Wayne State University Press

Salman Rushdie's Magical Kingdom: The Moor's Last Sigh and Fairy-Tale Utopia
Author(s): Justyna Deszcz
Source: Marvels & Tales, Vol. 18, No. 1 (2004), pp. 28-52
Published by: Wayne State University Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41388683
Accessed: 26-10-2015 03:11 UTC

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at http://www.jstor.org/page/
info/about/policies/terms.jsp

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content
in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship.
For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Wayne State University Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Marvels & Tales.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 Justýna Deszcz

Salman Rushdie's Magical Kingdom:

The Moor's Last Sigh
and Fairy-Tale Utopia

In thisessay,I elucidatehow TheMoor'sLastSigh(1995) can be regardedas

Rushdie's attempt to use a combination ofWestern and Easternfairy-tale inter-
textsas a groundwork forhis own fairytale aboutUtopianworlds,through
whichhe participates in the postcolonialprojectof resisting Euro-American
normative representations oftheOther. The Moor's
Last Sigh was thefirstnovel
written byRushdieafterhisbeingsentencedto a fatwain 1989. In therushof
cosmopolitan optimism and theidealistconviction thattheimaginedworldhe
wroteaboutin TheSatanicVerses(1989) actuallyexisted,Rushdiecreateda
utopiathatwas shattered abruptlyand brutally by realityPerhapsthisis why
TheMoor'sLastSighwas precededby a fairytaleperse, HarounandtheSea of
Stories(1990), a combination ofIndianstorytelling and theWesterntradition
of thegenre,servingas a transposition of thepersonal,theartistic, and the
politicalaspectsof his position,as well as offering a Utopiansolutionto his
predicament. Rushdiecreateda worldwithoutimposedsilence,in whichliter-
ature,byharboring therightto freeexpression, functions as a guideto thedark
alleysof current history.Admittedly, thisvisionhas so farbeenattainable only
in a fairy
tale,butthebookdidhelpRushdieeasehimself outofthefatwaspell
and recommence writing, theresultofwhichwas TheMoor'sLastSigh, another
narrative whoseceaselesstraffic of culturescounteracts traditionalOrientalist
accountsoftheEast.

Marvels
& Tales:
Journal
ofFairy-Tale , Vol.18,No.1 (2004),
Studies pp.28-52.Copyright
©2004by
State
Wayne Press,
University MI48201.
Detroit,

28

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 KINGDOM
RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL

Rushdievaluesthefairy talenotjustas a literary category butalsoas a form

thatenjoysitsownlife,andwhich,asJackZipesis righttocontend, "continuels]
to exercisean extraordinary holdoverourrealand imaginative livesfromchild-
hood to adulthood"(Breaking 22). Indeed,it offers a richand complexsystem
thatcouldbe definedas "a languageof theimagination, witha vocabulary of
imagesand a syntaxofplots"(Warner, Beastxxiii),as wellas a broad"sociocul-
turalweb"(WhenDreamsx). Rushdie's reworkings ofthefairy talecorrespond to
thecomplexstatusofthegenrein contemporary cultureand canbe regarded as
a consistent fairy-tale
poeticsunderpinning his fiction. ApartfromHarounand
theSea ofStories , onecouldmention suchfairy-tale transformations as thecoher-
entuse of theUtopianqualitiesof the genre(Midnight's Children, TheSatanic
Verses , TheMoor'sLastSigh,Fury);thedeployment offemalefairy-tale heroines
as vehiclesforRushdie'sinvolvement in feminist discourses(Shame,"Atthe
Auctionof theRubySlippers,"TheGround Beneath HerFeet);or thefrequent
allusionstothecommodified mass-mediated fairy as a reflection
tale ofthepost-
moderncondition(Grimus , "At the Auction of the RubySlippers," Ground
The
Beneath HerFeet,Fury).Hence,Rushdieemergesas a storyteller who is "impli-
catedin processesofculturalformation, ofrecycling frames
[fairy-tale] used to
makesenseofculture"(Stephensand McCallumxi). In thissense,thevarious
instancesofhis intervention in thecommonly acceptedframework ofthefairy
talerevealhis artistic and ideologicalpositionsof an authorengagedin what
BenjaminR. Barberdefinesas "a warwithincivilization, a strugglethatexpress-
es theambivalence withineachcultureas it facesa global,networked, material
future and wonderswhetherculturaland nationalautonomycan be retained;
theambivalence withineachindividual jugglingtheobviousbenefits ofmoder-
nitywith itsequally obvious costs" (249).
I willbeginmydiscussionbybriefly outlining JackZipes'selaborationof
thefairy-tale utopiaas proposedbyErnstBlochin hisPrinciple ofHope(1973),
whichcan be regardedas themosteffective exponent of theUtopianimagina-
tionharboredin fairytalesand which,as I will argue,appliesto Rushdie's
attempts to createhis own postcolonialfairytale.ThenI will discussthefig-
ure of Moraes,Rushdie'sraconteur, in thecontextof thestorytelling strategy
deployedby the writer.With its possible debt to WashingtonIrving'sThe
Alhambra(1832), Moraes'sIberian-Indiantale about the Moorish sultan
Boabdil,one of the numerousintriguing fairy-tale intertextualitiesin The
Moor'sLastSigh,in turnis shapedby the fairy-tale Utopiancreativity of his
family, especially ofhis mother Aurora. I will concentrate on the most impor-
tantof such creativeventures,thatis, Aurora'sMoorishproject,as well as
Moraes'sparticipation in and continuation ofhis mother's endeavor,as partic-
ularly illustrativeof fairy-taleutopia in the novel. I will also read Rushdie's
fairy-tale Utopianpractice commentary postcolonialpolitics.As willbe
as a on

29

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

shown,Rushdiepostponesthe fulfillment of his projectuntilthe remote

future,whichmaysignify Still,1 will concludeby analyzing
itsunfeasibility.
theresolution ofthenovelas a time-gainingoperationlegitimizing theUtopi-
an visionand ensuring which,I believe,helpsaccountforthewrit-
itssurvival,
er'sUtopianattempts to createhis own versionof India,"a version,and no
morethanone versionof all thehundredsof millionsof possibleversions"
(Rushdie,Imaginary 10).

The Utopian Practice

Enchanting talesaboutfairies, giants, kings,and queensstemfromactualstrug-

gles over power and hopes stampout socialconflict
to by changing dominant
socialstructures. Suchstruggles andhopesoftenplaythemselves outin Utopian
worldsthattaketheformoffairy tales.Thesedramatic tensionsand struggles,
"whoseresolutions allowus to gleanthepossibility ofmakingtheworld,thatis,
shapingtheworldin accordwithourneedsand desires"(Zipes,Breaking 20),
formthecontinualappealof thegenre.Blochthuselucidatestheever-present
appeal of thefairytaleas "theutopiaof betterlifeand justice"("Something's
Missing"5). Eventhoughit depicts"[t]heatavistic and simultaneously feudal-
transcendental world"thatdisappeared longago, its main focus is to convey"a
wish-fulfillment" practice that"isnotboundbyitsowntimeand theapparelof
itscontents," and thusoccursin our lives(qtd. in Zipes,Breaking 133). More
specificallyin Bloch's words,"the happiness of'once upon a time' [ellipsis]still
affectsourvisionsofthefuture" in
(qtd. Breaking 133), and is today re-created in
all sortsofmodernattire. DevelopingBloch'sconceptofVor-Schein , thatis "the
anticipatory illusion"( 132),
Breaking Zipes notes that the Utopian characteristic of
thefairy taleis rootedin an individual's or a community's unfulfilled needsand
wants,as wellas in theirdissatisfaction withreality at a particular historicaland
politicalmoment; a dissatisfaction
thathas to lead to a moresatisfactory, spiritu-
al andideological homeland. Atthesametime,theUtopian is a projection ofwhat
therealworldlacksand ofpossibilities ofsupplementing thislackthrough the
In
imagination. thissense,as Zipesconvincingly interprets Bloch'sclaims,the
fairy-tale
structurings ofutopiascanbe seenas a totally rational andnatural prac-
tice,and as such,theyso powerfully captivate contemporary audiences.
Still,one mayfindthisconceptofthegenrecontroversial, all themoreso
becausefairy talesarguably hardlyeverchartconcretewaysto alterthefuture
and arerather vaguein theirdepictionsofwhatthisimproved reality willlook
like.Blochdoesavoidformulating a deterministic Utopian vision that couldbe
regarded as an ideal blueprintfor a perfect society For anyimaginedworld
thatrepresents a finalsynthesis ofgoalsand does not focuson themeansto
achievethemhas no impacton thefuture, beingmerelya re-creation of the

30

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 KINGDOM
RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL

petrified idea ofParadiseRegainedor theGoldenAge,whichareactuallythe

entropiesoftheUtopianimagination. Thus,utopiashouldbe takenas a type
ofpraxisratherthanas a concreteprojection. Thisverylackofa concrete, def-
initevisionensuresthattheUtopianstorywillneverbecomeimmobilized but
will metamorphose so as to suit the immediacyof changingsituationsand
counteract thehumaninclination to forget thepast.The transient and open-
endedUtopianworldstestify to theimpossibility ofhistory comingto an end
and promisesomefuture development actuallysurpassesthelevelofide-
that
alized topographies. Consequently, Faery - the Utopianrealm - elusiveas it
mayappear,does not function as a tempting refugefromrealitybut "reacts
upon it," providing and for
inspiration guidance "reinstating] whatis out of
in
place"(MichelButor,qtd. Zipes,Fairy Tales99). In Utopiantopographies we
positionand encounter ourownpointsofreference a
offeringtelling and con-
structive corrective: "[T]heUtopianperspective becomesa critical,figurative
reflection of everyday banalityand subvertsthearbitrary use of reasonthat
destroys and confines the of
capacity people to move on theirown as
autonomousmakersofhistory" (Zipes,Breaking 138). In thissense,itliberates
social concernsfromthemetanarrative of historyand ideology,therebydis-
turbingtraditionally sanctionedsociety.Instead,it promotesautonomyand
"validationof the self' (Zipes, Breaking144). Therefore, the indispensable
structural and semanticelementsof wishfulthinkingand makingdreams
come trueturnthe genreintoan exceptionally efficient vehicleforUtopian
messagesfacilitating rebellion against violence and oppression.
According to Zipes'sconceptofthegenre,thefairy talefocuseson a quest
forwhathas been stifledor denied,and stimulates in itsreadersthesenseof
realhome,happiness,and satisfaction. Itdoes so by(1) diagnosing thereasons
forthedisplacement a of
and (2) openingup space opposition generates that
dreamingahead and thearousalof a keen revolutionary awarenessthatcan
influence As
history. Zipespoints out, to offerliberation, the taledoes nothave
to necessarily sounddidacticor dogmatic.Instead,"itmustreflect a process
of
struggle againstall typesofsuppression and authoritarianism and positvarious
possibilities forthe concreterealizationof utopia"(FairyTales178). In this
sense,theUtopiancreativity activated bythefairytaleand itsidealizedmirac-
ulous worldscan be seen as a practiceofcontestation. Withsuchwishesand
dreams,Blochwrites,"virtually all humanbeingsarefuturistic; theytranscend
theirpastlife,and to thedegreethattheyaresatisfied, theythinktheydeserve
a betterlife[. . .], and regardtheinadequacyoftheirlot as a barrier, and not
just the way ofthe world" in
(qtd. Zipes,Fairy Tales 175).
It is thishumanpotentialforconceiving, venturing into,and exploring
imaginary landsthathas longcaptivatedRushdie'simagination. Morespecif-
ically, what he particularly cherishes in the process "inventingdream
of

31

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

worlds"is their"powerto oppose thisreality"(Imaginary 122). As Rushdie

notes, such a contestatory practice is indeed extremely desirable at thetime
whenit is dystopias,and not utopias,thatwe are morelikelyto construct,
whichin turnmeanswe believeit is no longerpossibleto engineera happy
endingor to metamorphose Still,despitethefailureofhisimaginative
reality.
foresight in The Satanic Verses, Rushdie has notsurrendered to thisseeming-
ly all-pervasive impoverishment of our imaginative faculties.His commit-
mentto opposingand delegitimizing colonialistdiscoursebyoffering hisown
versionsofIndiaand theWeststillfocuseson thepresentand thefuture and
consistsin replacingthelost "familiar habitats"(Imaginary 125) by creating
alternative worlds.Significantly, thenotionofUtopianhomecoming is partic-
ularly relevant to Rushdie'swriting, which turns around the difficult taskof
redefining home forone's modified self, torn between the emotional poles of
indigenousness and culturalacceptance,culturalbanishment and thelonging
fortotalassimilation. TheMoor'sLastSighmaybe regardedas a perfect justi-
ficationofwhyitis worthdevisingand livingin thenewrealmofone'shopes
and dreams,in thatit offers anotheranticolonialist visionofIndia.
Interestingly, Rushdierefersto theseattemptsusing easilyidentifiable
fairy-talephrasings. Whathappensonce thewriter enterson a "surface which
turnsto [the]yellowbrick[road],[and]whiterabbitsscurrypast [. . .]? [. . .]
Whatkind of place is Oz, or Wonderland?" (Imaginary 118). As theauthor
commentson thisjourney,the creationof utopiascan proveexceptionally
effectivein thedomainofart,whichitselfmayturnintoan imaginary realm.
Such artistictoolsas "techniquesof comedy,metaphor, heightened imagery,
fantasy and so on areused to breakdownourconventional, habit-dulled cer-
taintiesabout whattheworldis and has to be" (Imaginary 122). However,
Rushdiedoes notsimplyemphasizetheneedto createoptionalversionsofthe
world,but moreimportantly he advocatestheactivestruggle againstreality:
"Unreality is theonlyweaponwithwhichrealitycan be smashed,so thatit
maybe subsequently reconstructed" (Imaginary 122). In foregrounding the
militant of
aspect utopia, Rushdie'sconception is not farremoved from that of
Bloch.Rushdie'sown dictumis: "Play.Inventtheworld"and exercise"[t]he
powerof theplayfulimagination to changeforeverour perceptions ofhow
are"
things (Imaginary 125). As willbe argued, Rushdie's novel can be treated
as an attemptat a Blochianmodernization of fairy-taleutopia, as well as a
move fromthe sheercriticism of the existingstateof things,includingthe
Indianpredicament, to the anticipatory, albeitimprecise, projectionof how
dominantsocialstructures couldbe changedintomorecongenialones.

32

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL
KINGDOM

The Fairy Tale Called "India"

Morespecifically, Rushdiehimself resortsto utopiawhentrying to respondto

numerous textsthathaveparticipated in the of
forging relationships betweenthe
Westand itsOthers.ForRushdie,one suchtextunderwriting colonization has
been "thefairy talecalledIndia,"an imaginary representation of the land, and
theEastin general,generated by British folkloristicaccountsoftheconquered
realm.Fromtheverybeginning ofcolonialIndia,Europeanfolklore collectors,
many of whom were well-educated anthropologists, studied Indian literary, reli-
gious, and philosophical texts so as to introduce them to European audiences.
As SadhanaNaithanihas shown,the compilingof classicalworksoftenwas
accompaniedby anothercolonialactivity: thegathering ofgeographically and
culturallyspecificIndian folktalesand analyzing them as representativethe of
wholesubcontinent. The aimofsuchstudies,oftencarriedoutbyamateurcol-
lectors,was to presentreaderswitha culturaland socialcharacterization ofthe
"real"India.However,as Naithanirightly points out, the collectors based their
observations notso muchon concretetextstheywerecomingacrossin their
contactswiththe indigenouspeople,as on numerous"imaginings of India"
formed on thebasisofBritish studieswritten inIndiaandtheirsubsequent recep-
tionin England, whichfashioned thecollectors' "fantasies,perceptions writ-
and
in
ings"(65). These turn were heavily influenced by the convictions of earlier
Orientalistsandcolonizers, whichmeantthatIndiawasno longerconspicuously
alienand distant, but becamecomfortably familiar.British folklorists not only
betterunderstood an Indiathatused to be considered completely foreign, but
theyalso attempted to controlitbyinscribing itwiththeexoticandby account-
ingforitas mostly predictable andunoriginal.
Indiaas emerging out ofcollectors' studiesis a land ofcontradictions. It
is fabulouslybeautiful,but its inhabitantsare inhospitableand arrogant.
Worsestill,eventhoughithas a gloriouspastand itsfolklore is exceptionally
plentiful,the carriersof traditions do not realize theirsignificance and cannot
serveas trustworthy helpers in the collector's formidable venture to uncover
India'sheritage, thussavingthe stories from oblivion. For Naithani,thistale
"ofconflicting dualities"resultsin a twofoldimageryofthecontinent: " t is
[I]
beingimaginedby the British residents of colonial India and [. . . it] is being
imaginedforthe generalpopulace,scholarsand government institutions in
England"(67-68). Significantly, the India depicted in the accounts is not at all
imaginary, but real,"thatrealIndia whichis underBritishcolonialruleand
withthe resourcesof whichthe Britishsocietyand economyare variously
involved"(68). Sucha representation is also symptomatic ofhowjustifications
ofthecolonialrulewereproducedand sustained:"[T]hecountryis beautiful
and thusa lureto all thosewho maywantto come;thepeoplearestupidand

33

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

itis notonlyruleable butalso in needofbeingruled;[. . .] folklore is richand

fertilein collectablematerial,and thusa lure to thoseseekingknowledge"
(68). In thisway,thefactualIndia becomes"imaginatively prefaced" (68) by
folklore studies,whichbothattracts readersto theland and preventsthem
fromexcessiveenthusiasm towardit,thereby establishingthecolonizerin the
of
position narrative agency and subjectivity The Indian people,landscapes,
and imagesoccupythepositionof objectsbroughtintofocusby theBritish
subject'spointofview
Finally,theprefacesto thecollectionsweremeantbytheirauthorsto serve
as sourcesof information about the collectednarratives. Interestingly, as
Naithanipointsout,despitethegeographical and thematic diversityof the tales,
theprefaces correspond to one anotherin termsoftheirpresumptions and the
classificationsofparticularthemesand characters theyprovide,as wellas their
contradictions. Whereasthe antiquity of the talesis certainly desirableand
itshouldnotbe forgotten
attractive, thatthepeoplewhodisseminate themlike-
wise are ancientand need to be modernized. As Naithanicommentson the
Britishcollectors'attitudetowardthe materialtheygathered, the taleswere
rather reluctantlypositioned and
chronologically spatially: "Havingcontrol over
an ancientandwellpreserved folklore
is a matter ofpride,butaccepting itas the
progenitor ofone'sownis uncomfortable in thecollector's
overallsocio-political
context" (73). Consequently,eventhoughIndiahadbeenthestorehouse ofideas
in thepast,theseideasnow couldonlybe extracted and properly assessedby
theWesterner, forthepeopleofthesubcontinent wereconsidered raciallytoo
degenerate to be capableof such a missionthemselves. No wondertheonly
function ascribedto Indiannarrativeswas thatofmaking"themselves attractive
entertainment and knowledge abouttheage-oldideasofthecolonizedsubject"
(Naithani73). Whatever knowledge was gainedfromtheseinexhaustible repos-
itoriesofIndianlore,itinevitably was rewritten andnaturalized so as to obliter-
ateall tracesofnativevoicesand thereby consolidate thepositiveimageofthe
colonizersand glorify theirgoals.Essentially,whatbecameacceptedas Indian
was thetextualproductofBritish viewingand decoding.Henceitshouldcome
as no surprise thatBritish
folklorists
did notexplorethecontinuing tradition of
Indiantale-tellingoraskthemselves whether ornotWestern concepts of culture,
in theirscope and defining categories,wereat all applicableto Indianreality.
How couldIndianstoriesserveas "storehouses ofwisdom"whentheirindige-
nouscarriers wereviewedas ignorant, irrational,and barbaric?Anysuchques-
tionsareabsentfromthescholarly tradition
fairy-tale ofBritishIndia.
The British "decontextualization
now calledfolklorism - thecultivation of
attractiveelementsof traditional cultureforthepleasureof tourists" (Preston
xvi)- led to thecreationofan all-embracing and universal scriptof"thegeo-
graphicand politicalspace calledIndia- theBritish colony"(Naithani73). As
34

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 KINGDOM
RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL

Naithaniconcludes,thisnarrative was universaland could be appliedto any

othercolonizedrealm:"[T]hedepictionofIndia,theFolklorist and theTalesis
couchedin termsofuniversal beauty, zeal and antiquity and had thisplacenot
beencalledIndia,itcouldbe anywhere in theworld,butsinceitis identified as
'India'[...], [it]thereby hasramifications in thepoliticalandintellectual spheres
as relations ofdominanceand subservience" (73-74). In thissense,folklore as
practicedby the Britishin India was indissolublylinked to colonization.
Folkloreresearch was deeplyinscribed in theframework ofthecolonialventure
and provedinstrumental in theformation ofnewpatterns ofauthority
Interestingly, as one ofRushdie's characters ironicallystatesduringhisstay
in Heidelberg, - -
"helearnedthatIndia likeradium had been 'discovered' by
theEuropeans"(Midnight's 11). One of the most poignantrepresentations of
hownegatively thecolonizedcan be definedby thecolonizer is to be found in
TheSatanicVerses , withSaladinChamcha'sdemonicmetamorphosis, or rather
dehumanization, which takes place soon after his arrivalin Britain. Saladin is
kept in a detention center where he and other aliens become nightmarish
monsters:humanbodies witha head of "a ferocioustiger"(Satanic167), a
waterbuffalo, slipperysnakes,or a wolf.It is againstsuch representations of
IndiathatRushdiedirectshisownanticolonial folkloristicproject, and he does
so through writing hisownfairy taleabouta reimagined subcontinent thathas
nothingto do withtheone-dimensional fabulousIndiaproducedbythecolo-
nizers.Instead,itis its"talentfornon-stopself-regeneration," coupledwiththe
promising "infinite of
possibilities the country" (Imaginary 16), thatis repeat-
edlyemphasizedin Rushdie'saccounts.Moreover, Rushdie'sversionof India
depends on the powersof his memory, which may heavilydistortactual
events.Is sucha dubiousrepresentation at all valid?He unceasingly wonders
ifsuchwriting is thatofa dilettante who is actually farremoved from Indian
actuality and who thusdoes notriskanything. Rushdieimmediately defends
his practiceofcollecting "shardofmemories" by comparing it to archaeology
Justas recoveredancientobjectsenable a fascinating reconstruction of the
past,recalledelementsbecomesymbolsthatrefresh realityby endowingit
with "numinousqualities" (Imaginary12). Certainly,Britishfolklorists'
"archaeology" did nothavesuchan effect, as itstoppedat thesuperficial layer
ofthecharmofthetales,thusfailing to exploretheirsignificance forthecom-
munitiesin whichtheycirculated.

The Ropes of the Trade

Rushdiehas oftenresortedto framinghis alternative visionwithinfairy-tale
worlds
utopias, constructedout ofalready-existingand newtalesthathe com-
Thiswriting
binesintoa new reality. practicein is
itself indicativeoftheself-

35

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

regenerative potentialof India. As he writesin his own commentary on

Midnight's Children , the fabulous character ofhis India is fascinatinglyreflect-
ed in theway"thenarrative constantly throws up newstories[. . . and] 'teems'"
(16) withthem.In particular, the taleshe so lavishlyincorporates intohis
booksarefrequently crafted as "unreal"narratives. Thisappearsveryapposite
as Indiais "a placewherelegendsmakereality and becomemoreusefulthan
thefacts"(Midnight's 48). 1 Still,fantastic taleshaveanother, evenmoresignif-
icant,role.As Rushdiestatesin thefamousinterview withGünterGrass,"the
purpose of the fiction [. . . is] tellingthe truth at a time in whichthepeople
who claimedto be tellingthetruthweremakingthingsup. You havepoliti-
cians,orthemediaorwhoever, thepeoplewhoformopinion,whoare,in fact,
makingthefictions. And it becomesthedutyof thewriteroffictionto start
tellingthe truth" ("Fictions"14). Byemphasizing theparamount influence of
theunseenand themade-up reality, on or even acknowledging the increas-
inglycommonblurring ofbordersbetweenthefictional worldand actuality,
Rushdiemakesa veryimportant point.Throughtelling storiesaboutimagi-
nary realms and creatures freely the
entering "painfully established"and sys-
tematized - -
worldorderthat as Calloisnotes has been "provedby method-
ologicalinvestigation ofexperimental science"(qtd.in Erickson428), one can
express a kind of truth that could not be toldin anyotherway.Suchis thecase
and
becausethestifling confining traditional realisticmodeis no longersatis-
fying("Fictions"15). The Britishfolklorists' impositionof classifications on
Indiantalesis an instanceofsuchan oppressiveand artificial order,as itsep-
aratedthetalesfromthereality theydepicted,thusobliterating theirunique-
ness,muchofwhichdoes notconform to Westernideals and value systems.
On the otherhand,untruestoriesallow a way of seeing"in whichthereis
roomforall theuncontrollable, and thusdismissed,forcesoftheworld,such
as dreams,fantasies,legends,myths,passions and fears"(Allende 54).
Paradoxically, fantastic stories,no matterhow improbabletheyappear,are
alwaysreflections of reality, sometimesthe grimmest one, and carry"hope
against all theodds with gritted teeth. [. . . F]airy talessue formercy" (Warner,
Beast225).
In TheMoor's LastSigh, Rushdiestruggles againsthistory byshapinghistales
aroundan Orientalspinnerofyarnswhosenarrative ventures function as his
survivalstrategy. Moraesis anxiousto recountthesaga of his family, forhe
understands that"intheend,storiesarewhat'sleftofus, we areno morethan
thefewtalesthatpersist" ( TheMoor's110). Morespecifically, Moraes'stalesare
theaforementioned
to offer alternative history ofIndiain thattheyencapsulate
andchartroadsamongthe"foursequestered, serpented, Edenic-infernal private
universes" (15): his grandparents' Cabral Island, his mother's MalabarHillsalon
andstudy, hisfather's "sky-garden" (15), theprison-like UnderWorldofBombay

36

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL
KINGDOM

Central, as wellas Miranda's Spanish"Little Alhambra" (15). Thisworld-making

can be treated as a Utopianfairy-tale practice,as an exerciseoftheimagination
aimed at constituting and mappingUtopianworldsthatinterrogate reality.
Moraes'staskis to givemeaningto theseworldsand synthesize themintoone
narrative thatwoulddocumentboththedividebetweenone'sdreamsand real-
ityand the attraction and dangerofshuttling betweenthetworealms,ultimate-
lyin ordertopreserve thememory ofsuchheroicventures so thattheycanserve
as markers indicating a better future freedfrom the colonialistfiction
aboutIndia
and, as Rushdie sees it,from the unsatisfactory contemporary condition ofthe
country. No wonderthenarrator impatiently pushesthereaderon: "Okay-fine?
Thenlet'sgeton. I wantto tellyoua fairy-tale" (110).
Moraes'snarratives abound in such fairy-tale paraphernaliaas castles,
witches,monsters, and
damsels,treasures, magiccharms,buthe resortsto the
fairy-talemode foranotherreason.Even thoughthetalewe usuallywantto
hearis a romance,whatactuallyenchantsus are "thebitswhereshadowsfall
acrossthelovers'path"(110). This shadowypathis nowheremoredistinct
thanin fairytales:"Poisonedapple,bewitchedspindle,BlackQueen,wicked
witch,baby-stealing goblins,that'thestuff. So: onceupon a time[. . .]" (110).
the
Following fairy-tale path, Moraes becomes a traveler,
an explorer, and the
reader'sguidein Utopianworlds:"FromCochinharbourto Bombayharbour,
fromMalabarCoast to MalabarHill: thestoryof our comings-together, tear-
ings-apart, our rises,falls, our tiltoings
up and down" (11-12).
To makethisstrategy workable,Rushdiepresentshimself notas a collec-
torof folktales who focuseson the already-existing talesbut as the oriental
spinnerof yarnsengagedin the tale-telling, therebyfollowing Rao'sdictum
abouttheprocessualnatureof folkloristic composition: "[W]e tellone inter-
minabletale.Episodefollowsepisode,and whenourthoughts stopour breath
stops,and we moveon to anotherthought.Thiswas and stillis theordinary
styleofourstorytelling" (qtd. in Cundy5). Rushdieopenlyacknowledges his
enormousdebtto thecyclical,episodic,and digressive manneroftale-telling,
althoughhe must realizehow Westernizedit has become throughbeing
exploitedin postmodernist nonlinearnarratives.Still, Rushdie does not
engage himself in the sheer appropriation of tales,legends,or myths,which
wouldmeanforthereadermereparticipating in the"SpotThe Intertext" game
(Fletcher8) on his of
usages Western and Indianfolklores. On thecontrary, he
followsanotherIndian oral storytelling techniqueusing specifictales as
springboard narratives and developingthemin myriaddirections. His practice
also consistsin transforming traditional talesin such a way thattheydo not
simplyserveas a modelfortheformof his fictions but also constitute their
pool ofthemesand characters. Forinstance, he departswitha well-known tale
and suddenlychangesit intoa storythathas neverbeen disseminated in any

37

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

community. On otheroccasions,Rushdieadoptsa folkformonlyto fillitwith

non-folk contents. Itis possibleto identify thegenreand theoutlineofa given
tale,but otherwise it cannot be documented in any way.Alternatively, the
strategy chosenby Rushdieto spin his talesconsistsin drawingcorrespon-
dences,bothon theleveloftheplotand thecharacters, betweentheworldof
historicalfactsand the storyteller's innerworld,whichcomprisesfantasies,
legends,myths,and memoriesderivingfromhis past,and whichis deeply
rootedin theWestern and Indianspiritual heritage. Simultaneously, byreduc-
ing thebreaches between various levels of experience, Rushdie is able tointro-
duce multiplicity of perspectivesfor which Orientalistdiscoursecannot
account.The subjectiveand eclecticin turnexpose the arbitrariness and
stereotypicalityof Orientalist narratives. In particular,Rushdie questions their
representation of Indiancharacters whichare alwaysmarginaland passive,
havingonlyto play"walk-ons" in theirown country(Imaginary 128), where-
as theWestis depictedas an agentofchange.Instead,Rushdieabandonsthe
"eternalpresenttimeof India" (Petersson294) and depictsthe countryin
timesofchangeithas initiated itselfand is undergoing despitethepresenceof
traditions and theperseverance ofthecolonizers.Againstsuch a reconstruc-
tionoffolkmatrices, Rushdieseeksto reproducethedynamicsoforalstory-
tellingas an eventin whichreadersinteract withtheteller,thereby revealing
theirattitude towardthethemesin questionand letting thetaleorganizetheir
experiences intellectuallyAs a result,it is impossibleto sensetheliterariness
and the "second-order" natureof Rushdie's"folklore." Ratherthan solely
inventing he
stories, recounts tales he has heard, but with a markeddifference.
In thiswayhe gainsaccesstovariouscommunities oflisteners
and is thusable
to presentunmediated knowledge about them.
Thereis onemorereasonwhyfairy talesareparticularly usefulin Rushdie's
reclamation offolklore. The genredisplaysa patentpreference forheroeswho
aredejected,ostracized, helpless,neglected, and weaponless, heroeswhosesit-
uationparallelsto a largeextentthepredicament of thedisempowered colo-
nized.Moreover, talesallow fortheuttering of theunspeakableand thefree
expression of thesilencedthrough its "dreamlike distancingof thestorywith
fantasticstrokes"(Warner, Beast351). Simultaneously, thefairytale,as a fantas-
ticmode,attacks"theworstaspectsofthestatusquo and thedirection itis tak-
ing"(Warner, Beast 415). Indeed, the author seems to realizethat,despiteits
unrealistic form, in
thegenreis, thewordsofJackZipes,"themostvitalartistic
expression ofordinary people- theirprojection ofhowtheywantthemselves to
change and transform (
society"Breaking 140-41). Therefore,the narrative leads
toa newrealm"wheredifferent rulesmayapply"(Warner, Beast415), including
thosethatgovernrelationships betweensocieties.In particular, thegenreoffers
theacceptanceforotherness, thereby fulfilling thetypically postcolonial desire

38

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 KINGDOM
RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL

to assertone'sindependence and integrity; a longingRushdiehopes to satiate

through his To
fictions. use Warner's vivid comparison, storytelling as a social
bindingfactorrecalls"theeggyolkwhich, mixed up with different coloured
powders,producescoloursofa painting" (Beast414).
In TheMoor'sLastSigh, Rushdie'sstoryteller Moraesis a magicalchild,
in
born mysterious circumstances. As he recounts,he was begotafterhis par-
ents,Auroraand Abraham, meta strange"oldmushroom-selling crone,"actu-
ally his mother
father's In
Flory. reply to Aurora'strulyfairy-tale to have
wish
"
a childthatwouldgrowup veryfast,Florywhispersa magicformula,Obeah,
jadoo,fo,fum"( TheMoor's141). Interestingly, themotifof a hurriedmatura-
tionis quitecommonin fairytalesand mostprobablyreflects theimportance
oftheprotagonist as thesavioroftheworld,who arrivesat thescenein times
oftroubleand has a specificroleto fulfil. Indeed,Moraescan be regardedas a
herowhose missionis to alterreality. In the meantime,havingutteredthe
charm,thecronedematerializes, and it seemsthatit is onlyMoraes'sparents
who saw her.Still,theyare notable to confront herwithhertruenameand
free themselvesof her magic hold. Later on, Moraes refersto her as
Rumpelstiltskin becausejust as themaliciousgoblinis a spinner, Florymirac-
ulouslyspins Moraes's fate,and her spellproves effective.
Apart from boasting
a deformedbut nevertheless incredibly powerfularm,Moraesgrowsup at
twicethenormalpace. Consequently, hismotherimagineshimas "a timetrav-
eller"(210) flying away into "another spaceand time.Maybe- who knows? -
a better"(220). He is also referred to as "theeighthwonderand no mistake"
(189), whereasMalabarHill,hishome,is no lessmiraculous thantheHanging
Gardens,"as if the Wonderswere gathering here,and takingIndian form"
(189). No wonderMoraeshas a senseofbeing"to theworld[. . .] someone
special,someonewitha meaning,a supernatural Entitywho did not truly
belongto thisplace,thismoment,butwhosepresenceheredefinedthelives
ofthosearoundhim,and oftheage in whichtheylived"(220). At thesame
time,Moraesis also a typicalfairy-tale protagonist in thathis positionoftenis
thatof "theunderdog,theyoungestchild,themostdeprived,themostdis-
contented" (Zipes,Breaking 139), anditis hisdissatisfaction thatprompts both
his actionsand thetale.
Finally,thesymbiotic convergence oftheprivateand thepublic,enabled
by thefairytale,introduces a verydeep intimacy betweenthechronicler and
his audience.JustlikeMoraes,his listeners areindividuals"handcuffed to his-
(
tory"Midnight's 3) and thus collaborate in the creationof his stories.As such,
are
they probably more interested in gossip and anecdote than in officialfactu-
al information. Thiscoalitionis particularly important forthoseaddressees who
arenotfamiliar eitherwithIndianhistory and mythology or withWesterntra-
ditions.The analogiesfunction as hintsthatguidetheaudience'sassociations

39

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

and makebothsourcesmoreaccessible.In thisway,Rushdieconstructs a folk-

lorethatis an aestheticcategory on itsown terms, thereby ensuring read-
the
ers'appreciationforhisefforts,whichcouldotherwise be misconstrued due to
theirignorance. Hence,itwouldbe appropriate touse Timothy Weiss'sdescrip-
tionofRushdie's writingas that ofan Orientalist, the term deployed "notin a
pejorative, sense
ideological but rather in a neutral sense to denoteanyartist
whotreats materials
withorigin in Middle Eastern and Asian andsoci-
cultures
eties."As Rushdiehimself describeshis own and numerousotherIndianwrit-
"[t]heexoticization
ers'activity, ofIndia [. . .] thiskindoffakeglamorizing is
coming to an end,and the India ofelephants, tigers,peacocks,emeralds, and
dancinggirlsis beinglaid to rest.A generation ofgifted Indianwriters [. . .] is
bringing English theirmany different versions of the Indian reality[which]
takentogether, arebeginning to add up to something thatone mightcall the
truth"(Step375). The Moor's Last Sigh certainly such rendering
is one con-
tributingto "thetruth."

Moorish Marvels
Aurora's UtopianpracticestemsfromMoraes'scentralstoryabouttheepony-
mous last sigh thatwas breathedin 1492 by Boabdil,the last sultanof
Andalusia,castinga farewell glanceat theAlhambra and thusmarking theend
of Arab-Islamic rule in the IberianPeninsula.Rushdieuses thishistorical
momentto developa suggestive renditionof his versionof India. Moorish
Spain, inhabited bypeacefully communities
coexisting ofMuslims,Catholics,
andJews,represents forhima supremeinstanceofharmonious multicultural-
ismthatcharacterizes hisidealIndia.Still,1492 was also theyearthatsaw the
mistreatment and expulsionofJews,as well as thebeginningof "theperiod
calledDiscovery-of India"(4) and theimperialconquestoftheEastin gener-
al. Fiveyearslater,Vascoda Gamadiscovered a newrouteto thesubcontinent.
Suspicious of historicalaccounts as one might be afterreadingRushdie'sfic-
tions, one needs to bear in mind thatBoabdil was nicknamed"el Zogoibi,"or
"theUnfortunate LittleOne,"fora concretereason.Historypresentsthesul-
tanas an ineptleader,alwaysdominated byhismother. He was twicecaptured
by the Christian conquerors and twiceransomed for enormous amountsof
money. Worse he
still, agreed to surrender Granada to theChristiansin return
for his safepassage out of the peninsulaand an estate.Naturally,Boabdil'ssad
fatemaybe understoodas anotherof Rushdie'scommentson exile,and an
unwelcomeone.After all,Boabdilprovedcowardlyand irresponsible. Still,as
willbe argued,Rushdieseeshimas unconsciously counteractingthe Christian
domination bycolonizinga tinypartofIndia.
Rushdieis notthefirst
Interestingly, writer tohavebeencaptivated bythe
40

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL
KINGDOM

charmoftheAlhambraand thetalescirculating aroundtheMoorishoccupa-

tionofSpain.Perhapsthemostspectacular instanceofsuchfascination is the
aforementioned ramblingaccountof living'ssojourn Spain,depictingthe
in
palace's"halfSpanish,halfOrientalcharacter; its mixtureof theheroic,the
poetic,and the grotesque; [so as to] revive the tracesofgraceand beautyfast
fadingfrom itswalls; to record the regal and chivalrous traditionsconcerning
thosewho oncetroditscourts;and thewhimsicaland superstitious legendsof
the motleyrace now burrowing among its ruins" (n. pag.). In most cases,
living'scomments are not just typical Orientalist exaltations on
relying pre-
conceivedideasabouttheOrient,buttheydisplaya deeperinsight, combined
witha balanceddiagnosis.Irvingis farfrompropagating misconceptions dis-
creditingthe Arabs as barbarians, but refersto them as contributors to the cul-
turaldevelopment of Spain and "diffused the lightof Orientalknowledge,
throughtheWesternregionsofbenightedEurope"(n. pag.). Yet,despitehis
own assurancesthatto quench his interest, he had "descendedfromthis
of and
region fancy fable, where everything is liableto takean imaginary tint,"
and had conductedhis research"amongthe dustytomesof the old Jesuits'
Library,in theUniversity," Irvingadmitsthathis attitudeto theMoorishher-
itageis often that of an Occidental, enchantedwiththeOrientalornateness,
and longingforextravaganza. Still, believesthatthereaderwillappreciate
he
hisefforts to "communicate to himreveries and researches duringthisstateof
deliciousthraldom. Iftheyhavethepowerofimparting tohisimagination any
ofthewitching charmsoftheplace,he willnotrepineat lingering [ellipsis]in
thelegendary hallsoftheAlhambra."
living'smoreanalyticalstancerevealsitselfparticularly clearlywhenhe
triesto presentthefigureofBoabdilin an unbiasedwayand attempts to dis-
entangle the web of conflicting stories stillbeing disseminated about him in
nineteenth-century Spain. When confronted withbitteraccusationsleveled
against Boabdil by one ofhis guides, who sees thesultanas a traitor guiltyof
thedemiseoftheMoorishempire,Irving,deeplyconvincedofBoabdil'sinno-
cence,hastensto presentthereaderwithevidencethatwouldsettherulerin
a new light.In effect, Irvingproducesan alternative versionofhistorythatis
to
opposed commonly held views on Boabdil. Even thoughRushdienever
admitsthathe is in any way indebtedto living'sprojectof rectifying tales
about the Alhambra,the reference to the Americanauthorcertainly lends
depthto Rushdie'streatment ofthemotif, and thepossibility ofseeingitas an
intertextual conversation allowsus to uncoverunanticipated meaningsin his
novel.Much like Irving,Rushdiesubjectsthe storyof Boabdilto extended
scrutiny and offers a rendering oftheMoorishtalethatputstraditional narra-
tivesinto question.What connectsthe two writersis this new kind of
Orientalist attitude devoidofprejudiceand focusedon exposingthoseaspects

41

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

oftheEasternOtherthathavebeendeliberately neglectedand distorted in tra-

ditionalcolonialistaccounts.Such a practiceaims to shed new lighton the
binaryoppositionsregulating traditionalcolonialOrientalistdiscourseand
encourages moreskepticalreflection on seemingly neutralrepre-
ideologically
sentationsoftheOrientalother.
theAfro-Spanish-Indian
Initially, connectionspointedoutbythenarrator
of TheMoor'sLastSighmay not be enough preventthe Iberiantale from
to
seemingtoo farremovedfromcontemporary India. However,as Moraes
revealsmoreand moreofthe"Moorishstuff'(85), it turnsout thatifit had
notbeen forBoabdil'sdefeat,thesultanwould nothavehad an affair witha
JewishexilefromSpain,whosedescendants includeMoraes'sfather, Abraham.
Thisin turnmeansthattheexoticsaga oftheda Gama-Zogoiby dynasty con-
stitutesa vitalpartof Moraes'sheritage.On the one hand,he is descended
froman illegitimate childof thefamousexplorerhimself, and on theother,
froma Jewwho had an affair withthebanishedsultan.Significantly, theteller
does nothingto authenticate thestoryof Abraham's mixedoriginand even
deflatestheauthority ofhistoricalaccountsbyrelegating themto thesphereof
thefairytale,which,as no othertypeof stories,cannotbe further fromthe
truth.Still,he does not intendto discardthe tale but enjoysits fantastic
appeal: u[I]fI wereforcedto choosebetweenlogicand childhoodmemory,
betweenhead and heart,thensure;in spiteofall theforegoing, I'd go along
withthe tale"(85-86). He also hastensto assurehis readersthatalthough
othertalesmaysoundevenmoreuntrueand stranger thantheMoorishone,
"ofthetruthofthesefurther storiestherecan be no doubt"(85). Naturally, it
is hardto believehimafterthedisillusionhe has so cruellybroughthometo
thereader,but he does understand thatfairytalesmaysupplymetaphors to
liveby,guidelineson how to activelyshape thepresentand thefuture, and
framesof reference withinwhichto projectour Utopianlongings.Although
Boabdil'slosingSpain carriespejorativeconnotations, Rushdieexercisesthe
fairytale's
potentialto expresstruth in a waydistinctfrom historicalaccounts,
and he depictsthesultan'slegacyas a salientfactorin undermining thedog-
maticlegitimacy ofOrientalistaccountsofEasternsubjugation to theWest.

Mooristan
Itis thissubversive AuroraZogoiby,
qualityoftheMoorishpastthatso attracts
thenovel'sleadingIndianpainter,whois also deeplyinvolvedin thepubliclife
ofthecountry. To illustrate
Aurora's
involvement,RushdiemakesMoraesasso-
ciatehis motherwithBombay, therecurringRushdieansymbolofIndia'shar-
moniouspluralism in whichcolonialactivity
becomesjust one ofotherinnu-
merableinfluences: "Bombaywas central,had beenso fromthemomentofits

42

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 KINGDOM
RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL

creation:thebastardchildofa Portuguese-English wedding,and yetthemost

IndianofIndiancities.In Bombay, too,all-Indiametwhat-was-not-India and
merged"(350). Interestingly, Rushdie describes the city in terms of a sea
metaphor reminiscent ofHarounandtheSea ofStones:"allriversflowedintoits
humansea. Itwas an oceanofstories;we wereall itsnarrators, and everybody
talkedat once. [. . .] Whatmagicwas stirred intothatinsaan-soup, whathar-
monyemergedfromthatcacophony!"(350). Rushdiealludes here to his
inherently oppositionalpractice.He emphasizesthoseelementsofthestories
he drawson thathavebeenmarginalized or obliterated, thereby showingthat
anytale,includingofficial and predominant versionsof history, are open to
reinterpretations, and thereby can be used to formulate an alternative picture
ofthefuture.
One instanceof such an innerlyconcordant medleyofvoicesis Aurora's
ownart,whichcomprises threelevelsofUtopianactivity: itis a taleofherown
family, ofthe nation's destiny, as well as of the East in theglobalcontext, seen
not as traditionally passive and malleable, but as the locus of powerful inter-
mingling stories,imaginations, and fantasies. Auroraencapsulatesher multi-
faceted storyinherMoorishpaintings, inwhichsheexploresherfamily's Iberian
heritage. The result of her artistic research is a fantastic world she calls
or
"Mooristan," "Palimpstine" (225-27): "Place where worlds collide,flow in
and outofone another, and washofy away.[. . .] One universe, one dimension,
one country, one dream,bumpo'ingintoanother, or beingunder,or on topof'
(226). The heartofthisdreamland is theAlhambra, whichsoon acquiresfea-
turesof Indianarchitecture: "elementsof India'sown red forts,the Mughal
palacefortresses in Delhiand Agra[. . .] Mughalsplendours" (226). This"the
hybrid fortress" (227) is inhabited by Boabdil, whom Aurora patternsafter
Moraes, thus creating a sort ofbiography with which her displacedand alienat-
ed sonwillingly identifies.Significantly, inMooristan "Jews,Christians, Muslims,
Parsis,Sikhs,Buddhists, Jainscrowdedinto[. . .] paint-Boabdil's fancy-dress balls
.
[. .]" (227). Aurora creates a Utopianconceptualization of her homeland by
blendingChristian andIndianreligious imagery, reimagining thefantastic taleof
thefifteenth-century fallofGranada.In thissense,Auroraunderstands thatany
successful individual utopia has to accommodate the world in itsentirety That
is, it should operate on the principle of absolute acceptance.
Aurora'sventure mayserveas a metacommentary on Rushdie's ownproject
ofconceiving an alternative fairy taleaboutIndiaas thelandofwondrousdiver-
sity that would negate (accordingto colonialists)inherentprimitiveness,
its
essentialpassivity, and pronenessto corruption. Similarly to Rushdie,Aurora
wishesto"transcend . .
andredeem[. worlds']imperfections through art"(220).
As thewriter explainsthrough Moraes,thereby commenting on his own prac-
tice,her"panto-pictures" (225) "werean attempt to createa romantic mythof
43

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

theplural,hybrid nation;shewasusingArabSpaintore-imagine India,andthis

land-sea-scape in which the land could be fluidand the sea stone-dry was her
metaphor[. .]. of the present, and the future,that she hoped would evolve"
(227). However,in thesameway thatRushdie'sbold anticolonialist activities
havehad littlepositiveimpacton thepostcolonial world,so Aurora's Utopian
venture seemsdoomedto failure. Evenifthedevelopment ofthecycleofpaint-
ingsofMooristan had notbeeninterrupted byAurora's tragicdeath,thepoliti-
cal eventsin Indiadescribed bythenarrator wouldhaveprevented itsmaterial-
ization.Justas theReconquista causedthedemiseofGranadaandtheexpulsion
ofJews,so religious clashesbetweenMuslimsand Hinduslead to bombings in
Bombayand thedemiseofMooristan: theBombaygallerydisplaying mostof
Aurora's is
paintings destroyed in an explosion.
Mooristancould perhapsserveas an antidoteto the spreadingintoler-
ance,as itis a storeofmultivocal traditional
and innovative tales,butitsmajor
drawbackis thatdespiteitsinclusiveness, it suffersfromthelack oflove and
joy,so important in anyUtopianrealm.Thisdeficiency is detectable alreadyin
Aurora'schildlikevisionof India paintedon the walls in her room,but it
becomesevenmoreseverein heradultpaintings, whichare permeated with
"theworld'sangerand pain and disappointment" (60) as well as "herlarger,
prophetic, evenCassandranfearsforthenation,herfiercegriefat thesourness
ofwhathad once,at leastin Indiaofdreams,been sweetas sugar-cane juice"
(236). Justified as her misgivings maybe, Aurorashould not have let this
hopelessnessbecome the prominentfeaturein her subsequentpaintings,
called"the'Moorin exile'sequence"(300). Aurora's anguishis particularly dis-
cerniblein how she represents thegradualchangethataffects herBoabdilin
herlastvisions.Initially a joyful"unifier ofopposites,a standard-bearer ofplu-
ralism"(303), he degenerates intoa greyincarnation ofthedecayoftheinitial
vision.The transformation ofthesultancorresponds to thefactualloss ofhis
initialposition.In Moraes'swords,"reducedto mercenary statuswhereonce
he had beena king,he rapidlybecamea compositebeingas pitiful and anony-
mousas thoseamongstwhomhe moved.Garbageas thoseamongstwhomhe
moved. Garbagepiled up, and buried him" (303). With such a ruler,
Mooristan, notwithstanding itscarnivalesque pluralism, is devoidofoptimism
and doomedto failas itdoes notembodya genuineUtopianbeliefin thepos-
sibilityoftheidealbecomingreality.
Nevertheless, Aurora's defeatdoes notprecludethesuccessoftheoverall
UtopianendeavormadebyMoraes'smulticultural familyThroughcommemo-
rating his mother's efforts and being aware of hermistakes, Moraesis able to
embarkon hisquestforMooristan, "a quest"towhichhe feelshe must"cling"
(383), and he decidesto look forParadisebeyondthe hostileambienceof
India.In his misery, he cannothelpbutcomparehis situationofexileto that

44

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL
KINGDOM

ofBoabdil.Interestingly,as a childMoraesenjoyedlookingthroughfictional
windowspaintedbyVascoMiranda,a family friend and one moreUtopiancre-
ator,windows thatfunctioned as passages to alternative
realities.Now,as an
adulthe is actuallyforcedto use a virtual"windowto anotherworld,"thatis,
a passportand a Spanishvisa.The passageindeedis fullofmagic.Duringthe
flightto Madrid,Moraes,havingalreadybeen displacedby losinghis Indian
paradise,experiencesa sense of disorientation, so crucialin the processof
locating one's He his
utopia. explains predicament in thefollowing words:"I
feelas ifI haveslippedin time.[. . .] Butwhetherintothefuture or thepast,
I cannotsay"(381). Indeed,Moraeshas to finda placewherehe can combine
hispastand presentin sucha waythattheywouldserveas a basisforhoping
fora betterfuture.

The Alhambra
It is Vasco's"LittleAlhambra" in Benengeli,Spain,thatmayprovideMoraes
witha springboard forfurther Utopianventures, all themoreso as it is remi-
niscentofAurora'sMooristan.The sense of déjà vu is so overwhelming that
Moraescannothelp but see Aurora'scharacters leaving the canvas to "enact
theirsad narratives before[. . . his] disbelieving eyes"(408). He even feels
himselfmergingwiththe surroundings and readyto play his partas that
"lozenged,particoloured Moor whose tragedy[. . . was] thetragedy ofmulti-
plicitydestroyedby singularity, the defeatof Manyby One" (408). For a
moment, he thinks he has indeed reached his destination and cannothelp
believingin theauthenticity ofVasco'scastleas "a truePalimpstine" in which
"thememoryof an old, lostsweetnessand romance"maystillbe recovered
(409). Unfortunately, he soon realizesthatVasco'sUtopianventure,suffused
withtheenvyhe has alwaysfelttowardtheZogoibyfamily, is as blightedas
Aurora's.Vasco'sfailure to turnBenengeliintohis truehomemanifests itselfin
numerousdeficiencies of designwhichMoraes,muchto his chagrin,cannot
ignore.Disappointed, he has to conclude:"No, itwas nota miracle,afterall;
myfirst impressions had beenillusory, and theillusionhad alreadyfaded.'The
LittleAlhambra,' forall its size and flamboyance, was no New Moorusalem,
butan uglypretentious house"(409).
Paradoxically,and despiteMoraes'sacutesenseofapproaching death,his
stayatVasco'sresidenceis beneficial to him.Likea truefairy-tale hero,he sur-
vives this predicament,breaks the oppressivemagic charm of Vasco's
Alhambra, and escapesfromBenengeli.As Boabdilonce did,Moraesfinishes
his talesittingon a rock,"gazingout acrossa valleytowardsa distanthill"at
therealAlhambra, thedestination whoseharmonyhe has alwayssensedand
savoured,albeitintuitively, "acrossan oceanicplane"(433). Interestingly, the

45

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

movingdepictionofMoraes'sfinalmoments bringstomindIrving's accountof

Boabdil'sdeparture. Upon leavingSpain Moraes visits the hill on whichthe
exiledSultanBoabdil,in Irving's words, "uttered his last sorrowful exclama-
tion,as he turnedhiseyesfromtakingtheirfarewell .
gaze [. .] . Who can won-
derat hisanguishat beingexpelledfromsucha kingdomand suchan abode?
WiththeAlhambra he seemedtobe yielding up all thehonorsofhisline,and
all theglories and delights of life."Once again,Irvingis promptedto defend
Boabdil'sweaknessand reachesthefollowing conclusion:"I foundthebalance
inclining in his favor.Throughout [. . .] his brief[. . .] reign,he givesevidence
ofa mildand amiablecharacter. He [. . .] won theheartsofhis peoplebyhis
[. . .] graciousmanners;he was alwaysplacable,and neverinflicted anypun-
ishmentupon thosewho [. . .] rebelledagainsthim.He was personally brave
.
[. .]; and, in times of and was
difficulty perplexity, wavering and irresolute."
Contrary to Irving'sBoabdil,Rushdie'sherohas neverbeen,and neverwillbe
able to visitthe enchantedpalace. However,in the same way thatIrving
unmasksa different aspectofthesultan'spersonality, Moraeshas finally man-
aged to reachand uncover his true self beyondanyfamily, beyond his Andeans
as essentialized bycolonizers, orbeyondanyotherrestrictive groupallegiance.
Moraes'scharacter nevertheless is reminiscent ofBoabdilin thatbothheroes
weredevotedto creating a paradiseforthemselves and others.
Despite Moraes's personalgrowth, Rushdie's novel is pervadedwiththe
painfulawarenessofhow difficult it is to counteract forcesofhistoryand to
initiateanycollectiveactionto transform thepresent.The novelmayappear
to be merelyanothersentimental searchforroots,whichareunstableanyway,
insteadof functioning as a deeperpsychological and intellectual quest,"a
moveforward intotheunknownwhereone mightdesignand designate home
withothers"(Zipes,WhenDreams182). The ArabinvasionofSpain,just like
thelaterIberianexploration ofIndia,resultedin creating a healthysocialand
culturaldiversity, whichin turnis reflected in the assimilation of Moraes's
Jewish-Portuguese family, literally representing Rushdie's vision of India as
encompassing unbound diversity.The harmonious pluralism of Moorish Iberia
was thenshattered by the of
victory Christianity, which in turn encouraged
intolerance. Analogously, the hegemonicforcesof intolerance in India may
lead to anotherInquisition. No wonderRushdie'stalehas beeninterpreted not
as a utopiabut"anelegy - forlostideals,forBombay, forIndia,forhome,and
ultimately, forRushdiehimself'(Goonetilleke 147), a taleabouta paradiselost
and a finaldefeat.This and otherimplementations of utopiasdescribedby
Rushdiein hisbooksarealwaysshifted to thefuture, and althoughtheypro-
vide a benchmarkagainstwhich the flawsof realitycan be more clearly
exposed,Rushdiedoes not suggestwhenand how exactlythedirepredica-
mentofthecolonizedcan be appropriated byUtopianthinking, whichin turn

46

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL
KINGDOM

will allow the realizationof a trulyliberatingpluralism.Nevertheless,

Rushdie'sUtopianworldssubvertcolonialistfantasies and encouragethevery
actofvisualizing thepossibilities ofcopingwiththetransnational reality ofthe
future withoutresorting to exhaustednarratives. Theyalso function as a space
of oppositionin whichindividualslike Moraes,and Rushdiehimself, tryto
accommodate theirglobaldreamsintotheirown entanglements withreality
In thislight,Moraes'srecovery, inconsequential as it mayappear,could
also be readas a taleofthediscovery ofa hybridand tolerant innerrealmthat
can facilitate theway out of thedirepredicament. Just like numerous other
fairy-talepilgrim-underdogs, theherohas been affected by a processof self-
exploration and metamorphosis, whichhas allowedhimto preserveand re-
createan alternative versionof his country, in whichreal acceptanceand
development personalintegrity guaranteed.Hence, Moraes'sphysical
of are
and spiritualtripto theAlhambra,the embodiment of an all-encompassing
and
understanding multiplicity, is not a regression, a movementforward
but
and, to use Zipes'sphrase, "Utopiangesture.It is [. . . an] endeavorto recap-
a
turepromisesofthepastand fulfill themby making[. . .a] markin thepre-
sent"(FairyTaleas Myth119), howeversmallthismarkmaybe. Eventhough
Rushdie'sUtopianprojections mayseemvagueand totally unfeasible,Moraes's
narrative, permeated with fairy-tale intertexts,preserves memoryof the
the
idealistplurality ofMoorishSpainat thesametimethatitindicatesthepossi-
bility achievinga similarpluralismin India and even all overtheworld.
of
Perhaps,RushdiesuggeststhroughMoraes,one day India will acquire"the
"
gloryof theMoors ," represented by theirtriumphant masterpiece [. . .] The
Alhambra, Europe's redfort,sistertoDelhi'sandAgra's - thepalaceofinterlocking
formsandsecret wisdom, ofpleasure-courts andwater-gardens, thatmonument toa
lostpossibilitythatnevertheless hasgoneonstanding, its
longafter conquerors have
fallen;likea testament to [. . .] thelovethatis greaterthandefeatsit" (433).
Althoughconcludingon a disappointing note,Moraes'stale does generatea
"conflicting dialogue between the world as we knowit and thebetterworld
thatis notyet"(Moylan37), thatis, realitydominatedby colonialismand all
sortsofpoliticaland religiousclashes,and thefuture hospitableworldoftoler-
ance and healthymultiplicity, as imaginedand propagated byRushdie.
Even more importantly, the AlhambrasymbolizesforMoraes and for
Rushdiethedeepesthumanneed,the"needforflowing forputting
together, an
end tofrontiers, for thedropping of theboundaries of theself (433). Rushdie
securesthefurther realization ofhis visionbydescribing theteller's
imminent
deathwithreference to thecharacteristic fairy-taleoptimismconcerning the
resurrection of the world'snumeroussleepingheroes,waiting for their
momentofreturnso as to unlocktheirrevolutionary "
potential:Arthur sleeps
inAvalon, Barbarossa inhiscave.FinnMacCoolliesin theIrishhillsides andWorm

47

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

Ouroboros onthebedoftheSundering Sea.Australia's ancestors , theWandjina, take

theirease underground, and somewhere , in a tangleof thorns, a in
beauty glassa
"
coffinawaitsa prince's kiss (433). Forall thesefigures, just as forMoraes,sac-
rificingthemselves forthesake ofothersmeansearninga moresatisfying life
and fulfillingtheirUtopianvisions.Suchprotagonists possess unusual powers
waitingtobe tappedand holdthepromiseofa betterlife,a situation thatcor-
respondsto thereactivation oftheUtopianhope and thepotential itcarriesto
encouragethe communalbuildingof a new world.Moraesidentifies with
thesepowerful figures and believes that even though at the moment he is not
at homeand has beenpetrified his
intomuteness, potential, preserved thein
heroicact ofstorytelling, willbe unlockedagain.The following commentof
WalterBenjamincouldnotbe moreto thepoint:"Notonlya man'sknowledge
orwisdom,butaboveallhisreallife - and thisis thestuff thatstoriesaremade
of [after -
all] first assumestransmissible formthemomentofhis death"(qtd.
in Grant94), transmissible, as Rushdie'sMoraesemphasizes,to listeners.
Significantly,the international entourageof sleepingheroesincludesRip
VanWinkle,and thetellerhopes that just likehim,he willone daywakeup
andjoyful, intoa better "
time(434), to spina farhappiertale.Themen-
"renewed
tionofRipmight be readas an indirect allusiontoTheAlhambra , inwhichIrving
relatesa taleaccording towhichBoabdilandhisarmyactually join theranksof
othersleepingheroes.As thestorygoes,in a cave thevicinity in ofthepalace
"therewerelongrowsofhorsemen armedto theteeth,withlancesraisedand
bannersunfurled, all readyforthefield;buttheyall satmotionless in theirsad-
dleslikeso manystatues.In otherhallswerewarriors sleeping theground
on
besidetheirhorses,and foot-soldiers in groupsreadyto fallintotheranks."The
king himself sitson a golden throne, receiving homagefromhis subjects.The
Muslimstoryteller to
explains Irving that after thefallofGranada,Boabdilwas
notexpelledfrom in
Spain,as "itis recorded your[Christian] chronicles," butwas
"shutup in themountain bypowerful enchantment. As forthekingand army
thatmarchedforth fromGranadaat thetimeofthesurrender, theywerea mere
phantom train of spirits and demons,permitted to assume thoseshapesto
deceivetheChristian sovereigns." The resurrection of the Sultan andhiswarriors
dependson disenchanting thecavern,upon which"Boabdilwilldescendfrom
themountain attheheadofthisarmy, resumehisthrone intheAlhambra andhis
of and
sway Granada, gathering together the enchanted warriors, from all parts
ofSpain,willreconquer thePeninsulaand restore it to Moslemrule."Without
directlyreferring to the legenduncoveredby Irving,Rushdieextendshis
rimescale backintothepastin ordertouse thethemeofan enchanted Boabdilin
sucha waythathe doesnotveeroffintopurefantasy, as Irvingwas tempted to,
butinsteadoffers a timely corrective tohisowntimes,shapinga better future.
Indebtedto thesubversive aesthetics ofthefairy-tale utopiaas manifest-
48

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 KINGDOM
RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL

ed in thecharacters'resorting to fairy-talestrategiesofsurvival, TheMoor'sLast

Sighprovides markers on how to structure our own home in realityand how
to protect itfromoccasionalassaultsofvariousfairy-tale villains.It is truethat
such strategies have provedineffective and remainjust proclamations of a
wish. Worsestill,when writingThe SatanicVerses , realityrebelled against
utopiaand shattered it abruptly and brutally.Nevertheless, Rushdie'spractice
does movereadersforward as it followsBloch'sdictum:"[C]onsideryourself
as bornfreeand entitledto be totallyhappy,dareto makeuse ofyourpower
ofreasoning, look upon theoutcomeofthingsas friendly. Theseare thegen-
uinemaximsoffairytales,and fortunately forus theyappearnotonlyin the
past but in thenow" in
(qtd. Zipes,Breaking 135). Indeed,it is throughthe
fairy tale thatRushdie struggles to etch out his own Utopianvisiona of a
hybridworld.He understands, just as OscarWilde did, that"[a] map of the
worldthatdoes notincludeUtopia,is notworthevenglancingat,foritleaves
out the one countryat which Humanityis always landing.And when
Humanitylands there,it looks out, and seeinga bettercountry, sets sail.
Progress is therealisation ofUtopia"(qtd. in Zipes,FairyTales115).

Conclusion
As KarlKroeberrightly contends,all narratives of anyimportance, and fairy
tales can certainly be classifiedas such, "are retoldand are meantto be
retold- eventhougheveryretelling is a makinganew.Storycan thuspreserve
ideas,beliefs,and convictions withoutpermitting themtohardenintoabstract
dogma. Narrative allows us to test our ethicalprinciples in our imagination
wherewe can engagethemin theuncertainties and confusionof contingent
circumstance" (qtd. in Zipes,StickandStones134). As has been argued,what
particularlyappeals to Rushdieis the fairytale'splasticity and potentialto
addresseverydayand everyone's reality,includingpersonalrelationships, as
wellas, in Seller'swords,thegenre'stwofold"function, on theone handchart-
ingperennialdrivesand terrors, whileon theothermappingactual,volatile
experience[. . .] Thatgivesthestoriestheirongoingfascination and powerto
satisfy.Theyimagine what might lie ahead and of
suggestways proceeding:
theirhappyendingsarepromisesorpropheciesrather thanaccomplished con-
clusions"(15). Indeed,Rushdie'spredilection forhybrid discoursesand his
givingfreereinto theimagination, coupledwiththegeneralopen-endedness
ofhis texts,correspondto whatMarinaWarnerregardsas thedefining flexi-
of
bility myth, which could also be ascribed to the fairytale.The stories
pre-
sent"valuesand expectations whichare alwaysevolving,in the processof
beingformed[. . .] neverso hardas theycannotbe changedagain"(Warner,
Managing Monsters 14). Moreover, whatalso attracts Rushdieto thegenreis

49

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

whatMariaTatardefinesas thegenre's"movement fromvictimization to retal-

iation.[. . .]. In theend,old scoresaresettledand wrongsareredressed. The
sufferings inflicted on the victim or intended for him are ultimately visited on
the adversary. [. . .] This is the Old Testament logic of an eye foran eye"
(182-83). In thisway,Rushdie'stransformations of thegenrereflect desired
emancipatory shifts of reality No wonder such powerful narratives prove
extraordinarily usefulfora writer whose"imaginative powers,and [. . .] plural
and partialidentity," accordingto MariaCouto,"endowhimwiththecritical
perspective, the new anglefromwhichto enterreality, to learnhow to builda
new, modern world out of an old, legend-haunted an old culture
civilization,
whichwe havebrought intotheheartofa newerone"(61).
As has beenshown,fairy talessubstantially contribute to themapRushdie
chartsusingvariousmodesofexpression in orderto navigateacrossmultiple
religious,political, economic,and culturalterritories locatedaroundtheglobe.
Byproffering storiesthatpossessthepowerto reorganize disorderin creative
and fortifying ways, Rushdie findsa niche for himself and his readersin a world
in which,according toAijunAppadurai, of
"points departure and ofarrival are
in cultural flux,and thusthesearchforsteadypointsofreference, as criticallife
choicesaremade,can be verydifficult. It is in thisatmosphere thattheinven-
tionoftradition [. . .] can becomeslippery, as thesearchforcertainties is regu-
larlyfrustrated by the fluiditiesof transnational communication" (44). Rushdie
maydisturbhis readerswithan alienating seriesof dislodgings, yethe also
invitesthemtoexplorethewaysinwhichorientation couldactually be achieved.
Hence,he discourages thosewhorelyon thevagueand oftenmisleading fairy-
talepromiseofhappiness.Still,he alsoimpliesthattransformed, contaminated,
and fragmented talesdo notnecessarily pointto thetotalabsenceoforderand
significance. In other words,fairy helptheauthor,
tales inhisownwords,"name
theunnamable, topintat frauds, to takesides,startarguments, shapetheworld
and stopitfromgoingto sleep"( TheSatanic97).2

Notes
1. Anissueofgeneric
naturethatneedstobeaddressed hereiswhether ornotRushdie
intendstodifferentiate
between varioussortsoffantastictales,giventhathe uses
various terms
genological forhisstories.
I wouldargue thatsuchdistinctions
arenot
thatcrucial
inhisfiction,
forEuropean poetics canhardly be applicable
toIndian
tales.Moreover,
inRushdie'scaseonecanspeakofaninventive instance
offormal
an un-Todorovian,
appropriation: uncommonly peacefuland harmonious coexis-
tenceofmagicrealism andthefairy tale.In fact,theorigins ofbothgenres in
Western andEastern
traditions
canbe locatedingenres liketheepic,inwhichthe
planesofthemagicalandtherealinterweave.AsFarisandZamora write
concern-
ingtheprovenanceofmagic these
realism, sortoftexts
owea lottoculturalsystems

50

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 RUSHDIE'SMAGICAL
KINGDOM

thatareno less"real"thanthosewhichhaveinspired traditional realism:

literary
"oftennon-Western cultural systems [. . .] privilege
mysteryoverempiricism, empa-
thyovertechnology, tradition overinnovation. Theirprimary investment maybein
myths,legends andrituals - thatis,incollective (sometimes oralandperformative,
aswellaswritten)practices thatbindcommunities (5). Thesamecouldbe
together"
saidoffairy whichproblematize
tales, mimetic representation. Itis perhaps forthis
reasonthatthegenre is ofinteresttoRushdie, forthefairytalecaninspire thesub-
versive ofanysolid,unified,
shattering orsystematic visionoftheuniverse, inpar-
ticular
standard Western spatiotemporal relations
and the rigid divisionbetween
matterandspirit.Itreplaces thelatter witha multitude ofdiverse elusiveversions
inwhich
ofreality theunknowable, thefabulous, thesupernatural, andthemagical
form an integral
partoftheextratextual worldandareinseparable from common
Hence,
experience. drawing cleardistinctions between narrative genres inRushdie's
fiction
doesnotseemparticularly useful.
2. Thispaperwas researched and written withthesupport of a grantfromthe
Foundation ofPolishScience.

WorksCited
Allende,Isabel."TheShamanandtheInfidel." NewPerspectives 8.1 (1991):
Quarterly
54.
Appadurai,Arjun. Modernity atLarge:Cultural
DimensionsofGlobalization.
Minneapolis:
U ofMinnesota P,1996.
Barber,Benjamin R. "Democracy andTerror in theEraofJihadvs.McWorld." Worlds
inCollision
: Terror andtheFuture ofGlobal Order.Ed. KenBooth andTime Dunne.
NewYork:Palgrave Macmillan, 2002.245-62.
Bloch,Ernst.ThePrinciple ofHope.Cambridge: MITP,1995.
. "Something's Missing: A Discussion between ErnstBlochand TheodorW
Adorno on theContradictions ofUtopian Longing(1964)."TheUtopian Function
ofArtandLiterature : Selected
Essays.Trans.JackZipesandFrankMecklenburg.
Cambridge: MITP,1993.1-17.
Couto,Maria."Midnight's Children & Parents: TheSearchforIndo-BritishIdentity."
Encounter58.2(1982):61-66.
Cundy, Catherine.Salman Rushdie.
Manchester: Manchester UP,1997.
Erickson,John."Metoikoi andMagical Realism in theMaghrebianNarrativesofTahar
benJelloun andAbdelkebir Khatibi."
MagicalRealism:Theory,
History,
Community.
Ed.LloisParkinson Zamora andWendy B.Faris.Durham: DukeUP,1995.427-50.
D. M.,ed. Introduction.
Fletcher, ReadingRushdie: ontheFiction
Perspectives ofSalman
Rushdie.Atlanta: Rodopi,1994.
D. C. R.A. Salman
Goonetilleke, London:Macmillan,
Rushdie. 1998.
Grant,Damian.Salman Rushdie.Plymouth: Northcote,1999.
Irving,
Washington. TheAlhambra. 29 Jan.1999. TheUniversity ofAdelaideLibrary
Electronic
TextsCollection. 1 Feb.2002 <http://www. adelaide.edu.
library. au/etext/i/
N. pag.
i72a/i72a.zip>.
Moylan, Tom.Demand theImpossible:ScienceFiction
andtheUtopian New
Imagination.
York:Methuen, 1986.
Naithani,Sadhana."Prefaced Space:TalesoftheColonialBritish ofIndian
Collectors

51

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 DESZCZ
JUSTÝNA

Folklore." Imagined States:Nationalism, andLonging

Utopia, inOralCultures. Ed.
LuisaDel Giudice andGeraldPorter. Logan:UtahStateUP,2001.64-79.
Petersson, Margareta. Unending Metamorphoses: Myth, Satire,andReligion in Salman
Rushdie'sNovels. Lund:LundUP,1996.
Preston,Cathy Lynn. Literature,
Folklore, andCulturalTheory: Collected
Essays.NewYork
andLondon:Garland, 1995.
Rushdie, Salman. "AttheAuction oftheRubySlippers." TheWizard ofOz. London: BFI,
1992.58-65.
. '"Fictionsareliesthattellthetruth':InterviewwithGünter Grass."TheListener
27June1985:14-15.
. Fury. London:Cape,2001.
. Grimus. London:Gollancz, 1975.
. TheGround beneathHerFeet.London:Cape,1999.
. Haroun andtheSeaofStories. London:Granta, 1990.
. Imaginary Homelands: Essays 1981-1991.
andCriticism, London:Granta, 1991.
393-414.
. Midnight'sChildren.London:Cape,1983.
. TheMoor's LastSigh.London:Cape,1994.
. TheSatanic NewYork:
Verses. VikingPenguin, 1988.
. Shame. London:Cape,1983.
. StepAcross ThisLine : Collected 1992-2002.NewYork:Random,
Nonfiction,
2002.
Sellers,Susan.Mythand FairyTalein Contemporary Women's Fiction.Basingstoke,
Hampshire: Palgrave,2001.
Stephens, John,and McCallum Robyn.Retelling Stories,Framing Culture:Traditional
Story and Metanarrativesin Children's New
Literature. York: Garland,1998.
TatarMaria.TheHardFactsoftheGrimms' FairyTales.Princeton:PrincetonUP,1987.
Warner, Marina. From theBeasttotheBlonde: OnFairy TalesandTheir 1994.New
Tellers.
York:Farrar, 1995.
. Managing Monsters:SixMyths ofOurTime:TheReith 1994.London:
Lectures
Vintage, 1994.
Weiss,Timothy. "AttheEndofEast/West: Myth inRushdie's TheMoor's
LastSigh."Jouvert
4.2(Winter 2000).3 May2002<http://152.1.96.5/jouvert/v4i2/weiss.htm>. N.pag.
Zamora, LoisParkinson, andWendyB. Faris,eds.MagicalRealism: Theory, History,
Community. Durham: DukeUP,1995.
Zipes,Jack.Breaking theMagicSpell:RadicalTheories ofFolkandFairyTales.London:
Heinemann/Austin: U ofTexasP,1979.
. FairyTaleas Myth/Myth U ofKentucky
as FairyTale.Lexington: P,1994.
. FairyTalesandtheArtofSubversion: TheClassical GenreforChildren andthe
Process London:Heinemann/New
ofCivilization. York:Methuen, 1983.
. Sticks
andStones: TheTroublesome Success Literature
ofChildren's from Slovenly
Peter toHarry Potter.
NewYork:Routledge, 2001.
. When Dreams CameTrue: ClassicalFairyTalesandTheir NewYork:
Tradition.
Routledge, 1999.

52

This content downloaded from 142.132.1.147 on Mon, 26 Oct 2015 03:11:19 UTC
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions