological, and chemical weathering.
▪ PHYSICAL WEATHERING
PHYSICAL WEATHERING is the
breaking of rocks by mechanical
forces concentrated along rock
fractures.
This can occur due to gradual or sudden
change in temperature and pressure.
 ▪ BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
This refers to the weakening of the
subsequent disintegration of rocks
by plants, animals, and microbes.
Living organisms contribute to the
weathering process in many ways.
▪ CHEMICAL WEATHERING
It is the breaking down of rocks by
chemical reactions.
New minerals are developed, and
sometimes the original properties of the
minerals in rock or soil are replaced. There
are three types of CHEMICAL
WEATHERING; oxidation, hydrolysis, and
acid rain.
➢ EROSION
o EROSION is a process wherein rock
debris or soil are moved from one
place to another, which takes
place when there is rainfall, surface
runoff, flooding, freezing, hurricane
and many others.
➢ MASS WASTING
o MASS WASTING is the movement of
large masses of materials at the
slope of a hill or mountain due to
the pull of gravity.
This phenomenon may cause damage to
a large scale especially when a storm is
present.
➢ SEDIMENTATION
o SEDIMENTATION is the buildup of
materials such as soil, rock
fragments, and soil particles
settling on the ground.
Overtime, the sediment load becomes
thick, and forms a new layer of ground. In
oceans, the sediment layer can form the
ocean basin. Due to constant geologic
processes, ocean basins change in size
and depths. The change depends on the
rate of erosion, and their surrounding
continental masses. This may conclude
that the end product of EXOGENIC
PROCESSES is the sedimentary rock.
WEATHERING
WHAT IS WEATHERING?
Weathering is the breakdown of rocks and
soil by a variety of agents. Weathering,
unlike erosion, does not involve the
movement of rocks.
TYPES OF WEATHERING
➢ PHYSICAL WEATHERING
o Rocks crumble due to physical
weathering and disaggregation. It
is a process that causes the
disintegration of rocks, minerals,
and soils without causing chemical
change.
➢ CHEMICAL WEATHERING
o Also known as decomposition or
decay, is the chemical breakdown
of rock. Chemical weathering does
not break rocks into smaller
fragments as wind, water, and ice
do, nor does it break rocks apart as
plants or animals do.
AGENTS OF WEATHERING ➢ PLANTS
o The seed of a tree may sprout in
➢ WATER
soil that has collected in a cracked
o Whether liquid or solid, is a
rock. As the roots grow, they widen
common mechanical weathering
the cracks, eventually breaking the
agent. Liquid water, for example,
rock into pieces. Over time, trees
can seep into cracks and crevices
can break apart even large rocks.
in rock. Water will freeze if
Even small plants, such as mosses,
temperatures fall low enough.
can enlarge tiny cracks as they
Water expands when it freezes.
grow.
➢ ICE
➢ ANIMALS
o It can be used as a wedge. It
o Tunneling animals, such as moles
gradually enlarges the cracks and
and prairie dogs, also work to
splits the rock. When ice melts,
break up rock and soil. Other
liquid water erodes by carrying
animals dig and trample the rock
away the tiny rock fragments that
aboveground, causing it to
were lost in the split. This is referred
crumble slowly.
to as frost weathering or
➢ ACID
cryofracturing.
o Carbonation occurs when carbon
➢ TEMPERATURE CHANGES
dioxide from the air or soil
o It can also contribute to
combines with water. This
mechanical weathering through a
produces carbonic acid, a weak
process known as thermal stress.
acid that can dissolve rock.
Temperature changes cause rock
Carbonic acid dissolves limestone
to expand (with heat) and
particularly well. When carbonic
contract (with cold). The structure
acid seeps underground through
of the rock weakens as this occurs
limestone, it can open up massive
repeatedly. It crumbles over time.
cracks or hollow out vast networks
➢ SALT
of caves.
o In a process known as haloclasty,
salt also works to weather rock.
Saltwater can get into rock cracks
WORKS OF RIVERS, WIND, AND SEA AND
and pores. Salt crystals are formed
THEIR ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE
when saltwater evaporates. As the
crystals grow, they exert pressure RIVER

on the rock, gradually breaking it

➢ Carry water and nutrients to areas all
apart.
around the earth.
➢ One among the means of distributing evaporation and more, and a river’s
the products of weathering. speed decreases when it enters a lake
and calm sea.
THERE FUNCTION OF RIVERS:
WIND
o EROSION
o TRANSPORTATION ➢ Known as a sustainable power source.
o DEPOSITION ➢ Wind power.
➢ Wind is known as a sustainable power
EROSION
source since it will consistently be
➢ It is considered as one of the most delivered as long as the sun gleams on
expressive features of river which is the earth.
turbulent with currents in all directions. ➢ Wind power is the energy obtained
Thus, most rivers carve the river valley from the wind.
by erosion.
SEA
➢ And in erosion, a river may erode in
four ways: ➢ Sea regulates earth’s temperature and
o ABRASION/CORRASION it provide us with food and drinking
o ATTRITION water.
o HYDRAULIC ACTION
ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE
o SOLUTION
RIVERS
TRANSPORTATION
➢ Rivers supply water and construction
➢ A river uses its energy to carry of
aggregates, and they form ecological
transport eroded materials, and these
corridors economical axes of
materials are called its load.
transportation. However, rivers also
➢ River transports their load by these four
cause havoc when their floods engulf
processes:
the surrounding land. River engineering
o TRACTION
serves the society by optimizing the
o SALTATION
numerous benefits while providing
o SUSPENSION
protection against flooding.
o SOLUTION
WIND
DEPOSITION
➢ The engineering importance of wind is
➢ It is when those sediments are
that it is used to analyze and design all
deposited, or dropped off, in different
high-rise buildings, cable-suspension
location. And the river dop its load
bridges and cables-stayed bridges,
when the volume decreases because
electricity transmission towers,
of dry season, dry region with high
 telecommunication towers, and all
other types of towers, and chimneys.
SEA
➢ Ocean engineering is instrumental in
helping preserve coastal structures
from erosion, developing energy
sources, offshore petroleum recovery,
ocean mining and protecting ports
and harbors.
ORIGIN AND OCCURRENCE OF
EARTHQUAKE
EARTHQUAKE
➢ An earthquake is a weak to violent
shaking of the ground produced
by the sudden movement of rock
materials below the earth’s
surface.
ACTIVE AND INACTIVE FAULTS
➢ You have learned that the surface of
the Earth is called crust. And every part
of the Earth’s crust is made of rocks.
Earth’s crust is made of two sections:
the continental crust and the oceanic
crust. Continental crust makes up the
Earth’s landmasses. Oceanic crust is
found in the ocean floor and is usually
thinner than the continental crust.
WHY ARE SOME PARTS OF THE CRUST
THICKER THAN THE OTHERS? HOW DOES THE
CRUST CHANGE ITS SHAPE OVER TIME?
➢ Some force is at work pushing and
pulling on the crust causing changes
on the surface and often well beneath
the surface. This push-pull is called
stress.
STRESS
➢ The stress may cause the rocks top
twist or tear apart. This twisting or
tearing apart causes the formation of
faults.
FAULTS
➢ Faults are fracture in rocks along which
movement has occurred,
occasionally, small faults can be
recognized in road cuts while large
faults usually have displacement of
hundreds of kilometers long.
➢ A cross section of a faulted rock has
two blocks of rock, one on top of the
other, the block of rock above the
fault is hanging wall. The block below
the fault is called the foot wall.
There are three basic types of faults:
➢ NORMAL FAULT
The block above the fault moves
down relative to the block below the
fault.
➢ REVERSE FAULT
The block above the fault moves up
relative to the block below the fault.
➢ THRUST FAULT
The movement of blocks along a fault
is horizontal.
Faults may either be active or inactive
depending on how they were formed.
Active faults are structures where there is a
displacement. Inactive faults are structures
that can be identified but which do not
cause earthquakes. And the motion along
faults can be explained by the plate
tectonic theory, which states that large
slabs of Earth’s lithosphere are
continuously moving slowly.
PLATE TECTONIC
➢ The Earth’s outer most layer is
fragmented into seven major slabs
called tectonic plates which are:
o Pacific Plate
▪ The Pacific major plate is the
largest which underlies the Pacific
Ocean.
o North American Plate
▪ The North American major plate
not only contains the continent of
North America but also part of the
Atlantic Ocean
o Eurasian Plate
▪ The Eurasian major plate consists of
most of Europe, Russia, and parts of
Asia.
o African Plate
▪ The African Plate contains the
whole continent of Africa as well as
the surrounding oceanic crust of
the Atlantic Ocean.
o Antarctic Plate
▪ The Antarctic plate holds the entire
continent of Antarctica including
its surrounding oceanic crust.
o Indo-Australia Plate
▪ The Indo-Australian plate stretches
from Australia to India. It also
includes the oceanic crust of the
Indian Ocean.
o South American Plate
▪ The South American plate is a
major plate that includes the
continent of South America and a
large portion of the ocean from
the Atlantic Ocean.
➢ Tectonic plates move very slowly
relative to each other, typically a few
centimeters per year, but this still
causes a huge amount of deformation
at the plate boundaries, which in turn
results in earthquakes.
➢ Through observations, it shows that
most earthquakes are associated with
tectonic plate boundaries. So…
WHAT DRIVES THE MOVEMENT OF TECTONIC
PLATES?
➢ Three forces have been identified as
the primary reasons for tectonic plate
movement:
o MANTLE CONVECTION CURRENTS
Warm mantle currents drive and
carry plates of lithosphere along a
like a conveyor belt.
o RIDGE PUSH (BUOYANT UPWELLING
MANTLE AT MID-OCEAN RIDGES)
Newly formed plates at oceanic
ridges are warm, so they have a
higher elevation at the oceanic
ridge than the colder, more dense
plate material further away; gravity
causes the higher plate at the
ridge to push away the lithosphere
that lies further from the ridge.
o SLAB PULL
Older, colder plates sink at
subduction zones because, as they
 cool, they become denser than As they move, they cause nearby
the underlying mantle and the rocks to move also. The rocks continue
cooler, sinking plate pulls the rest of to move this way until the energy is
the warmer plate along behind it. used up.
➢ When an earthquake occurs, only a
TYPES OF PLATE BOUNDARY
part of a fault is involved in the rupture.
There are three types of plated boundary: That area is usually outlined by the
distribution of aftershocks in the
➢ DIVERGENT
sequence. Some faults are deep inside
o plates moving apart
the Earth. Others are close to or at
o It is also referred to as a
Earth’s surface. Most faults occur
constructive plate boundary, as
between the surface and a depth of
new material is being produced at
74 km.
the boundary surface.
➢ And, the point within Earth where rock
➢ CONVERGENT
under stress breaks is called the focus.
o plates coming together
The focus is the underground point of
o Continental collisions result in the
origin of an earthquake.
creation of mountains and fold
➢ The point directly above the focus on
belts as the rocks are forced
the surface is the Epicenter.
upwards. Plates can move towards
Earthquake waves reach the
each other at a boundary. This
epicenter first. This is where the most
type of boundary is called a
violent shaking of the ground occurs.
convergent boundary and is
➢ Earthquake waves are known as
dominated by reverse faulting,
seismic waves. Seismic waves are the
although other types of faulting
waves of energy caused by the
may be observed.
sudden breaking of rock within Earth or
➢ TRANSFORM
an explosion. They are the energy that
o plates moving past each other
travels through Earth and is recorded
o This type of boundary is dominated
on seismographs.
by strike-slip faulting, although
o Seismograph is an instrument that
other types of faulting may be
detects and measures waves.
observed.
➢ Seismic waves can be distinguished by
EARTHQUAKE FOCUS AND EPICENTER a number of properties including the

➢ The most common cause of speed the waves travel, the direction

earthquake is faulting. As you have that the waves travel, the direction

learned, a fault is a break in Earth’s that the waves move particles as they

crust. During faulting, energy is pass by, and where they do not

released as the rocks break and move. propagate.

THREE MAIN TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES ➢ Earthquakes are the result of sudden
movement along faults within the
➢ There are three main types of seismic
Earth.
waves, and they all move in different
➢ The movement releases stored-up
ways. These are the primary waves,
'elastic strain' energy in the form of
secondary waves, and surface waves.
seismic waves, which propagate
o PRIMARY WAVES OR P WAVES
through the Earth and cause the
is the fastest of seismic wave, and,
ground surface to shake.
consequently, the first to arrive at a
seismic station before any other TECTONIC EARTHQUAKE
type of seismic wave.
o The one that occurs when the
o SECONDARY WAVES OR S WAVE
earth's crust breaks due to
is the second wave you feel in an
geological forces on rocks and
earthquake. An S wave is slower
adjoining plates that cause
than a P wave and can only move
physical and chemical changes.
through solid rock, not through
liquid or gases. VOLCANIC EARTHQUAKE

o SURFACE WAVES OR L WAVE

o Any earthquake that results from
L waves arrive at a given point
tectonic forces which occur in
after primary and secondary
conjunction with volcanic activity.
waves. L waves travel from the
focus directly upward to the EXPLOSION EARTHQUAKE

epicenter. o It is an earthquake that is the result

MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKE
➢ Earthquakes often occur in sequences.
➢ The main shock is the largest and
principal event in a sequence. This is
preceded by the foreshocks and
followed by aftershocks, which can
last for up to ten years after the event.
Caused by release of residual stress, in
areas not ruptured in the main shock,
aftershocks may not occur on the
same fault as the main shock.
of the detonation of a nuclear
and/or chemical device.
COLLAPSE EARTHQUAKE
o Small earthquakes in underground
caverns and mines that are caused
by seismic waves produced from
the explosion of rock on the surface.
EARTHQUAKE PROSPECTING / SEISMIC
PROSPECTING
PROSPECTING

➢ It is the field search for mineral

deposits, usually with the ultimate
 objective of economic development
by mining operations. Oil and natural
gas prospecting is a special category
and involves specialized techniques;
water search also is normally treated
separately.
SEISMIC PROSPECTING
➢ Seismic prospecting is conducted
either on land or at sea. Seismic waves
are generated by chemical explosions
or vibrating impacts of short duration.
By recording the time history of the
reflected seismic waves, information
on the nature and geological
significance of the Earth's interior can
be obtained.
SEISMIC WAVES
➢ Caused by the sudden movement of
materials within the Earth, such as slip
along a fault during an earthquake.
Volcanic eruptions, explosions,
landslides, avalanches, and even
rushing rivers can also cause seismic
waves.
OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION
➢ Seismic surveys are used to map
geological structures beneath the
earth’s surface or beneath the
seabed. We have onshore and
offshore exploration.
ONSHORE EXPLORATION
➢ Reflection seismology is commonly
used during onshore exploration, and
involves sending seismic waves
underground. When these bounce
back, they’re picked up by surface
sensors, providing crucial information
on the geophysical properties of a
potential oil reserve.
OFFSHORE EXPLORATION
➢ In offshore exploration, seismic airguns
are used to release a chamber of
compressed air into the water,
creating a pressure wave that
penetrates the seabed, illuminates
geological structures, and reflects this
information back through the water,
where it’s detected by hydrophone
cables.
Determining the geological structure
of a potential oil reserve is important
because it allows operators to locate
promising oil deposits and plan drilling
operations more effectively.
Seismic data holds a lot of information.
Not only does it identify reserves, it also
provides critical information on fracture
density and orientation, which is crucial to
accurate drilling and well placement.
Seismic surveys also limit the environmental
impact of oil and gas exploration by
determining the need for further drilling.
BENEFITS
➢ Locates oil reserves
➢ Minimizes environmental impact
➢ Improves accuracy of well placement
 GROUNDWATER rains or melting snow may cause the
water table to rise, or heavy pumping
➢ Groundwater is the water found
of groundwater supplies may cause
underground in the cracks and spaces
the water table to fall.
in soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and
➢ Groundwater supplies are replenished,
moves slowly through geologic
or recharged, by rain and snow melt
formations of soil, sand and rocks
that seep down into the cracks and
called aquifers.
crevices beneath the land’s surface. In
➢ Groundwater is used for drinking water
some areas of the world, people face
by more than 50 percent of the
serious water shortages because
people in the United States, including
groundwater is used faster than it is
almost everyone who lives in rural
naturally replenished. In other areas
areas. The largest use for groundwater
groundwater is polluted by human
is to irrigate crops.
activities.
SATURATED ZONE ➢ Water in aquifers is brought to the
surface naturally through a spring or
➢ The area where water fills the aquifer is
can be discharged into lakes and
called the saturated zone (or
streams. Groundwater can also be
saturation zone). The top of this zone is
extracted through a well drilled into
called the water table. The water
the aquifer. A well is a pipe in the
table may be located only a foot
ground that fills with groundwater. This
below the ground’s surface or it can sit
water can be brought to the surface
hundreds of feet down.
by a pump. Shallow wells may go dry if
AQUIFERS the water table falls below the bottom

➢ Typically made up of gravel, sand, of the well. Some wells, called artesian

sandstone, or fractured rock, like wells, do not need a pump because of

limestone. Water can move through natural pressures that force the water

these materials because they have up and out of the well.

large connected spaces that make ➢ In areas where material above the

them permeable. The speed at which aquifer is permeable, pollutants can

groundwater flows depends on the readily sink into groundwater supplies.

size of the spaces in the soil or rock Groundwater can be polluted by

and how well the spaces are landfills, septic tanks, leaky

connected. underground gas tanks, and from

➢ Groundwater can be found almost overuse of fertilizers and pesticides. If

everywhere. The water table may be groundwater becomes polluted, it will

deep or shallow; and may rise or fall no longer be safe to drink.

depending on many factors. Heavy

HOW MUCH DO WE DEPEND ON thermal, magnetic properties, electrical
GROUNDWATER? conductivity, and radioactivity.

➢ Groundwater supplies drinking water ❖ CHEMICAL MINERALOGY

for 51% of the total U.S. population and
It is the study of minerals' chemical formula
99% of the rural population.
and chemical properties.
➢ Groundwater helps grow our food. 64%
of groundwater is used for irrigation to ❖ ENVIRONMENTAL MINERALOGY

grow crops.
It studies complex and very different
➢ Groundwater is an important
conditions of the origin of minerals,
component in many industrial
understand element behavior in echo
processes.
systems, natural and industrial effects of
➢ Groundwater is a source of recharge
minerals and mitigates potential
for lakes, rivers, and wetlands.
contamination problems.

❖ DESCRIPTIVE MINERALOGY

MINERALOGY
Which categorizes minerals based on their

➢ It is a branch of Geology and a common chemical and structural

systematic study that deals with the properties.

characteristics of minerals including

IMPORTANCE OF MINERALOGY IN CIVIL
their physical properties, chemical
ENGINEERING
composition, internal crystal structure,
occurrence in nature and also their ➢ It helps engineers to ensure a stable

utilization. and cost-effective model and

materials for construction projects. Civil
MINERALOGY HAS MORE SCIENTIFIC
engineers use several building materials
COMPONENTS, SUCH AS THE FOLLOWING:
in housing and infrastructure

❖ CRYSTALLOGRAPHY construction, from sand to cement and

plaster of pairs to bentonite clay. They
It studies crystal forms in which the minerals
are also designing the civil structures,
crystallize and their internal structure,
the construction of which is influenced
relations, and distribution of atoms, ions, or
by the geology of a specific site.
ionic groups in the crystal lattice.
➢ Minerals are raw materials that form a
❖ PHYSICAL MINERALOGY part of the rock, foundation, and
structural base of civil design. Suppose
It is the study of the physical properties of
that a civil engineer does not know and
minerals, such as cohesion (hardness,
understand the chemistry behind the
cleavage, elasticity, and density), optical,
constituent minerals and the
 surrounding atmosphere. In that case, MARBLE
the structure cannot provide the
intended service life and may show
early signs of distress because for not
having enough knowledge of mineral
properties. Therefore, it is evident that
knowledge of minerals is essential for
civil engineers. MINERALS USED IN CEMENT INDUSTRY

MINERALS

Minerals are naturally occurring inorganic

solids with a definite chemical composition
and an ordered internal or crystalline
structure.

SOME EXAMPLES OF MINERALS FOR

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

CLAY
1. Asbestos
2. Barytes
3. Bauxite
4. Calcite
5. Clay
6. Feldspar
LIMESTONE
7. Fluorite
8. Gypsum
9. Laterite
10. Lignite
SAND
11. Limestone
12. Mica
13. Pumice
14. Red Ochre
15. Silica Sand
ALUMINUM

PURPOSES OF MINERALS

Minerals are used for several purposes,

as they used as construction materials,
to fuel industries and help produce
industrial products and metals like iron, their composition, structure, and

steel, etc. Minerals like coal are used as proportions will influence the material's

fuel in industries and as a source of properties.

electricity. Natural gas and petroleum CRYSTAL

are also part of minerals used as fuels.
Crystals are any solid material in which the
IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS component atoms are arranged in a
definite pattern whose surface regularity
➢ Minerals include energy minerals,
reflects its internal symmetry. Crystals form
metals, construction minerals, and
in nature when molecules gather to
industrial minerals. Some minerals are
stabilize when the liquid cools and hardens.
used to produce electricity, fuel for
This process is called crystallization and can
transportation, heating for homes and
happen when magma hardens, or water
manufacture plastics.
evaporates from a natural mixture.
➢ Engineers care about minerals. They
are essential because they are the
foundation for our buildings and roads.
Engineers also get many of the
materials they use for construction from
rocks, soils, and minerals. Engineers
must understand the properties of these
rocks, soils, and minerals to use the ideal
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
material for a job that is efficient and
cost-effective. It is the study of crystalline solids and
principles that govern their growth, external
ELEMENTARY KNOWLEDGE ON SYMMETRY
shape, and internal structure. It is a
ELEMENTS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC SYSTEMS
fundamental subject in materials science
Why do we need to study crystallography? and solid- state physics.

➢ Useful for the identification of minerals THREE SECTIONS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

➢ Useful for solid-state studies of minerals
➢ Geometrical
➢ The study of crystals can provide new
➢ Physical
chemical information.
➢ Chemical
➢ Major importance to a wide range of
scientific disciplines CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
➢ It is useful in phase identification. When
A Crystal System refers to one of the many
manufacturing or using a material, it is
classes of crystals, space groups, and
generally desirable to know what
lattices. In crystallography terms, lattice
compounds and phases are present, as
and crystal systems are associated with ❖ MONOCLINIC SYSTEM
each other with a slight difference. Based
on their point groups, crystals, and space
groups are divided into seven crystal
systems.

SEVEN CRYSTAL SYSTEM:

➢ The Seven Crystal Systems is an

approach for classification depending
➢ It comprises three axes where two are
upon their lattice and atomic structure.
at right angles to each other, and the
The atomic lattice is a three-
third axis is inclined. All three axes are of
dimensional network of atoms that are
different lengths. Based on the inner
arranged in symmetrical patterns.
structure, the monoclinic system
➢ With the help of the lattice, it is possible
includes Basal pinacoids and prisms
to determine the appearance and
with willing end faces. All three axes are
physical properties of the stone. It is
unequal in length, two of which
possible to identify which crystal system
intersect at an oblique angle. The third
they belong to.
axis is perpendicular to the other two
❖ TRICLINIC SYSTEM
axes.
➢ Some examples include Diopside,
Petalite, Kunzite, Gypsum, Hiddenite,
Howlite, Vivianite, and more.
❖ ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM

➢ It is the most unsymmetrical crystal

system. All three axes are inclined
towards each other and are of the
same length. Based on the three
inclined angles, the various forms of
➢ It comprises three axes and is at right
crystals are in the paired faces.
angles to each other. There are
➢ All three axes are all unequal in length
different lengths. Based on their
and intersect at three different angles.
Rhombic structure, the orthorhombic
None of the axes are perpendicular to
system includes various crystal shapes,
another. It has three inclined angles.
namely pyramids, double pyramids,
rhombic pyramids, and pinacoids.
➢ All three axes at right angles and all ❖ HEXAGONAL SYSTEM
three have different lengths. It is also
perpendicular to each other.
➢ Some common orthorhombic crystals
include Topaz, Tanzanite, Iolite, Zoisite,
Danburite, and more.
❖ TRIGONAL SYSTEM

➢ It comprises four axes. The three axes

➢ Angles and axis in a trigonal system
are similar to Hexagonal Systems.
are all contained within a single plane
(called the basal plane) and are at
120°. They intersect each other at an
angle of sixty degrees. The fourth axis
intersects different axes at right angles.
Crystal shapes of hexagonal systems
include Double Pyramids, Double-Sided

There will be six sides at the base of Pyramids, and Four-Sided Pyramids.

a hexagonal system (cross-section ➢ It has four axes. Three of the axes fall on
the same plane and intersect at the
of a prism). There will be three sides
axial cross at 120 degrees between the
in the trigonal system (base cross-
positive ends. The three axes are the
section). Crystal shapes in a trigonal
same length and the fourth axis have
design include three-sided
different length.
pyramids, Scalenohedral, and ➢ Examples: Beryl, Cancrinite, Apatite,
Rhombohedra. Sugilite, etc.
➢ All three axes are equal length and ❖ TETRAGONAL SYSTEM
none of the axes is perpendicular to
another, but the crystal faces all
have the same size and shape.
➢ Some typical examples include
Ruby, Quartz, Calcite, Agate,
Jasper, Tiger's Eyes, and more.

➢ It consists of three axes. The central axis

varies in length; it can either be short or
long. The two-axis lie in the same plane
and are of the same length. Based on
 the rectangular inner structure, the
shapes of crystal in tetragonal include
double and eight-sided pyramids, four-
sided prism, trapezohedrons,
pyrite.
➢ All Three axes at right angle, two of
which are equal in length and one
which is different in length. It is also
perpendicular to one another.
❖ CUBIC SYSTEM
➢ It is the smallest divisible unit of a mineral
that possesses all the symmetry and
properties of the mineral.
and ➢ It is a group of atoms, ions, or molecules
that are arranged together purely to
build the crystal. The unit cells are
structured in three-dimensional space,
which describes the bulk arrangement
of atoms of the crystal.
SYMMETRY

In crystallography, symmetry is used to

characterize crystals, identify repeating
parts of molecules, and simplify data
collection and nearly all calculations. Also,
the symmetry of the physical properties of
a crystal, such as thermal conductivity and
optical activity, must include the symmetry
➢ The cubic system is the most
of the crystal. Thus, a thorough knowledge
symmetrical one out of the seven
of symmetry is essential to a
crystal systems. All three angles
crystallographer.
intersect at right angles and are of
equal length. Crystal shapes of a cubic SYMMETRY ELEMENTS
system based on inner structure
It is the locations where the symmetry
(square) include octahedron, cube,
operations occur such as a rotation axis, a
and Hexaciscoherdron.
mirror plane, an inversion center, or a
➢ The three axes are all equal in length
translation vector are described as
and intersect at right angles to each
symmetry elements.
other. It is also perpendicular to one
another. ❖ PLANE OF SYMMETRY OR MIRROR

➢ Examples: Silver, Garnet, Gold, and SYMMETRY

Diamond. ➢ It is an imaginary plane that passes

through the center of a crystal and
UNIT CELL
divides it into two equal portions, which
are precise mirror images of each
other.
➢ Any two-dimensional surface that when
passed through the center of the
crystal, it divides into two symmetrical
 parts that are mirror images. It is simply
like the concept of a mirror, where the
image is found perpendicular to the
reflection plane and equidistant from
the plane on the opposite side of the
plane.
❖ AXIS OF SYMMETRY
➢ An imaginary line, passing through the
crystal such that it is rotated about this
line, presents the same appearance
more than once in one complete
revolution.
➢ It is a straight line that divides a shape
into two identical parts, thereby
creating one part as the mirror image
of the other part.
FOUR TYPES OF AXIS SYMMETRY
o BINARY SYMMETRY
When rotation repeats from every 180
degrees.
o TRIGONAL SYMMETRY
When rotation repeats from every 120
degrees.
o TETRAGONAL SYMMETRY
When rotation repeats from every 90
degrees.
o HEXAGONAL SYMMETRY
When rotation repeats from every 60
degrees.
❖ CENTER OF SYMMETRY
➢ An imaginary point in the crystal that
any line drawn through it intersects the
surface of the crystal at an equal
distance on either side.
➢ Most crystals have a center of
symmetry, even though they may not
possess either planes of symmetry or
axes of symmetry. Triclinic usually have
only a center of symmetry. If you can
pass an imaginary line from the surface
of a crystal face through the center of
the crystal (axial cross) and it intersects
a similar point on a face equidistance
form the center, then the crystal has a
center of symmetry.
ROLE OF SYMMETRY IN CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
In crystallography, symmetry is used to
characterize crystals, identify repeating
parts of molecules, and simplify data
collection and nearly all calculations. Also,
the symmetry of the physical properties of
a crystal, such as thermal conductivity and
optical activity, must include the symmetry
of the crystal.
 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS ❖ CLEAVAGE AND FRACTURE
Cleavage and Fracture are used to
To classify a mineral resource, the minerals
describe how minerals break into
in the rock should first be identified. Minerals
pieces.
can be identified through their physical
❖ TRANSPARENCY
properties.
Indicate the extent of light that can
▪ Color pass through the mineral. The degree of
▪ Streak transparency may depend on the
▪ Hardness thickness of the mineral.
▪ Cleavage and Fracture ❖ MAGNETISM
▪ Transparency Indicates the ability of the mineral to
▪ Magnetism attract or repel other materials.
▪ Tenacity ❖ TENACITY
▪ Luster ➢ The mineral’s ability to hold its particles
▪ Odor together or the mineral's level of
▪ Specific Gravity resistance to stress such as bending,
❖ COLOR breaking, crushing or tearing.
Color is the most characteristic of and is ➢ It indicates if the mineral is brittle,
usually the first property used to identify elastic, flexible, etc.
minerals. It is a result of the way minerals ❖ LUSTER
absorb light. Luster describes the reflection of light of
❖ STREAK a mineral’s surface. Mineralogists have
The color of minerals in powder form. special terms to describe luster.
❖ HARDNESS ❖ ODOR
The ability to resist being scratched—or The distinct smell of a mineral that is
hardness—is one of the most useful usually released from a chemical
properties for identifying minerals. reaction manifested when the mineral
Hardness is determined by the ability of is subjected to water, heat, air and
one mineral to scratch another. friction.
Federick Mohs, a German mineralogist, ❖ SPECIFIC GRAVITY
produced a hardness scale (table 5) ➢ It measures the density of the mineral.
using a set of ten standard minerals. The ➢ It determines how heavy the mineral is
scale arranges the minerals in order of by its weight to water.
increasing hardness. Each higher- ➢ Specific gravity is used especially when
numbered (harder) mineral will scratch two minerals have the same size and
any mineral with a lower number color.
(softer).
ROCK FORMING MINERALS ORTHOCLASE

❖ QUARTZ FAMILY

QUARTZ FAMILY SPLITS INTO TWO

CLASSIFICATIONS:
ALBITE
o MACROCRYSTALLINE QUARTZ
Transparent to translucent stones.
E.g Smokey Quartz, Rose Quartz,
Amethyst, Citrine, and Prasiolite.
o CRYPTOCRYSTALLINE QUARTZ
Translucent to opaque stones.
PERTHITE
E.g carnelian, onyx, agate, and jasper.
❖ FELDSPAR FAMILY
➢ Came from the word Feldspath that is
related to the word of rock in German.
Feldspar also known as felspar.
➢ Feldspar Family is widely used in jewelry
industry. ❖ AUGITE

➢ They provide a great choice of natural ➢ A rock-forming mineral that commonly

colors and optical effects plus they occurs in mafic and intermediate

come into large sizes. igneous rocks such as basalt, gabbro,

andesite, and diorite. It is found in these
MICROCLINE
rocks throughout the world, wherever
they occur.
➢ Augite is also found in ultramafic rocks
and in some metamorphic rocks that
form under high temperatures.
❖ HORNBLENDE
➢ A field and classroom name used for a
SANIDINE
group of dark-colored amphibole
minerals found in many types of
igneous and metamorphic rocks.
➢ These minerals vary in chemical
composition but are all double-chain
inosilicates with very similar physical
properties.
❖ BIOTITE a generalized chemical composition of
➢ A name used for a large group of black X3Y2(SiO4)3.
mica minerals that are commonly ➢ These minerals are found throughout
found in igneous and metamorphic the world in metamorphic, igneous,
rocks. and sedimentary rocks.
➢ These include annite, phlogopite, ➢ Most garnet found near Earth's surface
siderophyllite, fluorophlogopite, forms when a sedimentary rock with a
fluorannite, eastonite, and many high aluminum content, such as shale,
others. These micas vary in chemical is subjected to heat and pressure
composition but are all sheet silicate intense enough to produce schist or
minerals with very similar physical gneiss.
properties. ➢ Garnet is also found in the rocks of
❖ MUSCOVITE contact metamorphism, subsurface
➢ The most common mineral of the mica magma chambers, lava flows, deep-
family. It is an important rock-forming source volcanic eruptions, and the soils
mineral present in igneous, and sediments formed when garnet-
metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. bearing rocks are weathered and
Like other micas it readily cleaves into eroded.
thin transparent sheets.
➢ Muscovite sheets have a pearly to
vitreous luster on their surface. If they PROPERTIES AND FORMATION

are held up to the light, they are

❖ MINERAL FORMATION
transparent and nearly colorless, but
Minerals form in all geologic
most have a slight brown, yellow,
environments under a wide range of
green, or rose-color tint.
chemical and physical conditions, such
❖ CALCITE
as varying temperature and pressure.
A rock-forming mineral with a chemical
❖ REVERSE SUBLIMATION
formula of CaCO3. It is extremely
When a volcano erupts, the contrast
common and found throughout the
between the temperatures of the
world in sedimentary, metamorphic,
volcano and the atmosphere makes it
and igneous rocks. Some geologists
so that lower energy solids are forms.
consider it to be a "ubiquitous mineral" -
❖ CRYSTALLIZATION
one that is found everywhere.
The cooling of magma or lava results in
❖ GARNET
crystals and igneous rocks being
➢ The name used for a large group of
formed.
rock-forming minerals. These minerals
share a common crystal structure and
❖ EVAPORATION ➢ Sedimentation is a process whose raw
When a body of water has high mineral materials are particles from other rocks
content, when that body of water that have undergone weathering or
evaporates, it can leave behind those erosion.
minerals as they settle to the bottom. ➢ Weathering refers to the various
❖ DEPOSITION processes of physical disintegration
Deposition is the laying down of and chemical decomposition that
sediment carried by wind, flowing occur when rocks at Earth’s surface are
water, the sea or ice. Sediment can be exposed to the atmosphere (mainly in
transported as pebbles, sand and mud, the form of rainfall) and the
or as salts dissolved in water. hydrosphere.
➢ Sedimentary rocks are the most
MAIN CATEGORIES OF MINERAL
common rocks exposed on Earth’s
FORMATION
surface but are only a minor constituent
❖ IGNEOUS OR MAGMATIC FORMATION of the entire crust, which is dominated
➢ In which minerals crystallize from by igneous and metamorphic rocks.
melted material. ❖ METAMORPHIC FORMATIONS
➢ Igneous rock, any of various crystalline ➢ In which new minerals form at the
or glassy rocks formed by the cooling expense of earlier ones owing to the
and solidification of molten earth effects of changing.
material. ➢ Metamorphic rock, any of a class of
➢ Igneous rocks are formed from the rocks that result from the alteration of
solidification of magma, which is a hot preexisting rocks in response to
(600 to 1,300 °C, or 1,100 to 2,400 °F) changing environmental conditions,
molten or partially molten rock such as variations in temperature,
material. Earth is composed pressure, and mechanical stress, and
predominantly of a large mass of the addition or subtraction of chemical
igneous rock with a very thin veneer of components. The preexisting rocks may
weathered material—namely, be igneous, sedimentary, or other
sedimentary rock. metamorphic rocks.
❖ SEDIMENTARY FORMATION ➢ The word metamorphism is taken from
➢ In which minerals are the result of the Greek for “change of form”;
sedimentation. metamorphic rocks are derived from
➢ Sedimentary rocks are produced by igneous or sedimentary rocks that have
the weathering of preexisting rocks and altered their form (recrystallized) as a
the subsequent transportation and result of changes in their physical
deposition of the weathering products. environment. Metamorphism comprises
 changes both in mineralogy and in the years ago, they are said to be the
fabric of the original rock. natural gas and natural fuels that are
❖ HYDROTHERMAL FORMATION formed under similar condition.
➢ In which minerals are chemically
COAL
precipitated from hot solutions within
Earth. Coal is a combustible black or brownish

➢ Hydrothermal mineral deposit, any black sedimentary rock containing high

concentration of metallic minerals amount of carbon and hydrocarbons. It is

formed by the precipitation of solids classified as a non-renewable energy

from hot mineral-laden water source because it takes millions of years to

(hydrothermal solution). The solutions form. Coal contains the energy stored by

are thought to arise in most cases from plants that lived hundreds of millions of

the action of deeply circulating water years ago in a swampy forest. Coal is the

heated by magma. Other sources of largest source of energy for generating

heating that may be involved include electricity in the world.

energy released by radioactive decay

PROCESS OF COAL FORMATION
or by faulting of the Earth’s crust.
➢ The mineral deposit may be
precipitated from the solution with or
without demonstrable association with
igneous processes. These waters may
deposit their dissolved minerals in
openings in the rock, thus filling the
cavities, or they may replace the rocks
themselves to form so-called
replacement deposits. The two
➢ The standard uniformitarian process of
processes may occur simultaneously,
coal formation begins in a swamp. The
the filling of an opening by
process of coal formation according to
precipitation accompanying the
the standard uniformitarian process,
replacement of the walls of the
coal formation begins in a swamp area.
opening.
In this water saturated environment
dead mosses, leaves, twigs and other
parts of trees do not decompose
COALS AND PETROLEUM
completely. With increasing pressures
➢ Coals and petroleum are formed as a of temperatures, more water and gases
result of degradation of ancient plant are driven up forming the common
and marine life which lives millions of bituminous family of coals. Finally, high
 temperatures and pressures make
bituminous coals to turn into a hard
black coal called anthracite.
➢ At various intervals, the swamp may be
covered by sand and mud when a river
floods or when ocean levels rise under
the weight of these sediments that peat
may lose some of its water and gases
eventually turning it into fuel.
TYPES OF COAL
❖ PEAT
A blackish or dark brown material that
is the remains of plants partly decayed
in water and is dug and dried for use as
fuel. It is also used in making fertilizers.
❖ LIGNITE
➢ A soft combustible sedimentary rock
often referred to as brown coal that is
formed from naturally compressed
peat.
➢ It is considered the lowest rank of coal
due to its relatively low heat content.
The carbon content is only about 60-
70%. It is used in electricity generation
and cement construction.
❖ BITUMINOUS
➢ Also called soft coals or black coals are
the group of coals that are most
abundant and are most widely used in
our world today. This type of coal has
an intermediate carbon content which
is in the range of 85%.
➢ This type of coal is also black or dark
brown in colour. Due to the presence of
a tar-like substance known as bitumen
when heated, it is used in road
construction. It is also used in cement
manufacturing.
❖ ANTHRACITE
➢ Considered as the cleanest burning materials for fuel and wide variety of
coal available. It produces more heat products.
and less smoke than other coal and is ➢ Sufficient quantities of organic matter is
widely used in hand-fired furnaces. needed to collect in the sediments of
➢ It is also known as the hard coals the seafloor.
because ofits compact variety that has ➢ Sufficient thickness of rocks to produce
a sub-metallic cluster it hasthe highest the pressure, and thus the heat,
carbon content (92-98%) the fewer needed for the transformation of
impurities and the higher energy biological substances into petroleum.
density of all types of coal. ➢ Third, time is needed for this
➢ It has compact variety that has a sub- transformation to work.
metallic cluster. This type of coal is used ➢ And fourth, time is needed for oil and
primarily in power generation. gas to migrate and collect in suitable
reservoirs.
PETROLEUM

➢ Also called crude oil, is a fossil fuel. Like

coal and natural gas, petroleum was
formed from the remains of ancient
marine organisms, such as plants,
algae, and bacteria.
➢ Millions of years ago algae and plants
lived in shallow seas after dying and
sinking to the seafloor the organic
material mixed with other sediments
was buried. Over millions of years ago,
under high pressure and high
temperature the remains of these
organisms corresponding to what we
know today as fossil fuels, coals, natural
gas and petroleum are fossil fuels that
are formed under similar conditions.

PROCESS OF PETROLEUM FORMATION

➢ Over millions of years of intense heat

and pressure the organic remains
(fossils) are transformed into carbon-
rich substances which we rely on as raw