South China Sea

Coordinates: 12°N 113°E

The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western

Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by South China, South China Sea
in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by
the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Philippines
(mainly Luzon, Mindoro and Palawan), and in the south
by the Indonesian islands of Borneo, eastern Sumatra and
the Bangka Belitung Islands, encompassing an area of
around 3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi). It
communicates with the East China Sea via the Taiwan
Strait, the Philippine Sea via the Luzon Strait, the Sulu
Sea via the straits around Palawan, and the Java Sea via
the Karimata and Bangka Straits. The Gulf of Thailand
and the Gulf of Tonkin are part of the South China Sea.

$3.4 trillion of the world's $16 trillion maritime shipping

passed through South China Sea in 2016. Oil and natural Satellite image of South China Sea
gas reserves have been found in the area. The Western
Central Pacific accounted for 14% of world's commercial
fishing in 2010.

The South China Sea Islands, collectively comprising

several archipelago clusters of mostly small uninhabited
islands, islets (cays and shoals), reefs/atolls and
seamounts numbering in the hundreds, are subject to South
competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. China Sea
These claims are also reflected in the variety of names
used for the islands and the sea.

Etymology
South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for Show map of South China Sea
the sea, and the name in most European languages is Show map of Southeast Asia
equivalent. This name is a result of early European Show map of Asia
Show all
interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia
to the trading opportunities of China. In the 16th century,
Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea (Mare da
China); later needs to differentiate it from nearby bodies
of water led to calling it South China Sea.[2] The
International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea
as "South China Sea (Nan Hai)".[3]

The Yizhoushu, which was a chronicle of the Western

Zhou dynasty (1046–771 BCE), gives the first Chinese
name for South China Sea as Nanfang Hai (Chinese: 南方
海 ; pinyin: Nánfāng Hǎi; lit. 'Southern Sea'), claiming The northeastern portion of South China
that barbarians from that sea gave tributes of hawksbill Sea
sea turtles to the Zhou rulers.[4] The Classic of Poetry, Location East Asia and
Zuo Zhuan, and Guoyu classics of the Spring and Autumn Southeast Asia
period (771–476 BCE) also referred to the sea, but by the
Coordinates 12°N 113°E
name Nan Hai (Chinese: 南 海 ; pinyin: Nán Hǎi; lit.
'South Sea') in reference to the State of Chu's expeditions Type Sea
there.[4] Nan Hai, the South Sea, was one of the Four Seas Part of Pacific Ocean
of Chinese literature. There are three other seas, one for
River sources Agno · Jiulong ·
each of the four cardinal directions.[5] During the Eastern
Mekong · Min · Pahang
Han dynasty (23–220 CE), China's rulers called the sea
Zhang Hai (Chinese: 漲 海 ; pinyin: Zhǎng Hǎi; lit. · Pampanga · Pasig ·
'distended sea').[4] Fei Hai (Chinese: 沸 海 ; pinyin: Fèi Pearl · Rajang · Red
Hǎi; lit. 'boiling sea') became popular during the Basin countries List [show]
Southern and Northern dynasties. Usage of the current Brunei
Chinese name, Nan Hai (South Sea), gradually became
China
widespread during the Qing dynasty.[6]
Indonesia
In Southeast Asia it was once called the Champa Sea or Malaysia
Sea of Cham, after the maritime kingdom of Champa Philippines
(nowadays Central Vietnam), which flourished there Taiwan
before the 16th century.[7] The majority of the sea came Vietnam
under Japanese naval control during World War II
following the military acquisition of many surrounding Surface area 3,500,000 square
South East Asian territories in 1941. Japan calls the sea kilometres
Minami Shina Kai "South China Sea". This was written 南 (1,400,000 sq mi)
支 那 海 until 2004, when the Japanese Foreign Ministry
Islands List of islands in
and other departments switched the spelling to 南シナ海,
South China Sea
which has become the standard usage in Japan.
Trenches Manila Trench
In China, it is called the South Sea, (南海; Nánhǎi), and
Settlements Major cities [show]
in Vietnam the East Sea, Biển Đông.[8][9][10] In Malaysia,
Indonesia and the Philippines, it was long called the Alaminos
South China Sea (Tagalog: Dagat Timog Tsina, Malay: Bà Rịa
Laut China Selatan), with the part within Philippine Bạc Liêu
territorial waters often called the "Luzon Sea", Dagat
Bacoor
Luzon, by the Philippines.[11]
Balanga
However, following an escalation of the Spratly Islands Bintulu
dispute in 2011, various Philippine government agencies
started using the name West Philippine Sea. A Cẩm Phả
Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Cam Ranh
Services Administration (PAGASA) spokesperson said Candon
that the sea to the east of the Philippines will continue to
Cavite City
be called the Philippine Sea.[12] In September 2012,
Philippine President Benigno Aquino III signed Da Nang
Administrative Order No. 29, mandating that all Dagupan
government agencies use the name West Philippine Sea Đồng Hới
to refer to the parts of South China Sea within the
Philippines exclusive economic zone, including the Luzon Hạ Long
Sea as well as the waters around, within and adjacent to Hà Tĩnh
the Kalayaan Island Group and Bajo de Masinloc, and Haikou
tasked the National Mapping and Resource Information
Haiphong
Authority to use the name in official maps.[13][14]
Ho Chi Minh City
In July 2017, to assert its sovereignty, Indonesia renamed Hội An
the northern reaches of its exclusive economic zone in the Hong Kong
South China Sea as the North Natuna Sea, which is
located north of the Indonesian Natuna Islands, Kaohsiung
bordering southern Vietnam exclusive economic zone, Kota Kinabalu
corresponding to southern end of South China Sea.[15] Kuala Terengganu
The "Natuna Sea" is located south of Natuna Island
Kuantan
within Indonesian territorial waters.[16] Therefore,
Indonesia has named two seas that are portions of South Kuching
China Sea; the Natuna Sea located between Natuna Laoag
Islands and the Lingga and Tambelan Archipelagos, and Las Piñas
the North Natuna Sea located between the Natuna
Islands and Cape Cà Mau on the southern tip of the Macau
Mekong Delta in Vietnam. Malolos
Manila
Hydrography Mersing
Miri
States and territories with borders on the sea (clockwise
from north) include: the People's Republic of China, the Móng Cái
Republic of China (Taiwan), the Philippines, Malaysia, Nakhon Si
Brunei, Indonesia and Vietnam. Major rivers that flow Thammarat
into South China Sea include the Pearl, Min, Jiulong, Nam Định
Red, Mekong, Menam, Rajang, Baram, Kapuas, Batang
Hari, Musi, Kampar, Indragiri, Pahang, Agno, Pampanga Nanwan
and Pasig Rivers. Navotas
Nha Trang
The IHO in its Limits of Oceans and Seas, 3rd edition
(1953), defines the limits of South China Sea as follows:[3] Olongapo
Parañaque

On the South. The Eastern and Southern Pasay

limits of Singapore and Malacca Straits [A line Pattaya
joining Tanjong Datok, the Southeast point of Pekan
Johore (1°22′N 104°17′E) through Horsburgh
Phan Rang–Tháp
Reef to Pulo Koko, the Northeastern extreme
of Bintan Island (1°13.5′N 104°35′E). The Chàm
Northeastern coast of Sumatra] as far West as Phan Thiết
Tanjong Kedabu (1°06′N 102°58′E) down the Quảng Ngãi
East coast of Sumatra to Lucipara Point
Qui Nhơn
(3°14′S 106°05′E) thence to Tanjong Nanka,
the Southwest extremity of Banka Island Sầm Sơn
(where it transitions as Java Sea), through this San Fernando
island to Tanjong Berikat the Eastern point
Sanya
(2°34′S 106°51′E), on to Tanjong Djemang
(2°36′S 107°37′E) in Billiton, along the North Shantou
coast of this island to Tanjong Boeroeng Sihanoukville
Mandi (2°46′S 108°16′E) and thence a line to
Sóc Trăng
Tanjong Sambar (3°00′S 110°19′E) the
Southwest extreme of Borneo. Surat Thani
Taitung
On the East. From Tanjong Sambar through
Tainan
the West coast of Borneo to Tanjong
Sampanmangio, the North point, thence a line Tam Kỳ
to West points of Balabac and Secam Reefs, on Thái Bình
 to the West point of Bancalan Island and to Thanh Hóa
Cape Buliluyan, the Southwest point of Vigan
Palawan, through this island to Cabuli Point,
the Northern point thereof, thence to the Tuy Hòa
Northwest point of Busuanga and to Cape Vũng Tàu
Calavite in the island of Mindoro, to the Xiamen
Northwest point of Lubang Island and to
Point Fuego (14°08'N) in Luzon Island, Zhanjiang
through this island to Cape Engano, the
Northeast point of Luzon, along a line joining South China Sea
this cape with the East point of Balintang Chinese name
Island (20°N) and to the East point of Y'Ami
Island (21°05'N) thence to Garan Bi, the Chinese 南海
Southern point of Taiwan (Formosa), through Hanyu Pinyin Nán Hǎi
this island to Santyo (25°N) its North Eastern
Point. Literal meaning South Sea
Transcriptions [show]
On the North. From Fuki Kaku the North
Standard Mandarin
point of Formosa to Kiushan Tao (Turnabout
Island) on to the South point of Haitan Tao Hanyu Pinyin Nán Hǎi
(25°25'N) and thence Westward on the Bopomofo ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄞˇ
parallel of 25°24' North to the coast of Fukien. Wade–Giles Nan2 Hai3
On the West. The Mainland, the Southern IPA [nǎn xàɪ]
limit of the Gulf of Thailand and the East Wu
coast of the Malay Peninsula.
Romanization noe平 he上
Hakka
However, in a revised edition of Limits of Oceans and Seas, Romanization nam11
4th edition (1986), the International Hydrographic
hoi31
Organization officially recognized the Natuna Sea. Thus the
southern limit of South China Sea is revised from the Bangka Yue: Cantonese
Belitung Islands to the Natuna Islands.[17] Jyutping naam4 hoi2
Southern Min
Geology Hokkien POJ lâm-hái
Hainanese nâm-hái
The sea lies above a drowned continental shelf; during recent
Romanization
ice ages global sea level was hundreds of metres lower, and
Borneo was part of the Asian mainland. Alternative Chinese name
Simplified Chinese 南中国海
The South China Sea opened around 45 million years ago
when the "Dangerous Ground" rifted away from southern Traditional Chinese 南中國海
China. Extension culminated in seafloor spreading around 30
Hanyu Pinyin Nán Zhōngguó
million years ago, a process that propagated to the southwest
resulting in the V-shaped basin we see today. Extension ceased Hǎi
around 17 million years ago.[18] Literal meaning South China
Sea
Arguments have continued about the role of tectonic extrusion
in forming the basin. Paul Tapponnier and colleagues have
argued that as India collides with Asia it pushes Indochina to
the southeast. The relative shear between Indochina and China
caused the South China Sea to open.[19] This view is disputed
by geologists who do not consider Indochina to have moved far
relative to mainland Asia. Marine geophysical studies in the
Gulf of Tonkin by Peter Clift has shown that the Red River Transcriptions [show]
Fault was active and causing basin formation at least by 37
Standard Mandarin
million years ago in the northwest South China Sea, consistent
with extrusion playing a part in the formation of the sea. Since Hanyu Pinyin Nán Zhōngguó Hǎi
opening, the South China Sea has been the repository of large Bopomofo ㄋㄢˊ ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨ
sediment volumes delivered by the Mekong River, Red River ㄛˊ ㄏㄞˇ
and Pearl River. Several of these deltas are rich in oil and gas
Wade–Giles Nan2 Chung1-kuo2
deposits.
Hai3
IPA [nǎn ʈʂʊ́ ŋkwǒ xàɪ]
Islands and seamounts
Wu
The South China Sea contains over 250 small islands, atolls, Romanization noe平 tson平 koh入
cays, shoals, reefs, and sandbars, most of which have no he上
indigenous people, many of which are naturally under water at Hakka
high tide, and some of which are permanently submerged. The
Romanization nam11 dung24
features are:
gued2 hoi31
The Spratly Islands Yue: Cantonese
The Paracel Islands Jyutping naam4 zung1
Pratas Island and the Vereker Banks gwok3 hoi2
The Macclesfield Bank Southern Min
The Scarborough Shoal
Hokkien POJ lâm tiong-kok hái
The Spratly Islands spread over an 810 by 900 km area Hainanese nâm tieng-kuōk hái
covering some 175 identified insular features, the largest being Romanization
Taiping Island (Itu Aba) at just over 1.3 kilometres (0.81 mi) Vietnamese name
long and with its highest elevation at 3.8 metres (12 ft).
Vietnamese Biển Đông
The largest singular feature in the area of the Spratly Islands is Hán-Nôm 𣷷東
a 100 kilometres (62 mi) wide seamount called Reed
Tablemount, also known as Reed Bank, in the northeast of the Literal meaning East Sea
group, separated from Palawan Island of the Philippines by the Thai name
Palawan Trench. Now completely submerged, with a depth of Thai ทะเลจีนใต้
20 metres (66 ft), it was an island until it was covered about [tʰā.lēː t͡ ɕīːn
7,000 years ago by increasing sea levels after the last ice age.
tâ(ː)j]
With an area of 8,866 square kilometres (3,423 sq mi), it is
(South China
one of the largest submerged atoll structures in the world.
Sea)

Trade route RTGS Thale Chin Tai

Japanese name
The South China Sea has historically been an important trade Kanji 南支那海 or 南
route between China, southeast Asia, and going to India and シナ海 (literally
the west. The number of shipwrecks of trading ships that lie on
"South Shina
the ocean's floor attest to a thriving trade going back centuries.
Sea")
Nine historic trade ships carrying ceramics dating back to the
10th century until the 19th century were excavated under Kana みなみシナか
Swedish engineer Sten Sjöstrand.[20] い
Transcriptions [show]
Romanization Minami Shina Kai
Malay name
$3.4 trillion of the world's $16 trillion maritime shipping Malay Laut Cina
passed through South China Sea in 2016.[21] Selatan (‫الءوت‬
‎‫)چينا سالتن‬
Natural resources (South China
Sea)
In 2012-2013, the United States Energy Information Laut Nusantara
Administration estimates very little oil and natural gas in
(‎‫)الءوت نوسنتارا‬
contested areas such as the Paracel and the Spratly Islands.
(Nusantara Sea)
Most of the proved or probable 11 billion barrels of oil and 190
trillion cubic feet of natural gas in the South China Sea exist Laut Campa
near undisputed shorelines.[22][23] (‫الءوت چمڤا‬‎)
(Champa Sea)
In 2010, the Western Central Pacific (excluding the
northernmost reaches of the South China Sea closest to the Indonesian name
PRC coast) accounted for 14% of the total world catch from Indonesian Laut Cina
commercial fishing of 11.7 million tonnes. This was up from Selatan /
less than 4 million tonnes in 1970.[24] Laut Tiongkok
Selatan
China announced in May 2017 a breakthrough for mining
(South China
methane clathrates, when they extracted methane from
Sea)
hydrates in the South China Sea, but commercial adoption
may take a decade or more.[25][26] Laut Natuna
Utara

Territorial claims (North Natuna

Sea; Indonesian
official
Several countries have made competing territorial claims over
the South China Sea. Such disputes have been regarded as government use;

Asia's most potentially dangerous point of conflict. Both the Claimed

People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China Indonesian EEZ
(ROC, commonly known as Taiwan) claim almost the entire only)[1]
body as their own, demarcating their claims within what is
known as the "nine-dash line", which claims overlap with Filipino name
virtually every other country in the region. Competing claims Tagalog Dagat Timog
include: Tsina
(South China
Indonesia, Vietnam,[27] China, and Taiwan over waters Sea)
northeast of the Natuna Islands
Dagat Luzon
The Philippines, China, and Taiwan over Scarborough
(Luzon Sea)
Shoal.
Vietnam, China, and Taiwan over waters west of the Portuguese name
Spratly Islands. Some or all of the islands themselves are Portuguese Mar da China
also disputed between Vietnam, China, Taiwan, Brunei,
Meridional
Malaysia, and the Philippines.
(South China
The Paracel Islands are disputed between China, Taiwan
Sea)
and Vietnam.
Malaysia, Cambodia, Thailand and Vietnam over areas in Tetum name
the Gulf of Thailand. Tetum Tasi Sul Xina
Singapore and Malaysia along the Strait of Johore and the
Strait of Singapore.

China and Vietnam have both been vigorous in prosecuting their claims. China (various
governments) and South Vietnam each controlled part of the Paracel Islands before 1974. A brief
conflict in 1974 resulted in 18 Chinese and 53 Vietnamese deaths, and China has controlled the
whole of Paracel since then. The Spratly Islands have been the
site of a naval clash, in which over 70 Vietnamese sailors were
killed just south of Chigua Reef in March 1988. Disputing
claimants regularly report clashes between naval vessels.

ASEAN in general, and Malaysia in particular, have been keen

to ensure that the territorial disputes within the South China
Sea do not escalate into armed conflict. As such, joint
development authorities have been set up in areas of
overlapping claims to jointly develop the area and divide the Sunset on the South China Sea off
profits equally without settling the issue of sovereignty over the Mũi Né village on the south-east
area. This is true particularly in the Gulf of Thailand. Generally, coast of Vietnam
China has preferred to resolve competing claims bilaterally, [28]

while some ASEAN countries prefer multilateral talks,[29]

believing that they are disadvantaged in bilateral negotiations with the
much larger China and that because many countries claim the same
territory only multilateral talks could effectively resolve the competing
claims.[30]

The overlapping claims over Pedra Branca or Pulau Batu Putih

including the neighboring Middle Rocks by both Singapore and
Malaysia were settled in 2008 by the International Court of Justice,
awarding Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh to Singapore and the
Middle Rocks to Malaysia. South China Sea

In July 2010, US Secretary of State Hillary Clinton

called for China to resolve the territorial dispute.
China responded by demanding the US keep out of
the issue. This came at a time when both countries
had been engaging in naval exercises in a show of
force to the opposing side, which increased tensions
in the region. The US Department of Defense
released a statement on August 18 where it opposed
the use of force to resolve the dispute, and accused
China of assertive behaviour.[31] On July 22, 2011, Millions of barrels of crude oil are traded through
one of India's amphibious assault vessels, the INS the South China Sea each day
Airavat which was on a friendly visit to Vietnam, was
reportedly contacted at a distance of 45 nautical
miles (83 km) from the Vietnamese coast in the disputed South China Sea on an open radio
channel by a vessel identifying itself as the Chinese Navy and stating that the ship was entering
Chinese waters.[32][33] The spokesperson for the Indian Navy clarified that as no ship or aircraft
was visible from INS Airavat it proceeded on her onward journey as scheduled. The Indian Navy
further clarified that "[t]here was no confrontation involving the INS Airavat. India supports
freedom of navigation in international waters, including in the South China Sea, and the right of
passage in accordance with accepted principles of international law. These principles should be
respected by all."[32]

In September 2011, shortly after China and Vietnam had signed an agreement seeking to contain a
dispute over the South China Sea, India's state-run explorer, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
(ONGC) said that its overseas investment arm ONGC Videsh Limited had signed a three-year deal
with PetroVietnam for developing long-term cooperation in the oil sector[34] and that it had
accepted Vietnam's offer of exploration in certain specified blocks in the South China Sea.[35] In
response, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Jiang Yu issued a protest.[36][37] The spokesman
of the Ministry of External Affairs of the Government of India responded by saying that "The
Chinese had concerns
but we are going by
what the Vietnamese
authorities have told us
and have conveyed this
to the Chinese."[36] The
Indo-Vietnamese deal
was also denounced by
the Chinese state-run
newspaper Global
Times. [35][37]

In 1999, Taiwan
claimed the entirety of
the South China Sea
islands under the Lee
Teng-hui
administration.[38] The
entire subsoil, seabed
and waters of the Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap
Paracels and Spratlys [Interactive fullscreen map + nearby articles]
are claimed by
[39] Location of the major islands in Spratly Islands
Taiwan.

In 2012 and 2013, Legend：

Republic of China 1：Taiping 2：Zhongzhou
Vietnam and Taiwan
People's Republic of China 3：Yongshu 4：Meiji 5：Zhubi
butted heads against
each other over anti- 6：Huayang
7：Nanxun 8：Chiguo 9：Dongmen
Vietnamese military
exercises by Philippines 10：Flat Island 11：Lankiam Cay 12：Loaita Cay
[40] 13：Loaita Island 14：Nanshan Island 15：Northeast Cay 16：
Taiwan.
Thitu Island
In May 2014, China 17：West York Island 18：Commodore Reef 19：Irving Reef
established an oil rig 20：Second Thomas Reef
near the Paracel Vietnam 21 ： Southwest Cay 22 ： Sand Cay 23 ： Namyit
Islands, leading to Island
multiple incidents 24 ： Sin Cowe Island 25 ： Spratly Island 26 ： Amboyna Cay
between Vietnamese 27：Grierson Reef
and Chinese 28 ： Central London Reef 29 ： Pearson Reef 30 ： Barque
ships.[41][42] Canada Reef
31 ： West London Reef 32 ： Ladd Reef 33 ： Discovery Great
In December 2018, Reef
retired Chinese 34：Pigeon Reef 35：East London Reef 36：Alison Reef
admiral Luo Yuan 37：Cornwallis South Reef 38：Petley Reef 39：South Reef
proposed that a 40：Collins Reef 41：Lansdowne Reef 42：Bombay Castle
possible solution to 43 ： Prince of Wales Bank 44 ： Vanguard Bank 45 ： Prince
tensions with the Consort Bank
United States in the 46：Grainger Bank 47：Alexandra Bank 48：Grainger Bank
South China Sea would 49：Alexandra Bank
be to sink one or two Malaysia 50：Swallow Reef 51：Ardasier Reef 52：Dallas
United States Navy Reef
aircraft carriers to 53：Erica Reef 54：Investigator Shoal 55：Mariveles Reef
break US
[43][44][45][46] Brunei 56：Louisa Reef
morale.
Also in December 2018, Chinese commentator and Senior
Colonel in the People's Liberation Army Air Force, Dai Xu
suggested that China's navy should ram United States Navy
ships sailing in the South China Sea.[43][47]

The US, although not a signatory to UNCLOS, has

maintained its position that its naval vessels have
consistently sailed unhindered through the South China
Sea and will continue to do so.[48] At times US warships
have come within the 12 nautical-mile limit of Chinese-
controlled islands (such as the Paracel Islands), arousing
China's ire.[49] During the US Chief of Naval Operations'
visit to China in early 2019, he and his Chinese counterpart
worked out rules of engagement, whenever American
warships and Chinese warships met up on the high seas.

On 26 June 2020, the 36th Association of Southeast Asian Island claims in the South China Sea
Nations (ASEAN) Summit was held virtually. Vietnam, as
the Chairman of the Summit, released the Chairman's
Statement. The Statement said the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea is "the basis for
determining maritime entitlements, sovereign rights,
jurisdiction and legitimate interests over maritime zones,
and the 1982 UNCLOS sets out the legal framework within
which all activities in the oceans and seas must be carried
out."[50]

Military maneuver
Map of various countries occupying the
It was reported by VOA on 27 August 2020 that a
Spratly Islands
U.S. defense official said that the People's Liberation Army
of China launched four medium-range ballistic missiles
from mainland China into an area of the South China Sea.[51]

In 2022, Vietnam demanded that Taiwan stop conducting its military drills at the Spratly Islands,
which is located within the South China Sea.[52]

2016 arbitration

In January 2013, the Philippines initiated arbitration proceedings against China (PRC) over issues
surrounding the nine-dash line, characterization of maritime features, and EEZ.[53][54][55][56][57]
On 12 July 2016, an arbitral tribunal ruled in favor of the Philippines on most of its submissions. It
clarified that it would not "rule on any question of sovereignty over land territory and would not
delimit any maritime boundary between the Parties" but concluded that China had not historically
exercised exclusive control within the nine-dash line, hence has "no legal basis" to claim "historic
rights" over the resources.[58] It also concluded that China's historic rights claims over the
maritime areas (as opposed to land masses and territorial waters) inside the nine-dash line would
have no lawful effect outside of what's entitled to under UNCLOS.[59] It criticized China's land
reclamation projects and its construction of artificial islands in the Spratly Islands, saying that it
had caused "severe harm to the coral reef environment".[60] Finally, it characterized Taiping Island
and other features of the Spratly Islands as "rocks" under UNCLOS, and therefore are not entitled
to a 200 nautical mile exclusive economic zone.[61] The arbitral tribunal decision was ruled as final
and non-appealable by either country.[62][63] China rejected the ruling, calling it "ill-founded".[64]
Taiwan, which currently administers Taiping Island, the largest of the Spratly Islands, also rejected
the ruling.[65] Eight governments have publicly called for the ruling to be respected, 35 have issued
generally positive statements noting the verdict but have stopped short of calling for the parties to
abide by it, and eight have publicly rejected it. The eight governments in support are Australia,
Canada, Germany, Japan, New Zealand, the Philippines, United Kingdom, and the United States;
the governments in opposition are China, Montenegro, Pakistan, Russia, Sudan, Syria, Taiwan,
and Vanuatu.[66][67] The United Nations itself does not have a position on the legal and procedural
merits of the case or on the disputed claims, and the Secretary-General expressed his hope that the
continued consultations on a Code of Conduct between ASEAN and China under the framework of
the Declaration of the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea will lead to increased mutual
understanding among all the parties.[68]

In March 2020, the Philippines expressed its concern about approximately 220 PRC militia vessels
in the disputed area.[69]

See also
Oceans portal

List of maritime features in the Spratly Islands

References
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Remco; Nordholt, Henk Schulte (eds.). Locating Southeast Asia: Geographies of Knowledge
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Further reading
Beckman, Robert; et al., eds. (2013). Beyond Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea:
Legal Frameworks for the Joint Development of Hydrocarbon Resources. Edward Elgar.
ISBN 978-1-78195-593-2.
 Francois-Xavier Bonnet, Geopolitics of Scarborough Shoal (https://web.archive.org/web/20150
427122724/http://www.irasec.com/ouvrage34,), Irasec Discussion Paper 14, November 2012
C. Michael Hogan (2011) South China Sea Topic ed. P. Saundry. Ed.-in-chief C.J. Cleveland.
Encyclopedia of Earth. National Council for Science and the Environment. Washington DC (htt
p://www.eoearth.org/article/South_China_Sea?topic=49523)
Clive Schofield et al., From Disputed Waters to Seas of Opportunity: Overcoming Barriers to
Maritime Cooperation in East and Southeast Asia (http://www.nbr.org/publications/element.asp
x?id=522) (July 2011)
UNEP (2007). Review of the Legal Aspects of Environmental Management in the South China
Sea and Gulf of Thailand (http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/19_-_Technical
_Publications_and_Guidelines/Technical_Publication_09_-_Review_of_the_Legal_Aspects_of
_Environmental_Management_in_the_South_China_Sea_and_Gulf_of_Thailand.html).
UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 9.
Wang, Gungwu (2003). The Nanhai Trade: Early Chinese Trade in the South China Sea.
Marshall Cavendish International. ISBN 9789812102416.
Keyan Zou (2005). Law of the sea in East Asia: issues and prospects (https://www.loc.gov/catd
ir/toc/ecip0420/2004016026.html). London/New York: Rutledge Curzon. ISBN 0-415-35074-3
United States. Congress. (2014). Maritime Sovereignty in the East and South China Seas:
Joint Hearing before the Subcommittee on Seapower and Projection Forces of the Committee
on Armed Services Meeting Jointly with the Subcommittee on Asia and the Pacific of the
Committee on Foreign Affairs (Serial No. 113-137), House of Representatives, One Hundred
Thirteenth Congress, Second Session, Hearing held January 14, 2014 (https://purl.fdlp.gov/GP
O/gpo50612)

External links
ASEAN and the South China Sea: Deepening Divisions (http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.as
px?id=262) Q&A with Ian J. Storey (July 2012)
Rising Tensions in the South China Sea (http://www.nbr.org/research/activity.aspx?id=151),
June 2011 Q&A with Ian J. Storey
News collections on The South China Sea (http://chinadigitaltimes.net/china/south-china-sea/)
on China Digital Times
The South China Sea on Google Earth (http://google-latlong.blogspot.com/2008/02/south-china
-sea-project.html) - featured on Google Earth's Official Blog
South China Sea Virtual Library (http://community.middlebury.edu/~scs/) - online resource for
students, scholars and policy-makers interested in South China Sea regional development,
environment, and security issues.
Energy Information Administration - The South China Sea (https://web.archive.org/web/201010
30031639/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/South_China_Sea/Background.html)
Tropical Research and Conservation Centre - The South China Sea (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20080522024651/http://www.tracc.org.my/Borneocoast/biogeography/SOUTH_CHINA_SE
A.html)
Weekly Piracy Report (https://web.archive.org/web/20041206223201/http://www.iccwbo.org/cc
s/imb_piracy/weekly_piracy_report.asp)
Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand (htt
p://www.unepscs.org/)
UNEP/GEF South China Sea Knowledge Documents (http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Document
s/Download/14_-_South_China_Sea_Project_Knowledge_Documents.html)
Audio (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uh0CzIyg2Lc) Radio communication between
United States Navy Boeing P-8A Poseidon aircraft operating under international law and the
Chinese Navy warnings.
A 1775 Chart of the China Sea | Southeast Asia Digital Library (https://sea.lib.niu.edu/seadl/isla
ndora/object/seadl%3A35)
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