INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY
BIOCHEMISTRY
What is Chemistry?
• Is a branch of Science that study the composition, structure, properties
and reactions of matter.
• Is the science dealing with the composition of matter and the changes in
composition that matter undergoes.
The scope of chemistry is BROAD. It includes the whole universe and everything,
animate and inanimate, in it.
MAIN BRANCHES OF CHEMISTRY
1. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• Organic chemistry is the study of carbon-containing compounds and their
properties, structure, reactions, and synthesis. It focuses on
understanding the behavior of molecules that often form the basis of
living organisms, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids.
2. INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
• Inorganic chemistry deals with compounds that do not contain carbon-
hydrogen (C-H) bonds. It focuses on the study of elements and
compounds found in minerals, metals, and non-metals
3. ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
• Analytical chemistry focuses on techniques and methods for determining
the composition of substances, identifying their components, and
quantifying their amounts.
4.
• Biochemistry explores the chemical processes that occur within living
organisms. It delves into the molecular mechanisms underlying biological
functions, such as metabolism, enzyme reactions, and DNA replication.
5. PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY
• Physical chemistry involves the study of the physical properties and
behavior of matter, as well as the underlying principles governing
chemical processes. This branch combines elements of physics and
chemistry to understand concepts such as thermodynamics, kinetics,
quantum mechanics, and spectroscopy.
Relevance of Chemistry to Criminology
FORENSIC SCIENCE
• Forensic chemists analyze physical evidence collected from crime scenes,
such as blood, hair, fibers, drugs, and other trace materials.
• Understanding principles of chemistry is crucial for accurate analysis,
identification, and interpretation of evidence. This can aid in solving
crimes, identifying suspects, and presenting evidence in court.
DRUG ANALYSIS
• Criminology students might study drug abuse, trafficking, and related
criminal activities.
• Knowledge of chemistry helps students understand the properties,
effects, and manufacturing processes of drugs.
• This understanding can be useful when investigating drug-related crimes,
tracking illegal drug production, and formulating effective drug policies.
TOXICOLOGY
• Toxicology involves the study of the effects of chemicals on living
organisms.
• Criminologists may encounter cases involving poisonings, environmental
contamination, or other chemical-related incidents.
• Knowledge of chemistry helps in comprehending toxic substances, their
modes of action, and the analysis of biological samples to determine the
presence of toxins.
ARSON INVESTIGATION
• Chemistry is essential in investigating arson cases.
• Criminology students might learn about fire dynamics and accelerants,
which requires understanding the chemical processes involved in
combustion.
• This knowledge is useful for determining the cause and origin of fires and
identifying signs of arson
CRIME SCENE ANALYSIS
• Chemistry is valuable in analyzing physical evidence collected from crime
scenes.
• Bloodstains, gunshot residues, and trace evidence often require chemical
analysis to establish their origins, compositions, and relevance to criminal
investigations.
EXPLOSIVES AND BALLISTICS
• Chemistry is relevant in understanding explosive materials and their
reactions.
• This knowledge can be useful in investigating bombings, explosions, and
related incidents.
• Additionally, studying ballistics and firearm residues may involve chemical
analyses to identify gunshot residues and trace evidence.
THE SCIENTIFIC APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING
One of the most common and important things we do every day is to
solve problems. There is a LOGICAL APPROACH can be useful for solving
problems.
1. DEFINE THE PROBLEM.
• We need to recognize we have a problem and state it clearly, including all
the known information. When we do this in Science, we call it making an
observation.
2. PROPOSE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO THE PROBLEM.
• In Science, we call it making a hypothesis.
3. DECIDE WHICH IS THE BEST WAY TO PROCEED OR SOLVE THE PROBLEM.
• In daily life, we use our memory of past experiences to help us. In
Science, we call it perform an experiment.
THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
is a systematic approach used by scientists to investigate and
understand natural phenomena, solve problems, and generate reliable
knowledge.
1. OBSERVATION
The process begins with observing a phenomenon or asking a question
about something that piques the scientist's curiosity.
2. HYPOTHESIS
A hypothesis is a testable explanation or prediction that attempts to
answer the question posed during observation. It's a proposed solution
that can be verified through experimentation or observation.
“If…then…because”
3. EXPERIMENT
Researchers design experiments to test the hypothesis. They carefully
control variables, manipulate certain factors, and collect data through
measurements and observations.
4. COLLECT DATA
Information and observations collected from the experiment.
5. ANALYZE RESULT
After collecting data, scientists analyze it to determine whether it
supports or contradicts the hypothesis. Statistical methods are often
used to evaluate the significance of the results.
6. CONCLUSION
Based on the analysis of the data, scientists draw conclusions about the
hypothesis.
• If the data supports the hypothesis, it becomes more likely to be
considered a valid explanation for the observed phenomenon.
• If the data contradicts the hypothesis, scientists may need to revise
or develop a new hypothesis.
MATTER (CHARACTERISTICS AND PROPERTIES)
MATTER
Is anything that has mass and occupies space.
ATOM
The basic unit of matter, consisting of a nucleus (protons and neutrons),
surrounded by electrons that orbits the nucleus.
Two TYPES OF CHANGE that happen in Matter
PHYSICAL CHANGE
 Are alterations in the physical properties of a substance without
changing its chemical composition.
 These changes can include changes in state (e.g., from solid to liquid),
changes in shape or size, and changes in physical appearance
 Physical changes are usually reversible meaning the substance can return
to its original state without changing its fundamental identity.
CHEMICAL CHANGE
 also known as chemical reactions, involve the transformation of one or
more substances into new substances with different chemical
compositions.
 During a chemical change, chemical bands are broken and new bonds are
formed
 Chemical changes are usually accompanied by observable signs, such as
the release of heat or light, color changes, gas production, or the
formation of precipitates
STATES OF MATTER
1. SOLID
 Solids are characterized by strong intermolecular forces that hold the
particles in a relatively fixed position.
 in the solid state, particles are tightly packed together.
 has a definite shape and volume that does not conform to the container
shape
Examples of solids include ice, wood, and metal.
2. LIQUID CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

 In the liquid state, particles are still close together but have more
freedom to move past each other
 has definite volume, but no definite shape (take the shape of their
container)

Examples of liquids include water, oil and milk

3. GAS
 In the gas state, particles are widely separated and have high kinetic
energy.
 has no definite volume, no definite shape, it conforms to the container
shape, but expand to fill the available space.

Examples of gases include oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide.

4. PLASMA
 Plasma is a high-energy, ionized state of matter in which electrons have
been stripped from atoms resulting in a mixture of positively charged
ions and free electrons
 Plasmas are less common on Earth but are prevalent in the stars,
lightning and Auroras some laboratory conditions
MIXTURE
A mixture is a combination of two or more pure substances in which
each substance retains its individual properties, and the components are
physically intermingled, not chemically bonded.

5. BEC (BOSE-EINSTEIN CONDENSATE)

 It was first predicted by Albert Einstein and Satyendra Nath Bose in the TWO TYPES OF MIXTURE
1920s and experimentally realized in the 1990s.
1. Homogenous mixtures (solution)
 This is a state of matter that occurs at extremely low temperatures near
the components are uniformly distibuted throughout, resulting in a
absolute zero.
single, consistent phase.
 In a BEC, a large number of particles behave as a single quantum entity,
exhibiting unusual properties such as superfluidity and 2. Heterogenous mixtures
superconductivity. the components are not uniformly distributed, and you can see
distinct regions or phases within the mixture.
TWO TYPES OF HETEROGENOUS MIXTURE
1. Colloid
In a colloid, you have tiny particles or droplets mixed into a liquid or
gas, but they're so small that they stay suspended and don't settle out
2. Suspension
In a suspension, you have larger particles mixed into a liquid or gas,
and these particles con settle out over time because of gravity.
Suspensions tend to look more heterogeneous, with visible solid particles
or clumps.
PURE SUBSTANCE
is a substance composed of only one type of atom or molecule with
consistent and uniform properties throughout. It cannot be separated into
other substances by physical means.
TWO TYPES OF PURE SUBSTANCE
1. Element
is a pure substance composed of only one type of atom. Each
element is represented by a unique chemical symbol, such as "O" for
oxygen or "H" for hydrogen
2. Compound
Is a pure substance composed of two or more different types of
atoms chemically bonded together in fixed ratios. It can be broken down
into their constituent elements through chemical reactions.
RULES FOR COUNTING SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
1. NONZERO DIGITS. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. EXACT NUMBERS. Some numbers are exact and have an infinite number of
significant figures. Exact numbers occur in simple counting operations;
when you count 25 dollars, you have exactly 25 dollars. Defined numbers,
such as 12 inches in 1 foot, 60 minutes in 1 hour, and 100 centimeters in 1
meter, are also considered to be exact numbers. Exact numbers have no
uncertainty.
3. ZEROS. A zero is significant when it is
 between nonzero digits:
205 has three significant figures
2.05 has three significant figures
61.09 has four significant figures
 at the end of a number that includes a decimal point
0.500 has three significant figures (5, 0, 0)
25.160 has five significant figures (2, 5, 1, 6, 0)
3.00 has three significant figures (3, 0, 0)
20. has two significant figures (2, 0)
A zero is not significant when it is
 before the first nonzero digit.
These zeros are used to locate a decimal point:
0.0025 has two significant figures (2,5),
0.0108 has three significant figures (1, 0, 8)
 at the end of a number without a decimal point:
1000 has one significant figure (1),
590 has two significant figures (5,9)
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION DISTANCE / LENGTH MASS / WEIGHT
METRIC SYSTEM
Scientists often use numbers that are very large or very small in measurements. 1in = 2.54cm 1kg = 1000g
For example, the Earth's age is estimated to be about 4,500,000 (4.5 billion) Terra (T) 10¹²
1km = 1000m 1kg = 2.2 lbs
years. Numbers like these are bulky to write, so to make them more compact 1m = 1000mm/100cm 1 lb = 16oz / 454g
Giga (G) 10⁹
scientists use powers of 10. Writing a number as the product of a number 1cm 10mm 1g = 1000mg
between 1 and 10 multiplied by 10 raised to some power is called scientific Mega (M) 10⁶ 1mi = 1.609km
notation.
Kilo (k) 10³
To learn how to write a number in scientific notation, let's consider the number VOLUME / CAPACITY TIME
2468. To write this number in scientific notation: Hecto (h) 10²
1L = 1000mL 1hr = 60mins
Deka (da) 10¹ 1mL = 1cm³ / 1cc 1min = 60s
1. Move the decimal point in the original number so that it is located after the
first nonzero digit. 1gal= 3.7854L 1day = 24hrs
------------------1--------------

2468 → 2.468 (decimal moves three places to the left) Deci (d) 10¯¹
TEMPERATURE
2. Multiply this new number by 10 raised to the proper exponent (power). The Centi (c) 10¯²
°C = ⁵/₉ formula: (°F – 32)
proper exponent is equal to the number of places that the decimal point was
Milli (m) 10¯³ °F = ⁹/₅ formula: (°C + 32)
moved.
K = °F + 273.15
Micro (µ) 10¯⁶ = °C + 273.15
2.468 x 10³
Nano (n) 10¯⁹
3. The sign on the exponent indicates the direction the decimal was moved..
Pico (p) 10¯¹²
moved right nega→ tive exponent
moved left → positive exponent Femto (f) 10¯¹⁵
 International System's Standard Units of Measurement

Quantity Name of unit Abbreviation

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Temperature kelvin K
Time second S
Amount of substance mole mol
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd

Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value.

Precision refers to how close measurements of the same item are to each other.