Chiang Kai-shek

Chiang Kai-shek[a] (31 October 1887 – 5 April 1975)

Generalissimo
was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and military
leader who served as the leader of the Republic of China
Chiang Kai-shek
(ROC) and the Generalissimo of the National ONG OBSWS OST OBJ OPC OCB OBS HSAL
Revolutionary Army. He held these positions in mainland 蔣中正
China from 1928 until 1949, when his nationalist 蔣介石
Kuomintang (KMT) party was defeated in the Chinese
Civil War by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP)—
thereafter, he led the remnant of the ROC government on
the island of Taiwan until his death.

Born in Zhejiang, Chiang was a member of the

Kuomintang, and a lieutenant of Sun Yat-sen in the
revolution to overthrow the Beiyang government and
reunify China. With help from the Soviets and the Chinese
Communist Party, Chiang organized the military for Sun's
Canton Nationalist Government and headed the
Whampoa Military Academy. As commander-in-chief of
the National Revolutionary Army, he led the Northern
Expedition from 1926 to 1928, before defeating a coalition
of warlords and nominally reunifying China under a new
nationalist government. Midway through the Northern
Expedition, the KMT–CCP alliance broke down and Wartime portrait, 1943
Chiang massacred communists and KMT leftists inside Chairman of the National Government of
the party, triggering a civil war with the CCP, which he China
eventually lost in 1949. In office
10 October 1943 – 20 May 1948
As the leader of the Republic of China during the Nanjing
decade, Chiang sought to strike a difficult balance Acting: 1 August 1943 – 10 October 1943
between modernizing China, while also devoting Premier T. V. Soong
resources to defending the nation against the CCP, Vice Chairman Sun Fo
warlords, and the impending Japanese threat. Trying to
avoid a war with Japan while hostilities with the CCP Preceded by Lin Sen
continued, he was kidnapped in the Xi'an Incident, and Succeeded by Position abolished (himself
obliged to form an Anti-Japanese United Front with the as President of the Republic
CCP. Following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident in 1937, of China)
he mobilized China for the Second Sino-Japanese War.
For eight years, he led the war of resistance against a In office
vastly superior enemy, mostly from the wartime capital 10 October 1928 – 15 December 1931
Chongqing. As the leader of a major Allied power, Chiang Premier Tan Yankai
met with British prime minister Winston Churchill and T. V. Soong
American president Franklin D. Roosevelt in the Cairo
Preceded by Tan Yankai
Conference to discuss terms for the Japanese surrender.
When the Second World War ended, the civil war with the Succeeded by Lin Sen
communists (by then led by Mao Zedong) resumed. 1st President of the Republic of China
Chiang's nationalists were mostly defeated in a few In office
decisive battles in 1948. In 1949, Chiang's government
1 March 1950 – 5 April 1975
and army retreated to the island of Taiwan, where Chiang
imposed martial law and persecuted critics during the Premier Yan Xishan
White Terror. Presiding over a period of social reforms Chen Cheng
and economic prosperity, Chiang won five elections to six- Yu Hung-Chun
year terms as President of the Republic of China in which
he faced minimal opposition or was elected unopposed. Yen Chia-kan
Three years into his fifth term as president, and one year Chiang Ching-kuo
before the death of Mao, he died in 1975. He also held the
Vice President Li Zongren
position of director-general within the Kuomintang until
Chen Cheng
his death. Chiang was one of the longest-serving non-
royal heads of state in the 20th century and the longest- Yen Chia-kan
serving non-royal ruler of China, having held the post for Preceded by Li Zongren (acting)
46 years. Succeeded by Yen Chia-kan
Like Mao, Chiang is regarded as a controversial figure. In office
Supporters credit him with playing a major part in 20 May 1948 – 21 January 1949
unifying the nation, leading the Chinese resistance against Premier Chang Chun
Japan, and countering CCP influence and economic Wong Wen-hao
development in both mainland China and Taiwan.
Sun Fo
Detractors and critics denounce him as a brutal dictator at
the front of a corrupt authoritarian regime that massacred Vice President Li Zongren
civilians and suppressed political dissents, and often Preceded by Position established
accuse him of being a fascist. He is also criticized for (himself as Chairman of the
flooding the Yellow River, a move that subsequently
Nationalist government)
caused the Henan Famine during the Second Sino-
Japanese War. Other historians argued that despite his Succeeded by Li Zongren (acting)
many faults, Chiang's ideology notably differs from other Premier of the Republic of China
right-wing dictators of the 20th century, and he did not In office
genuinely espouse the ideology of fascism. They argue
20 November 1939 – 31 May 1945
that Chiang made genuine efforts to improve mainland
China and Taiwan's economic and social conditions, such President Lin Sen
as improving women's rights and land reform. Chiang was Vice Premier H. H. Kung
also credited with transforming China from a semi-colony
Preceded by H. H. Kung
of various imperialist powers to an independent country
by amending the unequal treaties signed by previous Succeeded by T. V. Soong
governments, as well as moving various Chinese national In office
treasures and traditional Chinese artworks to the National 9 December 1935 – 1 January 1938
Palace Museum in Taipei during the 1949 retreat.
President Lin Sen
Vice Premier H. H. Kung
Names
Preceded by Wang Jingwei
Like many other Chinese historical figures, Chiang used Succeeded by H. H. Kung
several names throughout his life. The name inscribed in In office
the genealogical records of his family is Chiang Chou-t‘ai
4 December 1930 – 15 December 1931
(Chinese: 蔣 周 泰 ; pinyin: Jiǎng Zhōutài; Wade–Giles:
Chiang3 Chou1-t‘ai4). This so-called "register name" ( 譜 President Himself
名) is the one by which his extended relatives knew him, Vice Premier T. V. Soong
and the one he used in formal occasions, such as when he
Preceded by T. V. Soong
was married. In deference to tradition, family members
did not use the register name in conversation with people Succeeded by Chen Mingshu (acting)
outside of the family. The concept of a "real" or original Acting Premier of the Republic of China
name is/was not as clear-cut in China as it is in the In office
Western world. In honor of tradition, Chinese families
1 March 1947 – 18 April 1947
waited a number of years before officially naming their
children. In the meantime, they used a "milk name" ( 乳 President Himself
名), given to the infant shortly after his birth and known Vice Premier Weng Wenhao
only to the close family. So the name that Chiang received
Preceded by T. V. Soong
at birth was Chiang Jui-yüan[3] (Chinese: 蔣瑞元; pinyin:
Jiǎng Ruìyuán). Succeeded by Chang Chun
Chairman of the Kuomintang
In office
In 1903, the 16-year-old Chiang went to Ningbo as a 12 May 1936 – 1 April 1938
student, and chose a "school name" (學名). This was the Preceded by Hu Hanmin
formal name of a person, used by older people to address
him, and the one he would use the most in the first Succeeded by Himself as Director-General
decades of his life (as a person grew older, younger of the Kuomintang
generations would use one of the courtesy names instead). In office
Colloquially, the school name is called "big name" (大名), 6 July 1926 – 11 March 1927
whereas the "milk name" is known as the "small name"
Preceded by Zhang Renjie
( 小 名 ). The school name that Chiang chose for himself
was Zhiqing (Chinese: 志 清 ; Wade–Giles: Chih-ch‘ing, Succeeded by Woo Tsin-hang and Li
which means "purity of aspirations"). For the next fifteen Yuying
years or so, Chiang was known as Jiang Zhiqing (Wade– Director-General of the Kuomintang
Giles: Chiang Chi-ch‘ing). This is the name by which Sun
In office
Yat-sen knew him when Chiang joined the republicans in
Guangdong in the 1910s. 1 April 1938 – 5 April 1975
Deputy Wang Jingwei
In 1912, when Chiang was in Japan, he started to use the Chen Cheng
name Chiang Kai-shek (Chinese: 蔣 介 石 ; pinyin: Jiǎng
Preceded by Position established
Jièshí; Wade–Giles: Chiang3 Chieh4-shih2) as a pen name
for the articles that he published in a Chinese magazine he Succeeded by Chiang Ching-kuo (as
founded: Voice of the Army ( 軍 聲 ). Jieshi is the pinyin Chairman of the
romanization of this name, based on Standard Chinese, Kuomintang)
but the most recognized romanized rendering is Kai-shek Chairman of the Military Affairs Commission
which is in Cantonese[3] romanization. Because the
In office
Republic of China was based in Canton (a Cantonese-
speaking area, now known as Guangdong), Chiang (who 15 December 1931 – 31 May 1946
never spoke Cantonese but was a native Wu speaker) Preceded by Position established
became known by Westerners under the Cantonese Succeeded by Position abolished
romanization of his courtesy name, while the family name
as known in English seems to be the Mandarin Personal details
pronunciation of his Chinese family name, transliterated Born Chiang Jui-yüan (蔣瑞元)
in Wade–Giles. 31 October 1887
Xikou, Zhejiang, Qing
"Kai-shek"/"Jieshi" soon became Chiang's courtesy name
Empire
( 字 ). Some think the name was chosen from the classic
Chinese book the I Ching; "介于石"; '[he who is] firm as a Died 5 April 1975 (aged 87)
rock"', is the beginning of line 2 of Hexagram 16, " 豫 ". Taipei, Taiwan
Others note that the first character of his courtesy name is Resting place Cihu Mausoleum, Taoyuan,
also the first character of the courtesy name of his brother
Taiwan
and other male relatives on the same generational line,
while the second character of his courtesy name shi (石— Political party Kuomintang
meaning "stone") suggests the second character of his Spouses Mao Fumei
"register name" tai (泰—the famous Mount Tai). Courtesy ​
​(m. 1901; div. 1921)​
names in China often bore a connection with the personal
name of the person. As the courtesy name is the name Yao Yecheng
​
used by people of the same generation to address the ​(m. 1913⁠–⁠1927)​
person, Chiang soon became known under this new name. Chen Jieru
​
​(m. 1921⁠–⁠1927)​
Sometime in 1917 or 1918, as Chiang became close to Sun
Yat-sen, he changed his name from Jiang Zhiqing to Jiang Soong Mei-ling
​
Zhongzheng (Chinese: 蔣 中 正 ; pinyin: Jiǎng ​(m. 1927)​
Zhōngzhèng). By adopting the name Chung-cheng, he was Children Chiang Ching-kuo
choosing a name very similar to the name of Sun Yat-sen,
Chiang Wei-kuo (adopted)
who is known among Chinese as Zhongshan ( 中 山 —
meaning "central mountain"), thus establishing a link Alma mater Baoding Military Academy,
between the two. The meaning of uprightness, rectitude, Tokyo Shinbu Gakko
or orthodoxy, implied by his name, also positioned him as
the legitimate heir of Sun Yat-sen and his ideas. It was
readily accepted by members of the Kuomintang, and is Signature
the name under which Chiang is still commonly known in
Taiwan. Often the name is shortened to "Chung-cheng"
only. Many public places in Taiwan are named
Chungcheng after Chiang. For many years passengers
arriving at the Chiang Kai-shek International Airport were Nicknames "Generalissimo"[1]
greeted by signs in Chinese welcoming them to the "Red General"[2]
"Chung Cheng International Airport". Similarly, the "Big Gun"
monument erected to Chiang's memory in Taipei, known
in English as Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall, was named Military service
"Chung Cheng Memorial Hall" in Chinese. In Singapore, Allegiance Empire of Japan
Chung Cheng High School was named after him.
Republic of China
His name is also written in Taiwan as "The Late President Branch/service Imperial Japanese Army
Honorable Chiang" ( 先 總 統 蔣 公 ), where the one-
National Revolutionary Army
character-wide space in front of his name known as Nuo
tai shows respect. He is often called Honorable Chiang. Republic of China Army
Years of service 1909–1975
In this context, his surname "Chiang" in this article is
spelled using the Wade–Giles system of transliteration for Rank Generalissimo (特級上將)
Standard Chinese as opposed to Hanyu Pinyin[4] though Battles/wars Xinhai Revolution
the latter was adopted by the Republic of China
government in 2009 as its official romanization. Northern Expedition
Sino-Tibetan War

Early life Kumul Rebellion

Soviet invasion of Xinjiang
Chiang was born on 31 October 1887, in Xikou, a town in Chinese Civil War
Fenghua, Zhejiang, China,[5] about 30 kilometers (19 mi)
Second Sino-Japanese War
west of central Ningbo. He was born into a family of Wu
Chinese-speaking people with their ancestral home—a Kuomintang Islamic
concept important in Chinese society—in Heqiao, a town insurgency
in Yixing, Jiangsu, about 38 km (24 mi) southwest of
Chinese name
central Wuxi and 10 km (6.2 mi) from the shores of Lake
Tai. He was the third child and second son of his father Simplified Chinese 蒋介石
Chiang Chao-Tsung (also Chiang Su-an;[6] 1842–1895;[7] Transcriptions [show]
蔣 肇 聰 ) and the first child of his father's third[3] wife
Standard Mandarin
Wang Tsai-yu (1863–1921;[6] 王采玉) who were members
of a prosperous family of salt merchants. Chiang's father Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎng Jièshí
died when he was eight, and he wrote of his mother as the Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jeang Jiehshyr
"embodiment of Confucian virtues". The young Chiang
Wade–Giles Chiang³ Chieh⁴-shih²
was inspired throughout his youth by the realization that
the reputation of an honored family rested upon his Tongyong Pinyin Jiǎng Jièshíh
shoulders. He was a naughty child.[8] At a young age he IPA [tɕjàŋ tɕjê.ʂɻ̩̌ ] ⓘ

was interested in the military.[9] As he grew older, Chiang Wu

became more aware of the issues that surrounded him
Shanghainese tɕiã˧˥ ka˧˥ zàʔ˨˧ Tsian Ka
and in his speech to the Kuomintang in 1945 said:
Romanization Zah
Yue: Cantonese
As you all know I was an orphan boy in a poor
Yale Romanization Jéung Gaai-sehk
family. Deprived of any protection after the
death of her husband, my mother was exposed Jyutping Zoeng2 Gaai3-sek6
to the most ruthless exploitation by Hong Kong Cheung Kai-shek
neighbouring ruffians and the local gentry. Romanisation
The efforts she made in fighting against the
intrigues of these family intruders certainly IPA [tsœːŋ˧˥ kaːi˧.sɛːk̚ ˨]
endowed her child, brought up in such an Southern Min
environment, with an indomitable spirit to Hokkien POJ Chiúⁿ Kài-se̍ k
 fight for justice. I felt throughout my Register name
childhood that my mother and I were fighting
Traditional Chinese 蔣周泰
a helpless lone war. We were alone in a desert,
with no available or possible assistance could Simplified Chinese 蒋周泰
we look forward to. But our determination was
Transcriptions [show]
never shaken, nor was hope abandoned.[10]
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎng Zhōutài
In early 1906, Chiang cut off his queue, the required
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jeang Joutay
hairstyle of men during the Qing dynasty, and had it sent
home from school, shocking the people in his Wade–Giles Chiang³ Chou¹-tʻai⁴
hometown.[11] IPA [tɕjàŋ ʈʂóʊ.tʰâɪ]
Wu
Education in Japan Shanghainese tɕiã˧˥ tsɤ˥˨ tʰa˧˥ Tsian Tseu Tha
Romanization
Chiang grew up at a
Yue: Cantonese
time in which military
defeats, natural Jyutping Zoeng2 Zau1-taai3
disasters, famines, Southern Min
revolts, unequal
Hokkien POJ Chiúⁿ Chiu-thài
treaties and civil wars
had left the Manchu- Milk name
dominated Qing Traditional Chinese 蔣瑞元
dynasty destabilized
and in debt. Simplified Chinese 蒋瑞元
Successive demands of Transcriptions [show]
the Western powers Standard Mandarin
and Japan since the
Opium War had left Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎng Ruìyuán
China owing millions Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jeang Ruey'yuan
of taels of silver. Wade–Giles Chiang³ Jui⁴-yüan²
During his first visit to
Chiang in 1907 IPA [tɕjàŋ ɻwêɪ.ɥɛ̌ n]
Japan to pursue a
military career from Wu
April 1906 to later that Shanghainese tɕiã˧˥ zø˩˧ɲyø˩˧ Tsian Zoe Yoe
year, he describes himself as having strong nationalistic Romanization
feelings with a desire, among other things, to 'expel the
Yue: Cantonese
Manchu Qing and to restore China'.[12] In a 1969 speech,
Chiang related a story about his boat trip to Japan at Jyutping Zoeng2 Seoi6-jyun4
nineteen years old. Another passenger on the ship, a Southern Min
Chinese fellow student who was in the habit of spitting on
Hokkien POJ Chiúⁿ Sūi-gôan
the floor, was chided by a Chinese sailor who said that
Japanese people did not spit on the floor, but instead School name
would spit into a handkerchief. Chiang used the story as Traditional Chinese 蔣志清
an example of how the common man in 1969 Taiwan had
not developed the spirit of public sanitation that Japan Simplified Chinese 蒋志清
had.[13] Chiang decided to pursue a military career. He
began his military training at the Baoding Military
Academy in 1906, the same year Japan left its bimetallic
currency standard, devaluing the Japanese yen. He left for
Tokyo Shinbu Gakko, a preparatory school for the
Imperial Japanese Army Academy intended for Chinese
students, in 1907. There, he came under the influence of
compatriots to support the revolutionary movement to
overthrow the Manchu-dominated Qing dynasty and to
set up a Han-dominated Chinese republic. He befriended
Chen Qimei, and in 1908 Chen brought Chiang into the
Tongmenghui, an important revolutionary brotherhood of Transcriptions [show]
the era. Finishing his military schooling at Tokyo Shinbu
Standard Mandarin
Gakko, Chiang served in the Imperial Japanese Army
from 1909 to 1911. Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎng Zhìqīng
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Jeang Jyhching
Returning to China Wade–Giles Chiang³ Chih⁴-chʻing¹
IPA [tɕjàŋ ʈʂɻ̩̂ .tɕʰíŋ]
After learning of the Wuchang uprising, Chiang returned Wu
to China in 1911, intending to fight as an artillery officer.
He served in the revolutionary forces, leading a regiment Shanghainese tɕiã˧˥ tsɨ˧˥ tɕʰiɲ˥˨ Tsian Tsy Tshin
in Shanghai under his friend and mentor Chen Qimei, as Romanization
one of Chen's chief lieutenants.[14] In early 1912 a dispute Yue: Cantonese
arose between Chen and Tao Chengzhang, an influential Jyutping Zoeng2 Zi3-cing1
member of the Revolutionary Alliance who opposed both
Sun Yat-sen and Chen. Tao sought to avoid escalating the Southern Min
quarrel by hiding in a hospital, but Chiang discovered him Hokkien POJ Chiúⁿ Chì-chheng
there. Chen dispatched assassins. Chiang may not have Adopted name
taken part in the assassination, but would later assume
responsibility to help Chen avoid trouble. Chen valued Traditional Chinese 蔣中正
Chiang despite Chiang's already legendary temper, Simplified Chinese 蒋中正
regarding such bellicosity as useful in a military leader.[15]
Transcriptions [show]
Chiang's friendship with Chen Qimei signaled an Standard Mandarin
association with Shanghai's criminal syndicate (the Green Hanyu Pinyin Jiǎng Zhōngzhèng
Gang headed by Du Yuesheng and Huang Jinrong).
Gwoyeu Jeang Jongjenq
During Chiang's time in Shanghai, the Shanghai
International Settlement police observed him and Romatzyh
eventually charged him with various felonies. These Wade–Giles Chiang³ Chung¹-chêng⁴
charges never resulted in a trial, and Chiang was never IPA [tɕjàŋ ʈʂʊ́ ŋ.ʈʂə̂ ŋ]
jailed.[16]
Wu
Chiang became a founding member of the Nationalist Shanghainese tɕiã˧˥ tsoŋ˥˨ tsəɲ˧˥ Tsian Tson
Party (a forerunner of the KMT) after the success Romanization Tsen
(February 1912) of the 1911 Revolution. After the takeover Yue: Cantonese
of the Republican government by Yuan Shikai and the
failed Second Revolution in 1913, Chiang, like his KMT Yale Jeung2 Jung1-Jing3
comrades, divided his time between exile in Japan and the Romanization
havens of the Shanghai International Settlement. In Jyutping Zoeng2 Zung1-zing3
Shanghai, Chiang cultivated ties with the city's
Southern Min
underworld gangs, which were dominated by the
notorious Green Gang and its leader Du Yuesheng. On 18 Hokkien POJ Chiúⁿ Tiong-chèng
May 1916 agents of Yuan Shikai assassinated Chen Qimei.
Chiang then succeeded Chen as leader of the Chinese Revolutionary Party in Shanghai. Sun Yat-sen's
political career reached its lowest point during this time—most of his old Revolutionary Alliance
comrades refused to join him in the exiled Chinese Revolutionary Party.[17]

Establishing the Kuomintang's position

In 1917, Sun Yat-sen moved his base of operations to Canton (now known as Guangzhou) and Chiang
joined him in 1918. At this time Sun remained largely sidelined; without arms or money, he was soon
expelled from Guangdong (Canton province) and exiled again to Shanghai. He was restored to
Guangdong with mercenary help in 1920. After his return to Guangdong, a rift developed between Sun,
who sought to militarily unify China under the KMT, and Guangdong Governor Chen Jiongming, who
wanted to implement a federalist system with Guangdong as a model province. On 16 June 1922 Ye Ju, a
general of Chen's whom Sun had attempted to exile, led an assault on Guangdong's Presidential
Palace.[18] Sun had already fled to the naval yard[19] and boarded the SS Haiqi,[20] but his wife narrowly
evaded shelling and rifle-fire as she fled.[21] They met on the SS Yongfeng, where Chiang joined them as
swiftly as he could return from Shanghai, where he was ritually mourning his mother's death.[22] For
about 50 days,[23] Chiang stayed with Sun, protecting and caring for him and earning his lasting trust.
They abandoned their attacks on Chen on 9 August, taking a British ship to Hong Kong[22] and traveling
to Shanghai by steamer.[23]

Sun regained control of

Guangdong in early 1923, again
with the help of mercenaries from
Yunnan and of the Comintern.
Undertaking a reform of the KMT,
he established a revolutionary
government aimed at unifying
China under the KMT. That same
year Sun sent Chiang to spend
three months in Moscow studying
Sun Yat-sen and Chiang at the 1924 the Soviet political and military
opening ceremonies for the Soviet- system. During his trip to Russia,
funded Whampoa Military Academy Chiang met Leon Trotsky and
other Soviet leaders, but quickly
came to the conclusion that the
Russian model of government was not suitable for China. Chiang later
sent his eldest son, Ching-Kuo, to study in Russia. After his father's Chiang in the early 1920s
split from the First United Front in 1927, Ching-Kuo was forced to
stay there, as a hostage, until 1937. Chiang wrote in his diary, "It is not
worth it to sacrifice the interest of the country for the sake of my son."[24][25] Chiang even refused to
negotiate a prisoner swap for his son in exchange for the Chinese Communist Party leader.[26] His
attitude remained consistent, and he continued to maintain, by 1937, that "I would rather have no
offspring than sacrifice our nation's interests." Chiang had absolutely no intention of ceasing the war
against the Communists.[27]

Chiang Kai-shek returned to Guangdong and in 1924 Sun appointed him Commandant of the Whampoa
Military Academy. Chiang resigned from the office after one month in disagreement with Sun's extremely
close cooperation with the Comintern, but returned at Sun's demand. The early years at Whampoa
allowed Chiang to cultivate a cadre of young officers loyal to both the KMT and himself.

Throughout his rise to power, Chiang also benefited from membership within the nationalist Tiandihui
fraternity, to which Sun Yat-sen also belonged, and which remained a source of support during his
leadership of the Kuomintang.[28]

Rising power
Sun Yat-sen died on 12 March 1925,[29] creating a power vacuum in
the Kuomintang. A contest ensued among Wang Jingwei, Liao
Zhongkai, and Hu Hanmin. In August, Liao was assassinated and Hu
was arrested for his connections to the murderers. Wang Jingwei, who
had succeeded Sun as chairman of the Guangdong regime, seemed
ascendant but was forced into exile by Chiang following the Canton
Coup. The SS Yongfeng, renamed the Zhongshan in Sun's honour,
had appeared off Changzhou,[30] the location of the Whampoa
Academy, on apparently-falsified orders[31] and amid a series of
unusual phone calls trying to ascertain Chiang's location.[32] He
initially considered fleeing Guangdong and even booked passage on a Chiang (right) together with Wang
Japanese steamer but then decided to use his military connections to Jingwei (left), 1926
declare martial law on 20 March 1926 and to crack down on
Communist and Soviet influence over the National Revolutionary
Army, the military academy, and the party.[31] The right wing of the party supported him, and Joseph
Stalin, anxious to maintain Soviet influence in the area, had his lieutenants agree to Chiang's demands[33]
on a reduced Communist presence in the KMT leadership in exchange for certain other concessions.[31]
The rapid replacement of leadership enabled Chiang to effectively end civilian oversight of the military
after 15 May, though his authority was somewhat limited[33] by the army's own regional composition and
divided loyalties.

On 5 June 1926, he was named commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army [NRA] [34] and,
on 27 July, he finally launched Sun's long-delayed Northern Expedition, aimed at conquering the
northern warlords and bringing China together under the KMT.

The NRA branched into three divisions: to the west was the returned Wang Jingwei, who led a column to
take Wuhan; Bai Chongxi's column went east to take Shanghai; Chiang himself led in the middle route,
planning to take Nanjing before pressing ahead to capture Beijing. However, in January 1927, Wang
Jingwei and his KMT leftist allies took the city of Wuhan amid much popular mobilization and fanfare.
Allied with a number of Chinese Communists and advised by Soviet agent Mikhail Borodin, Wang
declared the national government as having moved to Wuhan.

In 1927, when he was setting up the Nationalist government in Nanjing, he was preoccupied with "the
elevation of our leader Dr. Sun Yat-sen to the rank of 'Father of our Chinese Republic'. Dr. Sun worked for
40 years to lead our people in the Nationalist cause, and we cannot allow any other personality to usurp
this honored position". He asked Chen Guofu to purchase a photograph that had been taken in Japan
c. 1895 or 1898. It showed members of the Revive China Society with Yeung Ku-wan as president, in the
place of honor, and Sun, as secretary, on the back row, along with members of the Japanese Chapter of
the Revive China Society. When told that it was not for sale, Chiang offered a million dollars to recover
the photo and its negative, "The party must have this picture and the negative at any price. They must be
destroyed as soon as possible. It would be embarrassing to have our Father of the Chinese Republic
shown in a subordinate position".[35]

On 12 April 1927, Chiang carried out a purge of thousands of suspected Communists and dissidents in
Shanghai, and began large-scale massacres across the country collectively known as the "White Terror".
During April, more than 12,000 people were killed in Shanghai. The killings drove most Communists
from urban cities and into the rural countryside, where the KMT was less powerful.[36] In the year after
April 1927, over 300,000 people died across China in the anti-communist suppression campaigns,
executed by the KMT. One of the most famous quotes from Chiang (during that time) was, that he would
rather mistakenly kill 1,000 innocent people, than allow one Communist to escape.[37] Some estimates
claim the White Terror in China took millions of lives, most of them in rural areas. No concrete number
can be verified.[38] Chiang allowed Soviet agent and advisor Mikhail Borodin and Soviet general Vasily
Blücher (Galens) to "escape" to safety after the purge.[39]

The NRA formed by the KMT swept through southern and central China until it was checked in
Shandong, where confrontations with the Japanese garrison escalated into armed conflict. The conflicts
were collectively known as the Jinan incident of 1928.

Now with an established national government in Nanjing, and supported by conservative allies including
Hu Hanmin, Chiang's expulsion of the Communists and their Soviet advisers led to the beginning of the
Chinese Civil War. Wang Jingwei's National Government was weak militarily, and was soon ended by
Chiang with the support of a local warlord (Li Zongren of Guangxi). Eventually, Wang and his leftist party
surrendered to Chiang and joined him in Nanjing. However, the cracks between Chiang and Hu's
traditionally Right-Wing KMT faction, the Western Hills Group, began to show soon after the cleansing
against the communists, and Chiang later imprisoned Hu.

Though Chiang had consolidated the power of the KMT in Nanjing, it was still necessary to capture
Beijing to claim the legitimacy needed for international recognition. Beijing was taken in June 1928, from
an alliance of the warlords Feng Yuxiang and Yan Xishan. Yan Xishan moved in and captured Beiping on
behalf of his new allegiance after the death of Zhang Zuolin in 1928. His successor, Zhang Xueliang,
accepted the authority of the KMT leadership, and the Northern Expedition officially concluded,
completing Chiang's nominal unification of China and ending the Warlord Era.
After the Northern Expedition ended in 1928, Yan, Feng, Li Zongren and Zhang Fakui broke off relations
with Chiang shortly after a demilitarization conference in 1929, and together they formed an anti-Chiang
coalition to openly challenge the legitimacy of the Nanjing government. In the Central Plains War, they
were defeated.

Chiang made great efforts to gain recognition as the official successor of Sun Yat-sen. In a pairing of great
political significance, Chiang was Sun's brother-in-law. He had married Soong Mei-ling, the younger
sister of Soong Ching-ling, Sun's widow, on 1 December 1927. Originally rebuffed in the early 1920s,
Chiang managed to ingratiate himself to some degree with Soong Mei-ling's mother by first divorcing his
wife and concubines and promising to sincerely study the precepts of Christianity. He read the copy of the
Bible that May-ling had given him twice before making up his mind to become a Christian, and three
years after his marriage he was baptized in the Soong's Methodist church. Although some observers felt
that he adopted Christianity as a political move, studies of his recently opened diaries suggest that his
faith was strong and sincere and that he felt that Christianity reinforced Confucian moral teachings.[40]

Upon reaching Beijing, Chiang paid homage to Sun Yat-sen and had his body moved to the new capital of
Nanjing to be enshrined in a mausoleum, the Sun Yat-sen Mausoleum.

In the West and in the Soviet Union, Chiang Kai-shek was known as
the "Red General".[41] Movie theaters in the Soviet Union showed
newsreels and clips of Chiang. At Moscow, Sun Yat-sen University
portraits of Chiang were hung on the walls; and, in the Soviet May
Day parades that year, Chiang's portrait was to be carried along with
the portraits of Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, and other
Communist leaders.[42] The United States consulate and other
Westerners in Shanghai were concerned about the approach of "Red
General" Chiang as his army was seizing control of large areas of the
country in the Northern Expedition.[43][44] Chiang and Feng Yuxiang in 1928

Rule
Having gained control of China, Chiang's party remained surrounded
by defeated warlords who remained relatively autonomous within
their own regions. On 10 October 1928, Chiang was named director of
the State Council, the equivalent to President of the country, in
addition to his other titles.[45] As with his predecessor Sun Yat-sen,
the Western media dubbed him "generalissimo".[34]

According to Sun Yat-sen's plans, the KMT was to rebuild China in

three steps: military rule, political tutelage, and constitutional rule.
The ultimate goal of the KMT revolution was democracy, which was
not considered to be feasible in China's fragmented state. Since the
KMT had completed the first step of revolution through seizure of
power in 1928, Chiang's rule thus began a period of what his party
considered to be "political tutelage" in Sun Yat-sen's name. During
this so-called Republican Era, many features of a modern, functional
Chinese state emerged and developed.
Chiang during a visit to an air force
From 1928 to 1937, known as the Nanjing decade, various aspects of
base in 1945
foreign imperialism, concessions and privileges in China were
moderated by diplomacy.[46] The government acted to modernize the
legal and penal systems and attempted to stabilize prices, amortize debts, reform the banking and
currency systems, build railroads and highways, improve public health facilities, legislate against traffic in
narcotics, and augment industrial and agricultural production. Efforts were made to improve education
standards, and the national academy of sciences, Academia Sinica, was founded.[47] In an effort to unify
Chinese society, the New Life Movement was launched to encourage Confucian moral values and personal
discipline. Guoyu ("national language") was promoted as the official language, and the establishment of
communications facilities (including radio) was used to encourage a sense of Chinese nationalism in a
way that had not been possible when the nation lacked an effective central government. Under that
context, the Chinese Rural Reconstruction Movement was implemented by some social activists who
graduated as professors of the United States with tangible but limited progress in modernizing the tax,
infrastructural, economic, cultural, and educational equipment and the mechanisms of rural regions. The
social activists actively co-ordinated with the local governments in the towns and villages since the early
1930s. However, the policy was subsequently neglected and canceled by Chiang's government because of
rampant wars and the lack of resources after the Japanese War and the civil war.[48][49]

Despite being a conservative, Chiang supported modernization policies such as scientific advancement,
universal education, and women's rights. The Kuomintang supported women's suffrage and education
and the abolition of polygamy and foot binding. Under Chiang's leadership, the Republic of China
government also enacted a women's quota in the parliament, with reserved seats for women. During the
Nanjing Decade, average Chinese citizens received education that they had been denied by the dynasties.
That increased the literacy rate across China and also promoted the ideals of Tridemism of democracy,
republicanism, science, constitutionalism, and Chinese nationalism based on the Dang Guo of the
KMT.[50][51][52][53][54]

Any successes that the Nationalists achieved, however, were met with constant political and military
upheavals. Many of the urban areas were now under the control of the KMT, but much of the countryside
remained under the influence of weakened-but -undefeated warlords, landlords, and Communists.
Chiang often resolved issues of warlord obstinacy through military action, but such action was costly in
terms of men and material. The Central Plains War alone nearly bankrupted the Nationalist government
and caused almost 250,000 casualties on both sides. In 1931, Hu Hanmin, an old supporter of Chiang,
publicly voiced a popular concern that Chiang's position as both premier and president flew in the face of
the democratic ideals of the Nationalist government. Chiang had Hu put under house arrest, but Hu was
released after national condemnation. Hu then left Nanjing and supported a rival government in Canton.
The split resulted in a military conflict between Hu's Guangdong government and Chiang's Nationalist
government.

Throughout his rule, complete eradication of the Communists remained

Chiang's dream. After he had assembled his forces in Jiangxi, Chiang led
his armies against the newly established Chinese Soviet Republic. With
help from foreign military advisers such as Max Bauer and Alexander
von Falkenhausen, Chiang's Fifth Campaign finally surrounded the
Chinese Red Army in 1934.[55] The Communists, tipped off that a
Nationalist offensive was imminent, retreated in the Long March during
which Mao rose from a mere military official to the most influential
leader of the Chinese Communist Party.

Some academics and historians have classified Chiang's rule as

fascist.[56][57][58] The New Life Movement, initiated by Chiang, was
based upon Confucianism mixed with Christianity, nationalism, and
authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. Frederic
Wakeman argued that the New Life Movement was "Confucian
Chiang and Soong on the cover
fascism."[59] Chiang also sponsored the creation of the Blue Shirts of Time magazine, 26 October
Society, in conscious imitation of the Blackshirts in the Italian Fascist 1931
Party and the Sturmabteilung of the Nazi Party.[60] Its ideology was to
expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China and to
crush communism.[61] Close ties with Nazi Germany also gave the Nationalist government access to
German military and economic assistance during the mid-1930s. Mao once derogatorily compared
Chiang to Adolf Hitler, referring to him as the "Führer of China."[62] However, Chiang repeatedly
attacked his enemies such as the Empire of Japan as fascistic and ultra-militaristic.[63][64] Sino-German
relations rapidly deteriorated as Germany grew closer to Japan and almost completely broke down when
Japan launched a full-scale invasion of China in 1937, which Germany failed to mediate. However, China
did not declare war on Germany, Italy, or even Japan until after the attack on Pearl Harbor in December
1941.[65]
Chinese Communists and many conservative anti-communist writers have argued that Chiang was pro-
capitalist based on the alliance thesis (the alliance between Chiang and the capitalists to purge the
communist and the leftist elements in Shanghai, as well as in the resulting civil war). However, Chiang
also antagonized the capitalists of Shanghai by often attacking them and confiscating their capital and
assets for government use even while he denounced and fought against communists. Critics have called
that "bureaucratic capitalism."[66][67] Historian Parks M. Coble argues that the phrase "bureaucratic
capitalism" is too simplistic to adequately characterize this phenomenon. Instead, he says, the regime
weakened all social forces so that the government could pursue policies without being responsible nor
responsive to any outside political groups. By defeating any potential challenge to its power, government
officials could amass sizable fortunes. With that motive, Chiang cracked down pro-communist worker
and peasant organizations, as well as rich Shanghai capitalists. Chiang also continued the anti-capitalist
rhetoric of Sun Yat-sen and directed the Kuomintang media to attack the capitalists and capitalism
openly. He supported government-controlled industries instead. Coble says that the rhetoric had no
impact on governmental policy and that its use was to prevent the capitalists from claiming legitimacy
within the party or society and to control them and their wealth.[67]

Authority within the Nationalist government ultimately lay with Chiang.[68]: 43 All major policy changes
on military, diplomatic, or economic issues required his approval.[68]: 156 According to historian Odd
Arne Westad, "no other leader within the [KMT] had the authority to force through even the simplest
decisions.[68]: 156 The practical power of high-ranking officials like ministers or the head of the Executive
Yuan was more closely tied to their relationship with Chiang than with the formal authority of their
position.[68]: 43 Chiang created multiple layers of power in his administration which he sometimes played
off against each other to prevent individuals or cliques from gathering power that could oppose his
authority.[68]: 93–94

Contrary to the critique that Chiang was highly corrupt, he was not involved in corruption himself.[69]
However his wife, Soong Mei-ling ignored her family's involvement in corruption.[70] The Soong family
embezzled $20 million of the course of the 1930s and the 1940s when the Nationalist government's
revenues were less than $30 million per year.[71]: 40 The Soong family's eldest son, T.V. Soong, was the
Chinese premier finance minister, and the eldest daughter, Soong Ai-ling, was the wife of Kung Hsiang-
hsi, the wealthiest man in China. The second daughter, Soong Ching-ling, was the wife of Sun Yat-sen,
China's founding father. The youngest daughter, Soong Mei-ling, married Chiang in 1927, and following
the marriage, both families became intimately connected, which created the "Soong dynasty" and the
"Four Families." However, Soong was also credited for her campaign for women's rights in China,
including her attempts to improve the education, culture, and social benefits of Chinese women.[70]
Critics have said that the "Four Families" monopolized the regime and looted it.[66] The US sent
considerable aid to the Nationalist government but soon realized the widespread corruption. Military
supplies that were sent appeared on the black market. Significant sums of money that had been
transmitted through T. V. Soong, China's finance minister, soon disappeared. President Truman famously
referred to the Nationalist leaders, "They're thieves, every damn one of them." He also said, "They stole
$750 million out of the billions that we sent to Chiang. They stole it, and it's invested in real estate down
in São Paolo and some right here in New York."[72][73] Soong Mei-ling and Soong Ai-ling lived luxurious
lifestyles and held millions in property, clothes, art, and jewelry.[74] Soong Ai-ling and Soong Mei-ling
were also the two richest women in China.[75] Despite living a luxurious life for almost her entire life,
Soong Mei-ling left only a $120,000 inheritance, and the reason is that according to her niece, that she
donated most of her wealth when she was still alive.[76] Chiang, requiring support, tolerated corruption
with people in his inner circles, as well as high-ranking nationalist officials, but not of lower-ranking
officers. In 1934, he ordered seven military officers who embezzled state property to be shot. In another
case, several division commanders pleaded with Chiang to pardon a criminal officer, but as soon as the
division commanders had left, Chiang ordered him shot.[69] The deputy editor and chief reporter at the
Central Daily News, Lu Keng, made headline international news by exposing the corruption of two senior
officials, Kong Xiangxi (H. H. Kung) and T.V. Soong. Chiang then ordered a thorough investigation of the
Central Daily News to find the source. However, Lu, risked execution by refusing to comply and
protecting his journalists. Chiang wanting to avoid an international response and so jailed Lu
instead.[77][78] Chiang realized the widespread problems that corruption was creating and so he
undertook several anti-corruption campaigns before and after World War II with varying success. Before
the war, both campaigns, the Nanjing Decade Cleanup of 1927–1930 and the Wartime Reform Movement
of 1944–1947, failed. After the World War II and the Civil War, both campaigns, the Kuomintang
Reconstruction of 1950–1952 and the Governmental Rejuvenation of 1969–1973, succeeded.[79]

Chiang, who viewed all of the foreign great powers with suspicion, wrote in a letter that they "all have it in
their minds to promote the interests of their own respective countries at the cost of other nations" and
saw it as hypocritical for any of them to condemn one another's foreign policy.[80][81] He used diplomatic
persuasion on the United States, Nazi Germany, and the Soviet Union to regain lost Chinese territories, as
he viewed all foreign powers as imperialists that were attempting to exploit China.[82]

First phase of Chinese Civil War

During April 1931, Chiang Kai-shek attended a national

leadership conference in Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang and
General Ma Fuxiang during which Chiang and Zhang dauntlessly
upheld that Manchuria was part of China in the face of the
Japanese invasion.[83] After the Japanese invasion of Manchuria
in 1931, Chiang resigned as Chairman of the National
Government. He returned shortly afterward and adopted the
slogan "first internal pacification, then external resistance."
However, his policy of avoiding a frontal war against Japan and
prioritizing anti-communist suppression was widely unpopular Nationalist government of Nanjing, which
and provoked nationwide protests.[84] In 1932, while Chiang was nominally ruled over all of China in 1930s
seeking first to defeat the Communists, Japan launched an
advance on Shanghai and bombarded Nanjing. That disrupted
Chiang's offensives against the Communists for a time, but it was the northern factions of Hu Hanmin's
Guangdong government (notably the 19th Route Army) that primarily led the offensive against the
Japanese during the skirmish. Brought into the NRA immediately after the battle, the 19th Route Army's
career under Chiang would be cut short by being disbanded for demonstrating socialist tendencies.

In December 1936, Chiang flew to Xi'an to co-ordinate a major assault on the Red Army and the CPC,
which had retreated into Yan'an. However, Chiang's allied commander Zhang Xueliang, whose forces
were used in his attack and whose homeland of Manchuria had been recently invaded by the Japanese,
did not support the attack on the Communists. On 12 December, Zhang and several other Nationalist
generals, headed by Yang Hucheng of Shaanxi kidnapped Chiang for two weeks in what is known as the
Xi'an Incident. They forced Chiang into making a "Second United Front" with the Communists against
Japan. After releasing Chiang and returning to Nanjing with him, Zhang was placed under house arrest,
and the generals who had assisted him were executed. The Second United Front had a commitment by
Chiang that was nominal at best and was all but dissolved in 1941.

Second Sino-Japanese War

The Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in July 1937, and in August, Chiang sent 600,000 of his best-
trained and equipped soldiers to defend Shanghai. With over 200,000 Chinese casualties, Chiang lost the
political cream of his Whampoa-trained officers. Although Chiang lost militarily, the battle dispelled
Japan's claims that it could conquer China in three months and also demonstrated to the Western powers
that the Chinese would continue the fight. By December, the capital city of Nanjing had fallen to the
Japanese resulting in the Nanjing Massacre. Chiang moved the government inland first to Wuhan and
later to Chongqing.

Having lost most of China's economic and industrial centers, Chiang withdrew into the hinterlands,
stretched the Japanese supply lines, and bogged down Japanese soldiers in the vast Chinese interior. As
part of a policy of protracted resistance, Chiang authorized the use of scorched-earth tactics, which
resulted in many civilian deaths. During the Nationalists' retreat from Zhengzhou, the dams around the
city were deliberately destroyed by the National Revolutionary Army to delay
the Japanese advance, and the subsequent 1938 Yellow River flood killed
800,000[85] to one million people.[71]: 40 Four million Chinese were left
homeless.[71]: 40 Chiang and the KMT were slow to provide disaster
relief.[71]: 40

After heavy fighting, the Japanese occupied Wuhan in the fall of 1938, and
the Nationalists retreated farther inland to Chongqing. En route to
Chongqing, the Nationalist Army intentionally started the Changsha Fire as a
part of its scorched-earth policy. The fire destroyed much of the city, killed
20,000 civilians, and left hundreds of thousands of people homeless. An
organizational error (it was claimed) caused the fire to be started without any
warning to the residents of the city. The Nationalists eventually blamed three
local commanders for the fire and executed them. Newspapers across China After the outbreak of the
blamed the fire on (non-KMT) arsonists, but the blaze contributed to a Second Sino-Japanese
nationwide loss of support for the KMT.[86] War, The Young
Companion featured
In 1939, the Muslim leaders Isa Yusuf Alptekin and Ma Fuliang were sent by Chiang on its cover.
Chiang to several Middle Eastern countries, including Egypt, Turkey, and
Syria, to gain support for the war against Japan and to express his support
for Muslims.[87]

The Japanese, controlling the puppet state of Manchukuo and much of China's eastern seaboard,
appointed Wang Jingwei as a puppet ruler of the occupied Chinese territories around Nanjing. Wang
named himself President of the Executive Yuan and chairman, and he led a surprisingly large minority of
anti-Chiang and anti-Communist Chinese against his old comrades. He died in 1944, a year before the
end of World War II.

The Hui Xidaotang sect pledged allegiance to the Kuomintang after the party's rise to power, and Hui
general Bai Chongxi acquainted Chiang with the Xidaotang Juaozhu Ma Mingren in 1941 in
Chongqing.[88]

In 1942 Chiang went on tour in northwestern China in Xinjiang, Gansu, Ningxia, Shaanxi, and Qinghai,
where he met the Muslim Generals Ma Buqing and Ma Bufang.[89] He also met the Muslim Generals Ma
Hongbin and Ma Hongkui separately.

A border crisis erupted with Tibet in 1942. Under orders from

Chiang, Ma Bufang repaired Yushu Airport to prevent Tibetan
separatists from seeking independence.[90] Chiang also ordered
Ma Bufang to put his Muslim soldiers on alert for an invasion of
Tibet in 1942.[91] Ma Bufang complied and moved several
thousand troops to the Tibetan border.[92] Chiang also
threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment if they
worked with the Japanese. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan
Buddhist Tsang monastery in 1941.[93] He also constantly
attacked the Labrang Monastery.[94]

Chiang with Franklin D. Roosevelt and After the attack on Pearl Harbor and the opening of the Pacific
Winston Churchill in Cairo, Egypt, in War, China became one of the Allies. During and after World
November 1943 War II, Chiang and his American-educated wife, Soong Mei-
ling, known in the United States as "Madame Chiang", held the
support of the American "China Lobby", which saw in them the
hope of a Christian and democratic China. Chiang was even named the Supreme Commander of Allied
forces in the China war zone. He was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in 1942.[95]

General Joseph Stilwell, an American military advisor to Chiang during World War II, strongly criticized
Chiang and his generals for what Stilwell saw as their incompetence and corruption.[96] In 1944, the
United States Army Air Corps commenced Operation Matterhorn to bomb Japan's steel industry from
bases to be constructed in mainland China. That was meant to fulfill US President Franklin D. Roosevelt's
promise to Chiang to begin bombing operations against Japan by November 1944. However, Chiang's
subordinates refused to take air base construction seriously until enough capital had been delivered to
permit embezzlement on a massive scale. Stilwell estimated that at least half of the $100 million spent on
construction of air bases was embezzled by Nationalist party officials.[97]

The poor performance of Nationalist forces during the Japanese Ichigo campaign contributed to the view
that Chiang was incompetent.[68]: 3 Chiang argued that the United States, and Stillwell in particular, were
at fault for the failure because they had moved too many Chinese troops into the Burma campaign.[68]: 3

After the Japanese surrender, Chiang had to rely on the assistance of the United States in order to
transport his troops to regain control of occupied areas.[68]: 3 Non-Chinese found the behavior of these
troops and accompanying officials as undercutting Nationalist legitimacy, as Nationalist forces engaged
in a "botched liberation" characterized by corruption, looting, and inefficiency.[68]: 3

Chiang tried to balance the influence of the Soviets and the Americans in China during the war. He first
told the Americans that they would be welcome in talks between the Soviet Union and China and then
secretly told the Soviets that the Americans were unimportant and that their opinions would not be
considered. Chiang also used American support and military power in China against Soviet ambitions to
dominate the talks. That stopped the Soviets from taking full advantage of the situation in China by the
threat of American military action against them.[98]

Chiang's Nationalist government made laws on abortion in China more restrictive during the Second
Sino-Japanese War.[99] In 1945, Chiang adopted a eugenic population policy that was intended to
promote hybrid vigor by encouraging intermarriage between whites and Chinese to combine European
fair skin with superior Chinese intelligence.[99] Although adopted, the policy was never successfully
implemented.[99]

French Indochina

President Roosevelt, through General Stilwell, privately made it clear that he preferred for the French not
to reacquire French Indochina (now Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos) after the war was over. Roosevelt
offered Chiang control of all of Indochina. It was said that Chiang replied, "Under no circumstances!"[100]

After the war, 200,000 Chinese troops under General Lu Han were sent by Chiang to northern Indochina
(north of the 16th parallel) to accept the surrender of Japanese occupying forces there, and the Chinese
forces remained in Indochina until 1946, when the French returned.[101][102] The Chinese used the
VNQDD, the Vietnamese branch of the Kuomintang, to increase their influence in Indochina and to put
pressure on their opponents.[103] Chiang threatened the French with war in response to maneuvering by
the French and Ho Chi Minh's forces against each other and forced them to come to a peace agreement.
In February 1946, he also forced the French to surrender all of their concessions in China and to renounce
their extraterritorial privileges in exchange for the Chinese withdrawing from northern Indochina and
allowing French troops to reoccupy the region. After France's agreement to those demands, 20,000
French soldiers landed in Haiphong, North Vietnam, on March 6, 1946, under the leadership of general
Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque, followed by the withdrawal of Chinese troops which began in March
1946.[104][105][106][107]

Ryukyus
According to Republic of China's notes of a dinner meeting during the Cairo Conference in 1943,
Roosevelt asked Chiang whether China desired the Ryukyu Islands as territories restored from Japan.
Chiang said he would be agreeable to joint occupation and administration by China and the United
States.[108]

Second phase of Chinese Civil War

Treatment and use of Japanese soldiers

Because of Chiang's focus on his communist opponents, he allowed

some Japanese forces and forces from the Japanese puppet regimes to
remain on duty in occupied areas in an effort to prevent the
communists from accepting their surrender.[68]: 3

American troops and weapons soon bolstered the Nationalist forces,

which allowed them to reclaim the cities. The countryside, however,
remained largely under Communist control. Chiang implemented his
war-time phrase "repay evil with good" and made a huge effort to
protect elements of the Japanese invading army.[109] In 1949, a Chiang, Soong Mei-ling, and US
Nationalist court acquitted General Okamura Yasuji, the chief Lieutenant General Joseph W.
Stilwell in Burma, April 1942
commander of Japanese forces in China, of alleged war crimes,[109]
retaining him as an advisor.[110] Nationalist China repeatedly
intervened to protect Okamura from repeated American requests to testify at the Tokyo war crimes
trial.[109]

Many top Nationalist generals, including Chiang, had studied and trained in Japan before the
Nationalists had returned to the mainland in the 1920s and maintained close personal friendships with
top Japanese officers. The Japanese general in charge of all forces in China, General Okamura had
personally trained officers who later became generals in Chiang's staff. Reportedly, Chiang seriously
considered accepting this offer but declined only because he knew that the United States would certainly
be outraged by the gesture. Even so, armed Japanese troops remained in China well into 1947, with some
non-commissioned officers finding their way into the Nationalist officer corps.[111] The Japanese in China
came to regard Chiang as a magnanimous figure to whom many of them owed their lives and livelihoods;
that fact was attested by both Nationalist and Communist sources.[112]

Conditions during Chinese Civil War

Chiang did not de-mobilize his troops after the defeat of the Japanese,
instead remaining on a war footing to prepare for the resumption of
civil war against the Communists.[68]: 85 This further strained the
economy of Nationalist era China, worsening deficits.[68]: 84–85 A
significant body of evidence suggests that much of the Nationalist
military budget in this period was wasted.[68]: 86 One factor in
military budget waste included that troop counts were inflated above
actual head counts and that officers embezzled the salaries of the non-
existent soldiers.[68]: 86 Another was the power of military
commanders over local branches of the Bank of China, which they
could require to provide currency outside of the normal budget
process.[68]: 86–87 Chiang and Mao in 1945

Although Chiang had achieved status abroad as a world leader, his

government deteriorated as the result of corruption and hyperinflation. In his diary in June 1948, Chiang
wrote that the KMT had failed not because of external enemies but because of rot from within.[113] The
war had severely weakened the Nationalists, and the Communists were strengthened by their popular
land reform policies[114][115] and by a rural population that supported and trusted them. The Nationalists
initially had superiority in arms and men, but their lack of popularity, infiltration by Communist agents,
low morale, and disorganization soon allowed the Communists to gain the upper hand in the civil war.

After World War II, the United States encouraged peace talks between Chiang and the Communist leader,
Mao Zedong, in Chongqing. Concerns about widespread and well-documented corruption in Chiang's
government throughout his rule made the US government limit aid to Chiang for much of the period of
1946 to 1948 despite the fighting against Mao's Red Army. Alleged infiltration of the US government by
CCP agents may have also played a role in the suspension of American aid.[116]

Chiang's right-hand man, the secret police chief Dai Li, was anti-American and anti-Communist and a
self-declared fascist.[117] Dai ordered Kuomintang agents to spy on American officers.[118] Earlier, Dai had
been involved with the Blue Shirts Society, a fascist-inspired paramilitary group within the Kuomintang
that wanted to expel Western and Japanese imperialists, crush the Communists, and eliminate
feudalism.[119] Dai Li died in a plane crash, which some suspect to be an assassination orchestrated by
Chiang;[120] however, the assassination was also rumoured to have been arranged by the American Office
of Strategic Services because of Dai's anti-Americanism and since it happened on an American plane.[121]

Conflict with Li Zongren

A new constitution was promulgated in 1947, and Chiang was elected by the National Assembly as the
first President of the Republic of China on 20 May 1948. That marked the beginning of what was termed
the "democratic constitutional government" period by the KMT political orthodoxy, but the Communists
refused to recognize the new Constitution, and its government as legitimate. Chiang resigned as president
on 21 January 1949, as Nationalist forces suffered terrible losses and defections to the Communists. After
Chiang's resignation, vice-president Li Zongren became China's acting president.[122]

Shortly after Chiang's resignation, the Communists halted their advances and attempted to negotiate the
Nationalists' virtual surrender. Li tried to negotiate milder terms to end the civil war but had no success.
When it became clear that Li was unlikely to accept Mao's terms, the Communists issued an ultimatum in
April 1949 that warned that they would resume their attacks if Li did not agree within five days. Li
refused.[123]

Li's attempts to carry out his policies faced varying degrees of opposition from Chiang's supporters and
were generally unsuccessful. Taylor has noted that Chiang had a superstitious belief in holding
Manchuria. After the Nationalist military defeat in the province, Chiang lost faith in winning the war and
started to prepare for the retreat to Taiwan. Chiang especially antagonized Li by taking possession of and
moving to Taiwan US$200 million of gold and US dollars that belonged to the central government. Li
desperately needed them to cover the government's soaring expenses. When the Communists captured
the Nationalist capital of Nanjing in April 1949, Li refused to accompany the central government as it fled
to Guangdong and instead expressed his dissatisfaction with Chiang by retiring to Guangxi.[124]

The former warlord Yan Xishan, who had fled to Nanjing only one
month earlier, quickly insinuated himself within the Li-Chiang
rivalry and attempted to have Li and Chiang reconcile their
differences in the effort to resist the Communists. At Chiang's
request, Yan visited Li to convince Li not to withdraw from public
life. Yan broke down in tears while he talked of the loss of his home
province of Shanxi to the Communists, and he warned Li that the
Nationalist cause was doomed unless Li went to Guangdong. Li
agreed to return if Chiang surrendered most of the gold and US
dollars in his possession that belonged to the central government, Chiang with South Korean President
Syngman Rhee in 1949
and Chiang stopped overriding Li's authority. After Yan
communicated those demands and Chiang agreed to comply with
them, Li departed for Guangdong.[124]
In Guangdong, Li attempted to create a new government composed of both supporters and opponents of
Chiang. Li's first choice of premier was Chu Cheng, a veteran member of the Kuomintang who had been
virtually driven into exile for his strong opposition to Chiang. After the Legislative Yuan jas rejected Chu,
Li was obliged to choose Yan Xishan instead. By then, Yan was well known for his adaptability, and
Chiang welcomed his appointment.[124]

The conflict between Chiang and Li persisted. Although he had agreed to do so as a prerequisite of Li's
return, Chiang refused to surrender more than a fraction of the wealth that he had sent to Taiwan.
Without being backed by gold or foreign currency, the money that was issued by Li and Yan quickly
declined in value until it became virtually worthless.[125] Although he did not hold a formal executive
position in the government, Chiang continued to issue orders to the army, and many officers continued to
obey Chiang, rather than Li. The inability of Li to co-ordinate KMT military forces led him to put into
effect a plan of defense that he had contemplated in 1948. Instead of attempting to defend all of southern
China, Li ordered what remained of the Nationalist armies to withdraw to Guangxi and Guangdong. He
hoped that he could concentrate all available defenses on the smaller area, which would be more easily
defensible. The object of Li's strategy was to maintain a foothold on the Chinese mainland in the hope
that the United States would eventually be compelled to enter the war in China on the Nationalist
side.[125]

Final Communist advance

Chiang opposed Li's plan of defense because it would have placed

most of the troops who were still loyal to Chiang under the control of
Li and Chiang's other opponents in the central government. To
overcome Chiang's intransigence Li began ousting Chiang's
supporters within the central government. Yan Xishan continued in
his attempts to work with both sides, which created the impression
among Li's supporters that he was a stooge of Chiang, and those who
supported Chiang began to bitterly resent Yan for his willingness to
work with Li. Because of the rivalry between Chiang and Li, Chiang
refused to allow Nationalist troops loyal to him to aid in the defense of
Guangxi and Canton. That let Communist forces occupy Canton in Map of the Chinese Civil War
(1946–1950)
October 1949.[126]

After Canton fell to the Communists, Chiang relocated the

government to Chongqing, and Li effectively surrendered his powers and flew to New York for treatment
of his chronic duodenum illness at the Hospital of Columbia University. Li visited President Truman, and
denounced Chiang as a dictator and an usurper. Li vowed that he would "return to crush" Chiang once he
returned to China. Li remained in exile and did not return to Taiwan.[127]

In the early morning of 10 December 1949, Communist troops laid siege to Chengdu, the last KMT-
controlled city in mainland China, where Chiang Kai-shek and his son Chiang Ching-kuo directed the
defense at the Chengtu Central Military Academy. Flying out of Chengdu Fenghuangshan Airport, father
and son were evacuated to Taiwan via Guangdong on the aircraft May-ling and arrived the same day.
Chiang Kai-shek would never return to the mainland.[128]

Historian Odd Arne Westad says the Communists won the Civil War because they made fewer military
mistakes than Chiang had. Also, his search for a powerful centralized government made Chiang
antagonize too many interest groups in China. Furthermore, his party was weakened by the war against
Japan. Meanwhile, the Communists told different groups, such as peasants, exactly what they wanted to
hear and cloaked themselves in the cover of Chinese nationalism.[129]
Chiang did not reassume the presidency until 1 March 1950. In January 1952, Chiang commanded the
Control Yuan, now in Taiwan, to impeach Li in the "Case of Li Zongren's Failure to carry out Duties due to
Illegal Conduct" (李宗仁違法失職案). Chiang relieved Li of the position as vice-president of the National
Assembly in March 1954.

In Taiwan

Preparations to retake the mainland

Chiang moved the government to Taipei, Taiwan, where he resumed his duties as president on 1 March
1950.[130] Chiang was re-elected by the National Assembly to be the President of the Republic of China on
20 May 1954, and again in 1960, 1966, and 1972. He continued to claim sovereignty over all of China,
including the territories held by his government and the People's Republic, as well as territory the latter
ceded to foreign governments, such as Tuva and Outer Mongolia. In the context of the Cold War, most of
the Western world recognized that position, and the ROC represented China in the United Nations and
other international organizations until the 1970s.

During his presidency on Taiwan, Chiang continued making

preparations to take back mainland China. He developed the JROTC
army to prepare for an invasion of the mainland and to defend Taiwan
in case of an attack by the Communist forces. He also financed armed
groups in mainland China, such as Muslim soldiers of the ROC Army
Who had been left in Yunnan under Li Mi and continued to fight. It
was not until the 1980s that those troops were finally airlifted to
Taiwan.[131] He promoted the Uyghur Yulbars Khan to governor
during the Islamic insurgency on the mainland for resisting the
Communists even though the government had already evacuated to Chiang with Japanese politician
Taiwan.[132] He planned an invasion of the mainland in 1962.[133] In Nobusuke Kishi, in 1957
the 1950s, Chiang's airplanes dropped supplies to Kuomintang
Muslim insurgents in Qinghai, in the traditional Tibetan area of
Amdo.[134]

Regime in Taiwan

Despite an ostensibly democratic constitution, the government under Chiang was a de facto one-party
state, consisting almost completely of mainlanders; the "Temporary Provisions Effective During the
Period of Communist Rebellion" greatly enhanced the executive's powers, and the goal of retaking
mainland China allowed the KMT to maintain a monopoly on power and to prohibit real parliamentary
opposition. The government's official line for the martial law provisions stemmed from the claim that
emergency provisions were necessary since the Communists and the Nationalists were still in a state of
war. Seeking to promote Chinese nationalism, Chiang's government actively ignored and suppressed local
cultural expression and even forbade the use of local languages in mass media broadcasts or during class
sessions. As a result of Taiwan's anti-government uprising in 1947, known as the February 28 incident,
the KMT-led political repression resulted in the death or the disappearance of up to 30,000 Taiwanese
intellectuals, activists, and people suspected of opposition to the KMT.[135]

The first decades after the Nationalists had moved the seat of government to the province of Taiwan are
associated with the organized effort to resist Communism, which was known as the "White Terror"; about
140,000 Taiwanese were imprisoned for their real or perceived opposition to the Kuomintang.[136] Most
of those prosecuted were labeled by the Kuomintang as "bandit spies" (匪諜), meaning spies for Chinese
Communists, and punished as such or "Taiwanese Separatists" (台獨分子).[137]

Under the pretext that new elections could not be held in Communist-occupied constituencies, the
National Assembly, Legislative Yuan, and Control Yuan members held their posts indefinitely. The
Temporary Provisions also allowed Chiang to remain as president beyond the two-term limit in the
Constitution. He was re-elected by the National Assembly as president four times: in 1954, 1960, 1966,
and 1972.[138]

Believing that corruption and the lack of morals were key reasons that
the KMT had lost mainland China to the Communists, Chiang
attempted to purge corruption by dismissing members of the KMT
who were accused of graft. Some major figures in the previous
mainland Chinese government, such as Chiang's brothers-in-law H.
H. Kung and T.V. Soong, exiled themselves to the United States.
Although politically authoritarian and, to some extent, dominated by
government-owned industries, Chiang's new Taiwanese state also
encouraged economic development, especially in the export sector. A Chiang presiding over the 1966
popular sweeping Land Reform Act, as well as American foreign aid Double Ten celebrations
during the 1950s, laid the foundation for Taiwan's economic success
to become one of the Four Asian Tigers. After retreating to Taiwan,
Chiang learned from his mistakes and failures in the mainland and blamed them for failing to pursue Sun
Yat-sen's ideals of Tridemism and welfarism. Chiang's land reform more than doubled the land
ownership of Taiwanese farmers. It removed the rent burdens on them, with former landowners using the
government compensation to become the new capitalist class. He promoted a mixed economy of state and
private ownership with economic planning. Chiang also promoted a nine-year free education and the
importance of science in Taiwanese education and values. Those measures generated great success, with
consistent and strong growth and the stabilization of inflation.[139]

After the government of the Republic of China had moved to Taiwan, Chiang Kai-shek's economic policy
turned towards to economic liberalism and used Sho-Chieh Tsiang and other liberal economists to
promote economic liberalization reforms in Taiwan.[140]

However, Taylor has noted that the developmental model of Chiangism in Taiwan still had elements of
socialism, and the Gini index of Taiwan was around 0.28 by the 1970s, which was lower than the
relatively-egalitarian West Germany. ROC (Taiwan) was one of the most equal countries in the pro-
western bloc. Those in the lower 40% of income doubled their share to 22% of the total income, with the
upper 20% shrinking their share from 61% to 39%, from the time of Japanese rule.[115] The Chiangist
economic model can be seen as a form of dirigisme, with the state playing a crucial role in directing the
market economy. Small businesses and state-owned enterprises in Taiwan flourished under the economic
model, but the economy did not see the emergence of corporate monopolies, unlike in most other major
capitalist countries.

After the democratization of Taiwan, it began to slowly drift away from the Chiangist economic policy to
embrace a more free market system, as part of the economic globalization process under the context of
neoliberalism.[141]

Chiang had the personal power to review the rulings of all military tribunals, which during the martial law
period tried civilians as well. In 1950, Lin Pang-chun and two other men were arrested on charges of
financial crimes and sentenced to 3–10 years in prison. Chiang reviewed the sentences of all three and
ordered them executed instead. In 1954, the Changhua monk Kao Chih-te and two others were sentenced
to 12 years in prison for providing aid to accused communists. Chiang sentenced them to death after he
had reviewed the case. That control over the decision of military tribunals violated the ROC
constitution.[142]

After Chiang's death, the next president, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, and Chiang Ching-kuo's successor,
Lee Teng-hui, a native Taiwanese, would in the 1980s and 1990s increase native Taiwanese
representation in the government and loosen the many authoritarian controls of the early era of ROC
control in Taiwan, paving way for the democratization process.[143]

Relations with Japan

In 1971, the former Australian opposition leader Gough Whitlam became Prime Minister in 1972, and
swiftly relocated the Australian mission from Taipei to Beijing, visited Japan. After meeting with
Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Sato Whitlam observed that the reason that Japan was hesitant to
withdraw recognition from the Nationalist government was "the presence of a treaty between the
Japanese government and that of Chiang Kai-shek." Sato explained that the continued recognition of
Japan towards the Nationalist government was largely because of the personal relationship that various
members of the Japanese government felt towards Chiang. This relationship was rooted largely in the
generous and lenient treatment of Japanese prisoners-of-war by the Nationalist government in the years
immediately after the Japanese surrender in 1945, and was felt especially strongly as a bond of personal
obligation by the most senior members who were in power.[144]

Although Japan recognized the People's Republic in 1972, shortly after Kakuei Tanaka had succeeded
Sato as Prime Minister of Japan, the memory of the relationship was strong enough to be reported by The
New York Times (15 April 1978) as a significant factor inhibiting trade between Japan and the mainland.
There is speculation that a clash between Communist forces and a Japanese warship in 1978 was caused
by Chinese anger by Japanese Prime Minister Takeo Fukuda attending Chiang's funeral. Historically,
Japan's attempts to normalize its relationship with the People's Republic were met with accusations of
ingratitude in Taiwan.[144]

Relations with United States

Chiang was suspicious that covert operatives of the United States

were plotting a coup against him.

In 1950, Chiang Ching-kuo became director of the secret police

(Bureau of Investigation and Statistics), which he remained until
1965. Chiang Kai-shek was also suspicious of politicians who were
overly friendly to the United States and considered them his
enemies. In 1953, seven days after surviving an assassination
attempt, Wu Kuo-chen lost his position as governor of Taiwan
Province to Chiang Ching-kuo. After fleeing to United States the Chiang with US President Dwight D.
same year, Wu became a vocal critic of Chiang's family and Eisenhower in June 1960
government.[145]

Chiang Ching-kuo, who had been educated in the Soviet Union, initiated Soviet-style military
organization in the Republic of China Armed Forces. He reorganized and Sovietized the political officer
corps and propagated Kuomintang ideology throughout the military. Sun Li-jen, who had been educated
at the American Virginia Military Institute, opposed those practices.[146]

Chiang Ching-kuo orchestrated the controversial court-martial and arrest of General Sun Li-jen in August
1955 for plotting a coup d'état with the CIA against his father, Chiang Kai-shek, and the Kuomintang. The
CIA allegedly wanted to help Sun take control of Taiwan and declare its independence.[145][147]

Death
In 1975, 26 years after Chiang had come to Taiwan, he died in Taipei at the age of 87.[148][149] He had
suffered a heart attack and pneumonia in the foregoing months, and died from kidney failure aggravated
by advanced heart failure on 5 April. Chiang's funeral was held on 16 April.[150]

A month of mourning was declared. The Chinese music composer Hwang Yau-tai wrote the "Chiang Kai-
shek Memorial Song." In mainland China, however, Chiang's death was met with little apparent
mourning, and Communist state-run newspapers gave the brief headline "Chiang Kai-shek Has Died".
Chiang's body was put in a copper coffin and temporarily interred at his favorite residence in Cihu, Daxi,
Taoyuan. His funeral was attended by dignitaries from many nations, including US Vice President Nelson
Rockefeller, South Korean Prime Minister Kim Jong-pil, and two former Japanese prime ministers:
Nobusuke Kishi and Eisaku Sato. Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Day (蔣公逝世紀念日) was established on 5
April. The memorial day was disestablished in 2007.
The response by Japanese media was swift and shaped by a cult of
personality around Chiang Kai-shek. Japanese conservatives had
long promoted to counter the China policy and the historical
narratives of their leftist pro-PRC opponents. The nationalist
leader of Taiwan had been trained in Japanese military schools
and shared a particular fondness for the Japanese Empire.[151]

When his son, Chiang Ching-kuo, died in 1988, he was entombed

in a separate mausoleum in nearby Touliao. The hope was to have
both of them buried at their birthplace in Fenghua when that
The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial
would be possible. In 2004, Chiang Fang-liang, the widow of
Hall is a famous monument, landmark,
Chiang Ching-kuo, asked for both father and son to be buried at
and tourist attraction in Taipei, Taiwan.
Wuzhi Mountain Military Cemetery in Xizhi, Taipei County (now
New Taipei City). Chiang's ultimate funeral ceremony became a
political battle between the wishes of the state and those of his family.

Chiang was succeeded as president by Vice President Yen Chia-kan and as Kuomintang party ruler by his
son Chiang Ching-kuo, who retired Chiang Kai-shek's title of Director-General and instead assumed the
position of chairman. Yen's presidency was interim; Chiang Ching-kuo, who was the Premier, became
president after the end of Yen's term three years later.

Cult of personality
Chiang's portrait hung over Tiananmen Square until 1949, when it
was replaced with Mao's portrait.[152] Portraits of Chiang were
common in private homes and in public on the streets.[153][154][155]
After his death, the Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song was written in
1988 to commemorate Chiang Kai-shek. In Cihu, there are several
statues of Chiang Kai-shek.

Chiang was popular among many people and dressed in plain, simple
clothes, unlike contemporary Chinese warlords who dressed
extravagantly.[156] Chiang's portrait in Tiananmen
Rostrum
Quotes from the Quran and hadith were used by Muslims in the
Kuomintang-controlled Muslim publication, the
Yuehua, to justify Chiang Kai-shek's rule over China.[157]
When the Muslim general and warlord Ma Lin was
interviewed, he was described as having "high admiration for
and unwavering loyalty to Chiang Kai-shek".[158]

Philosophy

A Chinese
The Kuomintang used traditional Chinese religious
stamp with
ceremonies, and promulgated martyrdom. Kuomintang
Chiang Kai-
ideology subserved and promulgated the view that the souls
shek of Party martyrs who died fighting for the Kuomintang, the
revolution, and the party founder Sun Yat-sen were sent to Chinese propaganda
heaven. Chiang Kai-shek believed that these martyrs poster proclaiming
witnessed events on Earth from heaven after their deaths.[159][160][161][162] "Long Live the
President"
Unlike Sun's original Tridemist ideology that was heavily influenced by Western
enlightenment theorists such as Henry George, Abraham Lincoln, Bertrand
Russell, and John Stuart Mill,[163] the traditional Chinese Confucian influence on Chiang's ideology is
much stronger. Chiang rejected the Western progressive ideologies of individualism, liberalism, and the
cultural aspects of Marxism. Therefore, Chiang is generally more
culturally and socially conservative than Sun Yat-sen. Jay Taylor
has described Chiang Kai-shek as a revolutionary nationalist and
a "left-leaning Confucian-Jacobinist".

When the Northern Expedition was complete, Kuomintang

Generals led by Chiang Kai-shek paid tribute to Sun's soul in
heaven with a sacrificial ceremony at the Xiangshan Temple in
Beijing in July 1928. Among the Kuomintang Generals present
were the Muslim Generals Bai Chongxi and Ma Fuxiang.[164]
Chiang Kai-shek and Winston Churchill
Chiang Kai-shek considered both Han Chinese and all ethnic heads, with Nationalist China flag and
minorities of China, the Five Races Under One Union, as Union Jack
descendants of the Yellow Emperor, the mythical founder of the
Chinese nation, and belonging to the Chinese Nation Zhonghua
Minzu. He introduced this into Kuomintang ideology which was propagated into the educational system
of the Republic of China.[165][166][167]

Chiang, as a Chinese nationalist and a Confucian, was against the iconoclasm of the May Fourth
Movement. Motivated by his sense of nationalism, he viewed some Western ideas as foreign and believed
that the great introduction of Western ideas and literature, which the May Fourth Movement promoted,
was not beneficial to China. He and Sun criticized the May Fourth intellectuals as corrupting the morals
of China's youth.[168]

Chiang Kai-shek once said:

If when I die, I am still a dictator, I will certainly go down into the oblivion of all dictators. If,
on the other hand, I succeed in establishing a truly stable foundation for a democratic
government, I will live forever in every home in China.[169]

Contemporary perception
Chiang's legacy has been subjected to heated debates because of the
different views held about him. For some, Chiang was a national hero
who led the victorious Northern Expedition against the Beiyang warlords
in 1927 and helped achieve Chinese unification. His initial image as the
leader of China against Japan's invasion, both before and after the attack
on Pearl Harbor, led him to be featured on the cover of Time magazine
ten times. Even though China received little American aid compared to
Britain and the Soviet Union, it did not fold, as Chiang called on his
countrymen to fight to the "bitter end" until their ultimate victory Statue of Chiang Kai-shek in
against Japan in 1945.[170] Yangmingshan National Park,
Taiwan
Some also see him as a champion of anti-communism, being a key figure
during the formative years of the World Anti-Communist League. During
the subsequent Cold War, he was seen as the leader who led Free China and the bulwark against a
possible communist invasion. However, historian Rudolph Rummel documented that the Nationalist
government under Chiang led to millions of excess deaths from calamities such as its persecution against
actual or perceived communists and its conscription of soldiers, confiscation of food, and flooding of
downstream regions of the Yellow River during the Second Sino-Japanese War.[171] His government was
also accused of being corrupt and allying with known criminals such as Du Yuesheng for political and
financial gains, and his critics often accuse him of fascism.[57] In Taiwan, he ruled throughout a period of
martial law. Some opponents charge that Chiang's efforts in developing the island were mostly to turn it
into a strong base from which to recover mainland China and that he had little regard for the Taiwanese
people.
Unlike Chiang's son Chiang Ching-kuo, who is respected across the political spectrum, Chiang Kai-shek's
image is perceived rather negatively in Taiwan. He was rated the lowest in two opinion polls about the
perception of former presidents.[172][173] His popularity in Taiwan is divided along political lines,
enjoying better support in the Kuomintang (KMT) while being widely unpopular among Democratic
Progressive Party (DPP) voters and those who blame him for the thousands killed during the February 28
Incident and criticise his dictatorial rule.[174]

In contrast, his image has partially improved in mainland China. He had been portrayed as a villain and a
"bourgeoisie reactionary lackey" who fought against the "liberation" of China by the communists, but
since the 2000s, the media and popular culture have depicted him in a less negative manner.[175][176] For
example, many praised the 2009 movie sponsored by the Chinese Communist Party, The Founding of a
Republic, for moving away from casting Chiang as 'evil' versus Mao and emphasizing instead that the
contingencies of war led the communists to victory.[177] In the context of the Second Sino-Japanese War,
aspects of Chiang's trip to India, or meeting with Roosevelt and Churchill in Cairo can be viewed
positively.[68]: 4 The shift also takes into account Chiang's commitment to a unified China and his stance
against Taiwanese separatism.[178] Chiang's ancestral home in Fenghua, Zhejiang, has become a museum
and tourist attraction.[179] Historian Rana Mitter notes that the displays inside were very positive about
Chiang's role during the Second Sino-Japanese War.[176][180]

Mitter further observed that, ironically, today's China is closer to Chiang's vision than to Mao's and wrote,
"One can imagine Chiang Kai-shek's ghost wandering round China today nodding in approval, while
Mao's ghost follows behind him, moaning at the destruction of his vision".[181][182] Liang Shuming opined
that Chiang Kai-shek's "greatest contribution was to make the CCP successful. If he had been a bit more
trustworthy, if his character was somewhat better, the CCP would have been unable to beat him".[183]
Some Chinese historians argue that the main determinants for Chiang's defeat were not corruption or the
lack of US support, but his decision to start the civil war with 70% of government expenditures in the
military, his overestimation of the Nationalist forces equipped with US arms, and the loss of popularity
and morales of his soldiers.[184] Other historians argue that his failure was largely caused by external
factors outside of Chiang's control. They include the refusal of the Truman administration to support
Chiang by withdrawing aid, the foisting of an arms embargo by George C. Marshall, the failed pursuit of a
détente between the nationalists and the communists, the American push for a coalition government with
the CCP, and the USSR's consistent aid and support for the CCP during the civil war.[115][185][186][187]

In the United States and Europe, Chiang was often perceived negatively as the one who lost China to the
communists. His persistent demands for United States support and funding also prompted jokes from
American officials that Chiang's name was actually General "Cash-My-Check".[68]: 33 He has also been
criticized for his poor military skills, such as issuing unrealistic orders and persistently attempting to fight
unwinnable battles, leading to the loss of his best troops.[188] In recent years, Chiang's image has been
somewhat rehabilitated, and he has been increasingly perceived as a man overwhelmed by the events in
China, having to fight the communists, Japanese, and provincial warlords simultaneously while trying to
reconstruct and unify the country. His sincere, albeit often unsuccessful attempts to build a more
powerful and modern nation have been noted by scholars such as Jonathan Fenby, Rana Mitter, and
biographer Jay Taylor.[189]

Family

Wives

Mao Fumei (1882– Yao Yecheng (1889– Chen Jieru ("Jennie", Soong Mei-ling
1939), who died in 1972), who came to 1906–1971), who (1898–2003), who
the Second Sino- Taiwan and died in lived in Shanghai, but moved to the United
Japanese War during Taipei moved to Hong Kong States after Chiang
a bombardment, is later and died there Kai-shek's death, is
the mother of his son arguably his most
and successor famous wife even
Chiang Ching-kuo though they had no
children together

In 1901, in an arranged marriage at age 14,[190] Chiang was married to Mao Fumei, an illiterate villager
five years his senior.[191] While married to Mao, Chiang adopted two concubines (concubinage was still a
common practice for well-to-do, non-Christian males in China): he took Yao Yecheng ( 姚 冶 誠 , 1887–
1966) as concubine in late 1912[192] and married Chen Jieru (1906–1971)[193] in December 1921. While he
was still living in Shanghai, Chiang and Yao adopted a son, Wei-kuo Chen adopted a daughter in 1924,
named Yaoguang, who later adopted her mother's surname. Chen's autobiography refuted the idea that
she was a concubine.[194] Chen claiming that, by the time she married Chiang, he had already divorced
Yao, and that Chen was therefore his wife. Chiang and Mao had a son, Ching-kuo.

According to the memoirs of Chen Jieru, Chiang's second wife (Chen Jieru) contracted gonorrhea from
Chiang soon after their marriage. He told her that he acquired this disease after separating from his first
wife and living with his concubine Yao Yecheng, as well as with many other women he consorted with.
His doctor explained to her that Chiang had sex with her before completing his treatment for the disease.
As a result, both Chiang and Chen Jieru believed that they had become sterile; however, a purported
miscarriage by Soong Mei-ling in August 1928 would, if it actually occurred, cast serious doubt on
whether this was true.[43][195]

Family tree

The Xikou Chiangs were descended from Chiang Shih-chieh, who during the 1600s moved there from
Fenghua district, and whose ancestors in turn came to southeastern China's Zhejiang (Chekiang) province
after moving out of Northern China in the 13th century CE. The 12th century BCE Duke of Zhou's (Duke
of Chou) third son was the ancestors of the Chiangs.[196][197][198][199][200]

His great-grandfather was Chiang Qi-zeng, his grandfather was Chiang Si-qian, his uncle was Chiang
Zhao-hai, and his father was Chiang Zhao-cong.[201][202]
Duke of Zhou

Family of Chiang Kai-shek [hide]

Soong Mao Chiang Yao Chen Jieru

May‑ling Fumei Kai‑shek Yecheng
陳潔如
宋美齡 毛福梅 蔣介石 姚冶誠

Faina Chiang Chang Chiang Chen

Chiu
Chiang Ching- Ya‑juo Shih Chin‑i Wei‑kuo Yao‑kuang
Ju‑hsüeh
Fang‑liang kuo 章亞若 石靜宜 蔣緯國 陳瑶光
丘如雪
蔣方良 蔣經國 (mistress) (adopted) (adopted)

Alan Eddie Winston John

Amy Chiang Alex Chiang Chiang
Chiang Chiang Chang Chiang
Hsiao‑wen Hsiao‑chang Hsiao‑wu Hsiao‑yung Hsiao‑tzu Hsiao‑yen Hsiao‑kang
蔣孝章 蔣孝武 蔣孝剛
蔣孝文 蔣孝勇 章孝慈 蔣孝嚴

Nancy Xu Yu Wang Michelle Elizabeth Chao Helen Wang

Tsai Huang
Nai‑jin Yang‑ho Zhang‑shi Hui‑mei Fang Chi‑yi Chung‑te Mei‑lun Yi‑hui
徐乃錦 俞揚和 汪長詩 方智怡 趙申德 王倚惠
蔡惠媚 黃美倫

Theodore Yu Chang Chang Vivian Chiang Chiang

Chiang
Tsu‑sheng Ching‑sung Yo‑chu Hui‑yün Wan‑an
Hui‑lan
俞祖聲 章勁松 章友菊 蔣惠筠 蔣萬安
蔣惠蘭

Alexandra Johnathan Demos Edward Andrew

Chiang Chiang Chiang Chiang Chiang Chiang Chiang Chiang
Yo‑mei Yo‑chüan Yo‑chieh
Yo‑lan Yo‑sung Yo‑bo Yo‑chang Yo‑ching
蔣友梅 蔣友娟 蔣友捷
蔣友蘭 蔣友松 蔣友柏 蔣友常 蔣友青

Notes
a. traditional Chinese: 蔣介石; simplified Chinese: 蒋介石; pinyin: Jiǎng Jièshí; Cantonese Yale: Jéung Gaai-sehk
 Dashed lines represent marriages
Dotted lines represent extra-marital relationships and adoptions
Solid lines represent descendants
Sources

Religion and relationships with religious communities

Chiang personally dealt extensively with religions, power figures, and factions in China during his regime.

Religious views

Chiang Kai-shek was born and raised as a Buddhist, but became a Methodist upon his marriage to his
fourth wife, Soong Mei-ling. It was previously believed that this was a political move,[203] but further
studies of his personal diaries suggest that his faith was sincere.[40]

Relationship with Muslims

Chiang developed relationships with other generals. Chiang became a

sworn brother of the Chinese Muslim general Ma Fuxiang and
appointed him to high ranking positions. Chiang addressed Ma
Fuxiang's son Ma Hongkui as Shao Yun Shixiong[204] Ma Fuxiang
attended national leadership conferences with Chiang during battles
against Japan.[205] Ma Hongkui was eventually scapegoated for the
failure of the Ningxia Campaign against the Communists, so he
moved to the US instead of remaining in Taiwan with Chiang.
Chiang Kai-shek with the Muslim
When Chiang became President of China after the Northern General Ma Fushou
Expedition, he carved out Ningxia and Qinghai out of Gansu province,
and appointed Muslim generals as military governors of all three
provinces: Ma Hongkui, Ma Hongbin, and Ma Qi. The three Muslim governors, known as Xibei San Ma
(lit. "the three Mas of the Northwest"), controlled armies composed entirely of Muslims. Chiang called on
the three and their subordinates to wage war against the Soviet peoples, Tibetans, Communists, and the
Japanese. Chiang continued to appoint Muslims as governors of the three provinces, including Ma Lin
and Ma Fushou. Chiang's appointments, the first time that Muslims had been appointed as governors of
Gansu, increased the prestige of Muslim officials in northwestern China. The armies raised by this "Ma
Clique", most notably their Muslim cavalry, were incorporated into the KMT army. Chiang appointed Hui
general Bai Chongxi as the Minister of National Defence of the Republic of China, which controlled the
ROC military.

Chiang also supported the Muslim General Ma Zhongying, whom he had trained at Whampoa Military
Academy during the Kumul Rebellion, in a jihad against Jin Shuren, Sheng Shicai, and the Soviet Union
during the Soviet Invasion of Xinjiang. Chiang designated Ma's Muslim army as the 36th Division
(National Revolutionary Army) and gave his troops KMT flags and uniforms. Chiang then supported
Muslim General Ma Hushan against Sheng and the Soviet Union in the Xinjiang War (1937). All Muslim
generals commissioned by Chiang in the National Revolutionary Army swore allegiance to him. Several,
like Ma Shaowu and Ma Hushan were loyal to Chiang and Kuomintang hardliners.

The Ili Rebellion and Pei-ta-shan Incident plagued relations with the Soviet Union during Chiang's rule
and caused trouble with the Uyghurs. During the Ili Rebellion and Peitashan incident, Chiang deployed
Hui troops against Uyghur mobs in Turfan, and against Soviet Russian and Mongols at Peitashan.

During Chiang's rule, attacks on foreigners and ethnic minorities by the allied warlords of the Nationalist
government such as the Ma Clique flared up in several incidents. One of these was the Battle of Kashgar
where a Muslim army loyal to the Kuomintang massacred 4,500 Uyghurs, and killed several Britons at
the British consulate in Kashgar.[206]

Hu Songshan, a Muslim Imam, backed Chiang Kai-shek's regime and gave prayers for his government.
ROC flags were saluted by Muslims in Ningxia during prayer along with exhortations to nationalism
during Chiang's rule. Chiang sent Muslim students abroad to study at places like Al-Azhar University and
Muslim schools throughout China that taught loyalty to his regime.

The Yuehua, a Chinese Muslim publication, quoted the Quran and hadith to justify submitting to Chiang
Kai-shek as the leader of China, and as justification for Jihad in the war against Japan.[207]

The Yihewani (Ikhwan al Muslimun a.k.a. Muslim brotherhood) was the predominant Muslim sect
backed by the Chiang government during Chiang's regime. Other Muslim sects, like the Xidaotang and
Sufi brotherhoods like Jahriyya and Khuffiya were also supported by his regime. The Chinese Muslim
Association, a pro-Kuomintang and anti-Communist organization, was set up by Muslims working in his
regime. Salafists attempted to gain a foothold in China during his regime, but the Yihewani and Hanafi
Sunni Gedimu denounced the Salafis as radicals, engaged in fights against them, and declared them
heretics, forcing the Salafis to form a separate sect.[208][209][210][211] Ma Ching-chiang, a Muslim General,
served as an advisor to Chiang Kai-shek. Ma Buqing was another Muslim General who fled to Taiwan
along with Chiang. His government donated money to build the Taipei Grand Mosque on Taiwan.[212]

Relationship with Buddhists and Christians

Chiang had uneasy relations with the Tibetans. He fought against them in the Sino-Tibetan War, and he
supported the Muslim General Ma Bufang in his war against Tibetan rebels in Qinghai. Chiang ordered
Ma Bufang to prepare his Islamic army to invade Tibet several times, to deter Tibetan independence, and
threatened the Tibetans with aerial bombardment. Ma Bufang attacked the Tibetan Buddhist Tsang
monastery in 1941.[93] After the war, Chiang appointed Ma Bufang as ambassador to Saudi Arabia.

Chiang incorporated Methodist values into the New Life Movement under the influence of his wife.
Dancing and Western music were discouraged. In one incident, several youths splashed acid on people
wearing Western clothing, although Chiang was not directly responsible for these incidents. Despite being
a Methodist, he made reference to the Buddha in his diary, and encouraged the establishment of a
Buddhist political party under Master Taixu.

According to Jehovah's Witnesses' magazine The Watchtower, some of their members travelled to
Chongqing and spoke to him personally while distributing their literature there during World War II.[213]

Honours
Republic of China national honours

Order of National Glory

Order of Blue Sky and White Sun
Order of the Sacred Tripod
Order of Brilliant Jade
Order of Propitious Clouds
Order of the Cloud and Banner
Order of Brilliant Star
Honour Sabre of the Awakened Lion Chiang Kai-shek as
Knight of the Royal
Foreign honours Order of the Seraphim

Dominican Republic:
Order of Merit of Duarte, Sánchez and Mella (January 1940)
Order of Christopher Columbus (July 1948)
 Grand Cross of the Order of Christopher Columbus (October 1971)
Philippines:

Chief Commander of the Philippine Legion of Honor (1949)[214]

Grand Collar of the Ancient Order of Sikatuna (2 May 1960)[215]
United States:

Chief Commander of the Legion of Merit (9 July 1943)[216]

Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army) (March 1946)
South Korea: Order of Merit for National Foundation (27 November 1953)
Thailand: Order of the Rajamitrabhorn (5 June 1963)
Colombia: Order of Boyaca (October 1963)
United Kingdom: Order of the Bath (1941)
Peru: Order of the Sun of Peru (October 1944)
Czechoslovakia: Order of the White Lion (30 May 1945)
France: Legion of Honour (9 January 1945)
Chile: Order of Merit (Chile) (29 January 1944)
Mexico: Order of the Aztec Eagle (April 1945)
Greece: Order of the Redeemer (22 March 1957)
Jordan: Supreme Order of the Renaissance (9 March 1959)
Brazil: Order of the Southern Cross (1944)
Italy: Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus (April 1948)
Sweden: Royal Order of the Seraphim (4 June 1948)
Spain:
Order of Isabella the Catholic (May 1936)
Order of Civil Merit (1965)
Venezuela: Order of the Liberator (July 1954)
Vietnam (Nguyễn dynasty): Kim Khanh Medal (January 1960)
Belgium: Order of Leopold (Belgium) (4 June 1946)
Malawi: Order of the Lion (Malawi) (5 August 1967)
Bolivia: Order of the Condor of the Andes (March 1966)
Gambia: Order of the Republic of The Gambia (November 1972)
Argentina: Order of the Liberator General San Martín (October 1960)
Guatemala: Order of the Quetzal (7 December 1956)
Nicaragua:
National Order of Miguel Larreynaga (November 1974)
Order of Ruben Dario (October 1958)
Panama: Order of Vasco Núñez de Balboa (February 1960)
Paraguay: Collar of Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez Grade of National Order of Merit (May 1962)

Selected writings
Chiang, May-ling Soong; Chiang, Kai- (1937). General Chiang Kai-shek; the Account of the Fortnight
in Sian When the Fate of China Hung in the Balance (https://archive.org/details/generalchiangkai00ch
ia/page/n9/mode/2up). Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Doran. Includes foreword, by J. Leighton
Stuart.--What China has faced, by Mme. Chiang Kai-shek.--Sian: a coup d'e´tat, by Mme. Chiang Kai-
shek.--A fortnight in Sian: extracts from a diary, by Chiang Kai-shek.--The Generalissimo's admonition
to Chiang Hsueh-liang (sic: i.e. Zhang Xueliang) and Yang Hu-chen (sic: i.e. Yang Hucheng) prior to
his departure from Sian.--Names of Chinese persons and places mentioned in the story and diary.
———— (1947). China's Destiny. Translated by Wang Chung-hui. New York: The Macmillan
Company. Authorized translation of 中国之命运 (Zhongguo zhi mingyun) (1943). . Introduction by Lin
 Yutang.
———— (1947). Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Destiny and Chinese Economic Theory (https://archive.or
g/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.177765/page/n7/mode/2up). New York: Roy.. Unauthorized translation of 中
国之命运 (Zhongguo zhi mingyun) (1943) by Philip Jaffe, with his notes and extensive critical
commentary.
The Collected Wartime Messages Of Generalissimo Chiang Kai Shek (https://archive.org/details/colle
ctedwartime008681mbp) at Netarchive
——— (1957). Soviet Russia in China; a Summing-up at Seventy (https://archive.org/details/sovietrus
siainch0000chai). New York: Farrar, Straus and Cudahy.
—, Works at Internet Archive HERE (https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator%3A%28Chiang+K
ai-shek%29&sort=titleSorter)

See also
Biography portal

Taiwan portal
China portal

World War II portal

Chiangism
Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall
Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Song
Chiang Kai-shek statues
Chiang Kai-shek International Airport
Cihu Mausoleum
Free area of the Republic of China
Guesthouses of Chiang Kai-shek
History of the Republic of China
History of China–United States relations to 1948
List of kidnappings
Politics of the Republic of China
Republic of China (1912–1949)
Republic of China Armed Forces
Shilin Official Residence
Timeline of Chiang Kai-shek

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215. "The Order of Sikatuna" (https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/the-order-of-sikatuna/). Official Gazette of
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Bibliography and further reading

Bae, Kyounghan (2009). "Chiang Kai-Shek and Christianity: Religious Life Reflected from His Diary"
(https://www.tandfonline.com). Journal of Modern Chinese History. 3 (1): 1–10.
doi:10.1080/17535650902900364 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17535650902900364).
S2CID 143023389 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143023389). Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20220109184329/https://www.tandfonline.com/) from the original on 9 January 2022.
Ch'en Chieh-ju. 1993. Chiang Kai-shek's Secret Past: The Memoirs of His Second Wife. Westview
Press. ISBN 0-8133-1825-4 Internet Archive online download and streaming HERE.
Coble, Parks M. (1986). The Shanghai capitalists and the Nationalist government, 1927–1937 (https://
books.google.com/books?id=9nJF_19fnZ4C&pg=PA264). Vol. 94 of Harvard East Asian monographs
(2, reprint, illustrated ed.). Harvard Univ Asia Center. ISBN 0-674-80536-4. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20200727210457/https://books.google.com/books?id=9nJF_19fnZ4C&pg=PA264) from
the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 15 May 2011.
Ch'en, Chieh-ju (1993). Eastman, Lloyd E. (ed.). Chiang Kai-shek's Secret Past. Routledge.
Crozier, Brian. 2009. The Man Who Lost China. ISBN 0-684-14686-X
Fairbank, John King, and Denis Twitchett, eds. 1983. The Cambridge History of China: Volume 12,
Republican China, 1912–1949, Part 1. ISBN 0-521-23541-3
Fenby, Jonathan (2005). Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost (https://boo
ks.google.com/books?id=YkREps9oGR4C&pg=PA205). Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-
1484-0. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20231109202142/https://books.google.com/books?id=
YkREps9oGR4C&pg=PA205) from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 28 June 2010. Alt
URL (https://archive.org/details/chiangkaishekchi0000fenb)
Fenby, J. (2009). Chiang Kai Shek: China's Generalissimo and the Nation He Lost (https://books.g
oogle.com/books?id=tZxKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP35). Hachette Books. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-7867-
3984-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200727204924/https://books.google.com/books?
id=tZxKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PP35) from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 10 May 2019.
Garver, John W. China's Quest: The History of the Foreign Relations of the People's Republic (2nd
ed. 2018) comprehensive scholarly history. excerpt (https://www.amazon.com/Chinas-Quest-History-
Relations-Republic/dp/0190884355/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200728045608/https://
www.amazon.com/Chinas-Quest-History-Relations-Republic/dp/0190884355/) 28 July 2020 at the
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Gillin, Donald G.; Etter, Charles (May 1983). "Staying On: Japanese Soldiers and Civilians in China,
1945–1949" (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2055515). The Journal of Asian Studies. 42 (3): 497–518.
doi:10.2307/2055515 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2055515). JSTOR 2055515 (https://www.jstor.org/st
able/2055515). S2CID 164133500 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164133500).
Gillin, Donald G (1967). Warlord: Yen Hsi-shan in Shansi Province 1911–1949. Princeton, New
Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Li, Laura Tyson. 2006. Madame Chiang Kai-shek: China's Eternal First Lady. Grove Press. ISBN 0-
8021-4322-9
Loh, Pichon Pei (1971). The Early Chiang Kai-shek: A Study of His Personality and Politics, 1887–
1924 (https://archive.org/details/earlychiangkaish0000lohp/). Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-
03596-9 – via Internet Archive.
May, Ernest R. 2002. "1947–48: When Marshall Kept the U.S. out of War in China". Journal of Military
History 66(4): 1001–1010. online free (https://www.marshallfoundation.org/newsroom/wp-content/uplo
ads/sites/3/2016/01/May-2002.pdf) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201029112205/http://ww
w.marshallfoundation.org/newsroom/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2016/01/May-2002.pdf) 29 October
2020 at the Wayback Machine
Paine, S. C. M. The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949 (2014)
Pakula, Hannah (2009). The last empress: Madame Chiang Kai-Shek and the birth of modern China
(https://archive.org/details/lastempressmadam00paku_0). Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-4391-
4893-8. Retrieved 28 June 2010.
Pantsov, Alexander V. (2023). Victorious in Defeat: The Life and Times of Chiang Kai-shek, China,
1887-1975 (https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300260205/victorious-in-defeat/). Yale University
Press. ISBN 9780300260205. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230402175430/https://yaleboo
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Romanus, Charles F., and Riley Sunderland. 1959. Time Runs Out in CBI. Official U.S. Army history
online edition (https://www.questia.com/library/book/time-runs-out-in-cbi-by-charles-f-romanus-riley-su
nderland.jsp) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110624020448/http://www.questia.com/library/
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Sainsbury, Keith. 1985. The Turning Point: Roosevelt, Stalin, Churchill, and Chiang-Kai-shek, 1943.
The Moscow, Cairo, and Teheran Conferences. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-285172-1
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War. University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-0717-3
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81516-1
Taylor, Jay (2000). The Generalissimo's son: Chiang Ching-kuo and the revolutions in China and
Taiwan (https://books.google.com/books?id=_5R2fnVZXiwC&pg=PA59). Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0-674-00287-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170225065552/https://books.google.co
m/books?id=_5R2fnVZXiwC&pg=PA59) from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 28 June
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Taylor, Jay (2009). The Generalissimo: Chiang Kai-shek and the struggle for modern China (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=03catqbPCmgC&pg=PA93). Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-
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van de Ven, Hans, et al. eds. Negotiating China's Destiny in World War II (Stanford University Press,
2014). 336 pp. online review (https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=42871) Archived (https://
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External links
ROC Government Biography (https://web.archive.org/web/20170614182245/http://www.president.gov.
tw/1_roc_intro/e_xpresident/e_b_cha.html)
Time "Man and Wife of the Year", 1937 (https://web.archive.org/web/20070329012515/http://www.tim
e.com/time/subscriber/personoftheyear/archive/stories/1937.html)
The National Chiang Kai-shek Memorial Hall Official Site (http://www.cksmh.gov.tw/)
The Chungcheng Cultural and Educational Foundation (https://web.archive.org/web/2011043021193
9/http://www.chungcheng.org.tw/ewelcome.html)
Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek Association Hong Kong (https://web.archive.org/web/2011042422362
1/http://chiang2006.world.edoors.com/index.php)
Order of Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek supplementing the Act of Surrender (http://www.taiwandocu
ments.org/surrender03.htm) – by Japan on 9 September 1945
Family tree of his descendants (https://web.archive.org/web/20071212100247/http://www.xikou114.co
m/index.php?title=%E6%AD%A6%E5%B2%AD%E8%92%8B%E6%B0%8F%E4%B8%96%E7%B3%
BB) (in Simplified Chinese)
The Chiang Kai-shek Index at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum (http://doc
s.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/psf/box2/folo15.html)
1966 GIO Biographical video (https://web.archive.org/web/20040226235850/http://www.gio.gov.tw/tai
wan-website/av/sou_sig/sight01_2.htm)
"The Memorial Song of Late President Chiang Kai-shek" (Ministry of National Defence of ROC) (htt
p://gpwd.mnd.gov.tw/web2/web2_a/music/mp3_01/04.mp3) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20
120806090436/http://gpwd.mnd.gov.tw/web2/web2_a/music/mp3_01/04.mp3) 6 August 2012 at the
Wayback Machine
Chiang Kai-shek Biography (http://www.spartacus-educational.com/2WWchaing.htm) – From
Spartacus Educational
The National Chiang Kai-shek Cultural Center Official Site (https://web.archive.org/web/20100103061
217/http://www.ntch.edu.tw/)
Chiang Kai-shek Diaries at the Hoover Institution Archives (http://www.hoover.org/library-archives/coll
ections/chiang-kai-shek-diaries) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150505092731/http://www.h
oover.org/library-archives/collections/chiang-kai-shek-diaries) 5 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine
蔣介石的勳章 ORDERS of CHIANG KAI SHEK – SKYFLEET/LUFTFLOTT的部落格/天艦 – udn部落格
(http://blog.udn.com/mobile/skyfleet/22339171)
Newspaper clippings about Chiang Kai-shek (http://purl.org/pressemappe20/folder/pe/019622) in the
20th Century Press Archives of the ZBW

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