Orthogonal and Unitary Matrices • 63

. i
5 where v1, v2 , v3 arc row vectors given by
v =[a 11 a 12 a 13 ], v2 =[a 21 a 22 a 23 ]andv 3 =[a 31 a 32 a 33 ].

,, l
1
ThenA'(i.e.,Ar)=[v 1 v2 v3 ].
Orthogonal and Unitary Matrices
Hence AA'•[ J,, [,,,,
v 2 V3 ]= VzVt
"1"2
VzVz V2V3

[,,,, , , ][1
V3V1 V3V2 V3V3

s.1 f111t ortho1onil Matrix

n
V1V2 0
AA' = I => v2v1 V2V2 v2v3 = 0
...... .,.. A on-sinoular cnuare matrix A is said toA be orthogonal if A' A = 1· 1II lh1.s
a,auu..-1
1 n ... .., . ,i,
1 v3v3 0
case, K Is die Inverse of Al.e., ,. - 1 ■ A' which tn turn ~ ""' • . V3V1 V3V2
.t
. l 11w AIs°" OttMIOIIOI IIUJlri.f Ifand only if A'A• I • AA' . ⇒ f
v;V1 = I when I= j i.e., v = I, i = l, 2, 3
and v1v1 = 0 when i ;,e j.
f
SJ 1mport1nt Properties of an Orthogonal Matrix This proves (ii) and (iii).

LIi A■(a, Jbt011orthogonal matrixo/onltrn >< n. 5,31 Normalization of vectors

,,.,,. A vectorv =(a., a 2 , a 3 ) is said to be normalized ifa/ +a/+ a / =l.
(I) IAl•t LLt. tllt valut0/thtdtttnni1IQIII is± J. 2 2 2
For example, letv =(I, 2,3). Then1 + 2 +3 =14.
(ii) 11, .1'11111 oftit, SfllOrtS oftltmtnts in any row is unity.
So we can normalise this vector by dividing each element of v by
t1.,
,'J..:, a: •lforany r k- I
✓12 + 2 2 + 32 .Jti,'
_ 1
(IIIJ 71w .1'11111 ofdl, tltmtnt.r in any on, ro~ ,ach multiplied by the cor d'
tltlfltllt ill tmyoth,r ro~ is t.tro Lt., respo11 mg
In this way,' the vector kv =( ;..; , ;.; , ~) is a normalised vector.
-v14 -v14 -v14
'J:. 0,, 0 , •Oforr,s ■l,2,3, ... nandr•s.
J•I
Similarly if v =(a 1, a 2 , a/) is not normalised and v:;, 0, then the vector kv will be
11lls p,op,~ mtdllS that any two distinct rows OJ,r A considered
•
as
normalised when k = .======·
I 2
Ort/toional(i.1.,atrighronglu~ vec tor are 2 2
'Jal + Oz +a3

boor: We shall obtain the proof in the case of 8 matnx

aenenl. .
of order 3. The proof is guile
This k is called a normalizing factor.
The vectors in an orthogonal matrix are normalized.
(i) Given lhat Ais III onboaonat • Let us illustrate.
• AAO ffllll'iX,
" 1111 •I::> IM'f•l/1
::> IAIIA'l•I LetP=[-: :]=[v.,v 2 ].
~ IAI IAl•l •: IA'l=IAI Here tho inner product of the row (or column) vectors is zero. viz.
. ~flAlf ■t ,'.IAl•U
00111d (liOPor~ ~
[-1,11[ ]=-1 +1=0.

But the length of the vectors is not unity viz;

A•{:= :: ::•]~[-~] 2
v1 :(-1) 2 +1 2 =2andv 2 =(1) +(1) =2.
2

JI 031 G9 II Let us normalise these vectors.

J
First, find the normalizing factor for v1•
(62)
 Orthogonal 311d Unitary Matrices • 65

ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

► Ex.1. ~
2
Verify that the matrix! [ -~ ] is o~hogonal.
3
· -2 2 -1

S0/11. Let A =i[ ;

-2 2
~ -~-1 ]·

Then A'=![~
·3 2 -2
~ -~i
-1

5,41 Properties
-nl matrix js non-singular,
A'A=¼[~2 -2
2
-~ix[~~-~]
-1 -2 2 -1
O} Every orthOgoIJAI
Since A' A=I, thereforelA'AI =Ill =1
or,
2
IA'I IAl=l i.e., IAl =l. =![~
9 oo9
~ ~]=[~001
0 ~i=l

•:::•~~::::::rix[
:. Ais non-singular.

~
(II} It, an orthogonal matrix. 8 8
We have. l'l =l•I =I. co~ si~ ]isorthogonal.
:. I is orthogonal. -sin 8 0 cos 8
Oh1 The tran5pose or an orthogonal matrix is orthogonal. 8 8
Let Abe an orthogonal matrix. Sain. Let A=[ co~ ~ ~i~ ]·
A'A=I. -sin 8 0 cos 8

~
The irwpose of Ais A'. It is to prove that A' is orthognal
i.e. (A'YA'=l. Then A'=[ co~ 8 -s; el
Now, (AKY =f =I i.e., (A')' A' =I. sin 8 0 cos 8
:. K is orthogonal. By definition if A is orthogonal, then AA' = I.
(iv) The product or two orthogonal matrices is orthogonal.
AA'=[ co~8 ~ ~
l
Let Aand Bbe two orthogonal matrices. . Now si~8][co;8 -s~n8] ·
:. A' A=landl/ B=l. - sin 8 0 cos 8 sin 8 0 cos 8
Now, (ABf(ABJ=(lfA'XAB)=B'(A'A)B=B'1B= B'(IB)- B' B-1 cos 2 a+ sin 2 a o _sin ecos e+ cos asin a
Hence the R:SUlt foDows. - - .
= 0 1 0
(Y) The invent fl ID orthogo
I.et Abe onbogonai . nal matrix is orthogonal.
[ - sin ecos e+ cos esin 8 0 sin
2
e+ cos 2 e
III

=[~ ~ ~]=,.
:. A' A= I and ABIDalriX and let Bbe the inverse of it
=BA=l
No., (AB)' (AB) =(IfA'XAB) ~ ,
Bat (AB)'(AB)=fl =I -B'(A A)B=B'IB=B' B. 0 0 1
B'B=I. Hence A is an orthogonal matrix.
:. BisorthogonaJ.
 Orthogonal and Unitary Matrices • 67
'6•Malricef

thal till ,nolrix A= l

[° : : Ju onhogonaL ! [ -I2
2
~
~ EIJ. [kUrmiM I,"'• n~ l
.2. Show that the matrix -1 }• orthogon,J,

i
3 2 2 -1
Htn&t find A-•·
2
[
~-N•[~ -:] m
-n
-)
J. Show that the matrix A=! -2
3 2 2
-2~ is orthogonal.

NA•[~ m
..,. ~H: :]
2m
m
-m
4. Prove that the matrix A = ..!..
9
[~ 4
4 _; }• orthogon,J.·Homoefiod A_,.
l
4 7 4 .

0 I I I

.i
[v'
= 0
0
ewn2
0
}, ] ... {I)
S. Show that the matrix
..fi. - ✓3
0
✓3
I
../6
../6
2 is orthogonal.

I I I
If Ais orthognal, then A' A= /, ·2 - ../6
2
Therefore from (1), we get 21 2 =1. Cwn =1. 3n =l ..fi. ✓3

I I -1
12 .. !,,,,2 =!,n2 =!.
I 2 6 3 ✓3 ../6 ..fi.
1 -2 1
fl · i I 1 I
Hencel=:1: ..fi.' m=:I: .[6' n=± .Jj' 6. Prove that the matrix 0 is orthogonal. Hence find A- •
✓3 ../6
~ 'i 1 1 I

~
1i
✓3 ../6 ..fi.
AJ,o, A_, • N •[ _: -: ] Md!....., oft m, n , _ ahoWa
y]
~
2p
p -y is orthogonal.
I 7. Detennine the values of a, 13, ywhen[

rI'
j
~
• 5.5 Unitary matrix

Deftnition: A square matrix A is said to be unitary if A• A =I.

_It h:i-5 to be o.bserved that a unitary matrix over the field of real numbers is orthogonal
,or 1n this case A =A'. '
8. If A =
1
-
3
2
3
2
2
-
3

3
2
1
a
b is orthogonal, find a, b, c.
a -l3 y

C
1beorem ; //A, B ~• two unftnru -J
mat • ,L-AB
nces, IIICII and BA are also unitary matrices. 3 3
We have, (AB) = B" A•. 1
(AB)• (AB) =(B• A•)AB= B• (A" A)B • 9. Prove that the matrix A= [ ; i - l/ i ] is unitary.
=B• 1B; ·: A• A =/ I+i I-i .
=B•B=I; ·:B•B=I · 2 2
:. AB is unitary.
2 2
Similarly, we can prove that BA is unitary. • 10. Show that[ a+ ic -b +i~ ]is unitary if a 2 + b 2 + c + d =l.
b+id a-zc
EXERCISES
Answers
I. Show that the matrix [ COS 9 sin 9] ·
-sin 9 cos 9 is onhogonal.
 68 • Matrices
2 2 1
-~ b=-~• c=~~a=-3 • b=3• c=-3
··········---. r

ti
. . ~~.:.=.:.:. . . . . .:. . . H;nts and Solution; ofSelected P;;-;,-,;;;;,;······
a +ic -b+id]
f
6
10. Let A= [ b+id a-ic . Rank of a Matrix
a +ic b+id]
ThenA'= [ -b+id a-ic

• _ [ a-ic b-id] 6.1 f introduction

A =A'= -b-id a+ic .
If A is unitary, then A• A=/. In this chapter we shall dwell upon a very important concept of a matrix, viz. the rank of
this
a matrix, for the solubility or otherwise of a set of linear equations depends upon
⇒ [ -:~;~ :::: ][ :::; -:~:~] =I concept. The rank of a matrix can be devised and calculated in three ways :
(i) The first method which is the simplest method consists in considering the matrix of
3~d order only. The reason is obviously to get used to this method.
(a2+c2)+(b 2+d2) (a-ic)(-b+ id)+(b-id) (a-ic)] (ii) By using elementary transformation vide Echlon form.
2 2 2 2
⇒ [ (-b-id)(a +ic) +(a +ic)(b +id) (b + d ) + (a + c ) (iii) By considering the independence and dependence of vectors.
rd
In the beginning we shall be concerned with the rank of the matrix of 3 order.
1;
.~ The computation of the rank of a matrix of higher order will be_taken up in the next
section by using "Elementary Operations". We start with the following general definitions.
2 2 2 2

·r
a +b +c +d 0 ] [ 1 6.2 f Minor of a matrix
⇒ [ 0 a 2 .+b 2 +c 2 +d 2 = 0
Let A be am x n matrix. From the matrix A, if we select any r rows and any r columns,
a +b 2 +c 2 +d 2 =1.
2
⇒ then a square matrix· of order r is obtained. The determinant of this matrix with positive
or
negative sign is called the minor of A of order r .
□□□

·I Let A=[::: ::: :: ::: ]·

J
a31 a32 a33 a34
It is a 3 x 4 matrix.

Then/ au a12 I• I au a13 I• I a12 a14 Ietc.

a21 a22 a31 a33 a32 a34
!
are minors of order 2, and

i :~ :: ::1.1=~ :: I a14 etc.

I
a 24

a31 a32 a33 a31 a33 a34

are minors of order 3.
three, we cannot
• Note : In the above example, since the lesser number either of rows or columns is
get minors of order higher than 3. Every element aiJ can be taken as minor of order 1.

(69)
 Rank of a Matrix • 71

1o • Matrices
-1
6J f Rank of matrix The determinant l -I 2 =0.
•• • A be a matrix of order m x n. x A .if 3 0
De(1D1tion • Let k f the matri .h columns
. 'd to be the ran ·o f d r which does not vams . - 2) rows (say the first row and (4 - 2)
The number r1s saJ Now consider the result of omitting (3
. orof Ao or er the given matrix.
(i) there exists at least one nun . · (say the first and second columns) from
.
. f Ord rr+Jvan1shes. Z) being the sum of mult1p1es of mino rs
. as of
.
. the determmant
We obtam
12 *
-l 1= 2 0.
(ii) each mmor o e. r of order(r + ' h ·11 0 1
equen tly every nuno . of order greater t at r w1 vanish a ,
Cons mmor Thus p(A) = 2.
order (r + I), will vanish. In fact every
nk ., matrix is thelargest order ofnon vanishing mino r
consequence of (ii).
Briefly we may say that the ra OJ a 6.4 f Theorem
.
of the matrix. matrix.
°
k f a matrix A is . be.
said to r if . ix is the same as that of the original
Hence we can say that the ran The rank of the transpose of a matr pose of the
r whic h rs non-singular. n and let A' be the trans
. one square submatrix of order
. There exists
(1) Proof: Let A =[ai j] be a matrix of the
type m x
l) is singular. matrix A. Then A'= [a ii] .
(ii) Every square submatrix of order (r +
is rand that of the matrix A' is r'.
the symbol p(A). Suppose that the rank of the matrix A
The rank of matrix may be denoted by
matri x, it follows that It is to prove that r' = r.
From the definition of the rank of a fore there is at least one square submatrix
say R
e *
matrix A of order n is n, since I Al o
.In Since the rank of the matrix A is r, there
(i) The rank of every non-singular squar
of order r such that IRI ¢ 0.
particular, the rank of In =n. then obviously K is a submatrix of A'.
If K is the transpose of the matrix R,
But if, A is singular, then IAl= 0, nt does not change by interchanging the
rows and
so that the rank of the matrix A is <n. Also, since the value of a determina
most be equal to the smaller of the num
bers m and columns, therefore IK I=IR I¢ 0. ... (I)
(ii) The rank of am x n matrix can at
n but it may be less. Hence the rank of A', i.e., r' ~ r. to S', we
S' of order (r + I), the~ corresponding
and the rank of a non-zero matrix is ~ Again, if A' contains a square submatrix
I. 0 and
{iii) The rank of a null matrix is zero of A is r, there fore I SI=
I). But since the rank
r of order r, then rank is ~ r. find a submatrix S of A of order (r +
(iv) If there is a non-zero mino
a matrix by means of the following
examples. consequently I S' I= 0. ninant.
~e illustrate the idea of a rank of square submatrix with non-zero deten
Consider the three matrices. Thus A' cannot contain a (r + I) rowed, ... (2)
Hence rank of A' i.e., r' 5 r.
3
: !] (ii)[ : :1 {iii)[: 3""
-l -;
0
_:] .
I
Hence (I) and (2) together ⇒ r' = r
This proves the theorem.
1
2 2 -I 2

Here (i) if A denotes the matrix, we have

2

,
*
IAl =2 0 so ~at th k. 3
eran JS • ► Ex. Fmd thuank of th, matr i, U -3 -11
4 .

~~[: :j,~~:t:i=::•:::::ofoffiey2,
OH IAI O -2 3

Soln. Let the matrix be denoted by A.

1 I -1
-1+ 6-5= 0.
Then .IA!= 2 -3 4 =l(- 9+8 )-1( 6-12 )-1( -4+ 9)=
lum . 3
(iii)It is3 x 4matrix. If3-3rows and4-3co ns are omitted, we get a square matrix
3 -2
minant will all be
whose corresponding deter zero. -1
-2 3 by adding the first two rows
or, otherwise, IA I= 3
. ~or example, consider the square matri
omitting the last column
.
x[:
3
-I
I
i which is obtained by
-11 \ 3 -2 3
= O, since the two rows are identical.

\
 n•,.._ Rank of a Matrix • 73
., __ ,_ 0.
But chert ii one minor of ordet 2 viz. I; -) J6. [~: poi:tis(xl /]1), (xi, Yi), (x y 3)are collinear if and only if the rank of the matrix
3,

Hence the rank of the matn• A is 2. EXERCISE& Xi Yi l is less than 3.

X3 YJ 1

17, Discuss the rank of the matrix A=[ ~ : : ]• where a, b, care real numbers.
a2 b2 c2

Answers
J. 2 2. 2 3.2 4. 1 5.2 6.2 7.2
8. 2 9.2 10. 2 11. 3 12. 2 13. 2
J4. rank is 2 if t = 0 or - 3 and 3 otherwise 15. rank (A+ B) =2, rank (AB)= 0
17, rank (A) =3 only when a* b * c.
_______________
,.[ ! :
-6 -12
l~J
-1.5
···········......................................................
Hints and Solutions of Selected Problems
J6. If the points A(xi, Yi), B..xi, y 2 ) and C(x 3 , y 3 ) are collinear, then the area of the
MBC=0.

,.r; =: _u This ⇒
x,
x2
Yi
Y2 =0.

~u :n X3 Y3
Hence the rank of the matrix is < 3.

Conversely, if the rank of the matrix is< 3, then x 2

x,
=0

ILU : ;] which implies that the area of the MBC = 0.

Hence the three points are collinear.

+: _i ~]
17. t.=(a·-b)(b-c)(c-a)
DD □

14. Deteamine die ranlt of the following mab'ix for all values oft

t I O J
[: 0 ,:3
I.S. Pind die nnb of A + Band AB where

A•(! _; -;1anclBe[-; ~;
3 -2 3 S JO
~1-
S
 Elementary Transformations or Elementary Operations • 75

7
is,
(ii) Multi~lication of a row R; by a non-zero element cof the field (i.e., a scalar); that
replacmg R; by cR;.
(iii) Addition of one row R; with k times another row R., that is replacing the row R. by
1 1
R; +kRi'

Elementary Transform~tions (b) Elementary column transformation.

If in .the above definition of row transformation the word 'row' is replaced by the word
Or Elementary Operations 'column', then we get the definition of elementary column transformation. Let
perform the elementary
the ft
column
column of the matrix A =(a ij) be denoted by Ci. Then we
transformations on the matrix A if we do any one of the following :
(i) Interchange two columns C; and Ci.
7.1 f introduction (ii) Multiply the elements of one column C; by a non-zero element of F (field).
,:, h been concerned with the detennination of the rank of a (square) matrix of (iii) Add to the elements of one column C ;, k times the corresponding elements
of a
So aar we ave . • h rd b th' thod ·11 ·
order3.Butthecomputationoftherankofamatnxofhig ero er Y ismc w~ involve different column Ci .
considerable labour and inconvenie nce because we have to evaluate several detenruna nts.
We thus have three different types of elementary row transformations and the three
This can be understood from the following example. types of elementary column transformations.
,
Suppose we R:quire to detennine the rank ofa m.atri~ of the order~ x 4. Obviously there
cannot be minor of order 4. So we shall have to beg~n flth ~ set of mmors each of order
3. Notations : (i) Interchange of any two rows (or columns)
shall
Since 3 columns can be selected out of 4 columns m C3 1.e., 6 ways, therefore we th
see that (or
need to evaluate 6 corresponding detenninan ts each of order 3. It is not difficult to These are denoted by R; B Ri (or C; BC i) or by Ru (or C ii) when the i row
the calculation gets heavier as we proceed to detennine the rank of a matrix of the type m 11
x th
the evaluation of larger number of minors of order column) is interchanged with the j row (or column).
wherem, n >3, because that will involve
greater than 3. To get rid of this difficulty we employ a type of transformation on a matrix
called "elementary transfonnation" or "elementary operations" which may be used 10
simplify the procedure of search for a non-zero minor matrix.
In particular elementary (row) operations can be used to find the inverse of an
invertible
F~~runple, [: : n~~~ n~ n. 1

matrix and also in solving the system of linear equations.

Before wep~eed to~efineelementary transformations, we would like to point out that
these ~sformanons ~ simply the generalisation of the types of operations involved in
evaluation of a determinant viz.
Ci) Interchange of two rows (or columns)
the
[: : J ~ sttq
, n~ n
(ii) Multiplication of the i row (or the i column) by a non-zero number k.
111 th

(ii) Mul~~~ication of the elements of a row (or column) of a determinant by a non-zero

numug-, These are denoted by R; ➔ kR; (or C; by kC;).
(iii) Addition to the elements of anYOther row (or column), the corresponding elements
of any other
row or column, multiplied by any number. For example, [ ~ ~ ~] & ➔& 2
)[: ~ : ]

7.2 JElementary transformations

(a) Elementary row tramformation.
[ ~
0
~ J s ➔~2 ) [:

th
~ ~ l
(iii) Addition of k times the j row (or column) to the i row (or column)
th
Delinition:LetA=[a 11 }beamxnm . d the i1h row of the matrix A be denoted
by RI' atrix an let These are denoted by R; ➔ R; +k.Ri (orC; ➔ C; + kCi)
Then the tk~ntary row 1rrmsfo •
the ~ollowing : rmations on lhe matrix A are defined to be any one of For example, [ ~ ;J 3
0
R2 ➔ R2 + 2& ) [l
4
3
6 !]
(i) Interchange of any two rows ~ and R.•
J

(74) [~ !] 3
0
0 ➔' C2 +~3 ) [l
2
9
15 !l
 Operations • 77

....7.J, ...~ ~ o f t w O ,naericeS

order(r ~ l). Let us suppose ~al I Bal be any
the affected row, then there exists a subma
d Aol. Thus
Elementary Transformations or Elementary

(r + l) rowed minor of B. If B0 does

trix A0 of
there exists
A
a
such
uniqu
that I B
0
f =I A
0
1and
not contain
if it contains
ely detennined minor of A, say
the affected row, then I Bal= . ... (2)
-•tn·• A by a finite number of elcmenr,. .... Ao suchthatlB0 1=cl,¾I or, IB0 1=1,¾I
«.J ._ .... .--be,1,-_ .a,in s.
otai d (rom am -,en ,,_
- I
according as the submatrix B0 does or does
not contain the affect ed row.
. A and we wrire B ,_ A defini tion, every(r+ l)rowed minorf A lof A
11•• u.- U~ __:.., IO be JfJ'I/ eqw,-alenl lO Now, since the rank of Ais r, theref ore by
row cnasformllJO& lid Bas_,. 0. That is, every (r + l) rowed minor f B0 1of Bis ~ro. It
is zero and thus from (2), IBal= Thus r ~ r.
canno t excee d r.
..... --r1 rwo •tric,,,eL of elementary implies, therefore, that the rank of B
<'JC ._ . •ocd from 1 x n matrix A by a finile number lying the elements of a row B by a number l / c,
If 11ft x If lllllnl c:aD be ol,caa Again, as A also arises from B by multip
wrire B ~ A. we have r~r.
. . ___ .., 1 be column equivalenl 10 A and we
8
G. lhel Hence , we get r = r.
rmalJO IS 0
columD iran.sfo NIU

row, the product by any number of the

Case III. Additwn to the elements of a
other row does not alter the rank.
u 'TheoreWJm tnnsfonnadom do noe alter tbt rank of a matrix. corresponding elements ofany
given matrix A Let B be the matrix obtained by adding to the
flemm Lei r be the rank of a th
th by k of the corres ponding elements of its j row and
Let A be a marrix of onler m x n elements of the i row of A the product
let the rank of B be r. It is to prove that r
= r.
a 11 a,2 ... 01.j Let us suppose that I B0 1be any (r + 1) rowed
minor of Band the corresponding placed
02I 022 ... Oi.
.... minor of A is I A0 1.
i.e., A= .•.
Now, we discuss three possibilities.
... ... th
and the l row or only the f' row, then the
If B0 contains elements of both the i row of
a.i a. ormation and it is therefore one of the minor
/ a_. value off B0 Ihas nor been altered by the transf
ponding to three rypcs of elementary that I B I = I A L
We will prove the theorem in lhree srages corres A say A0 oforder ( r + 1) such 0 0
A is
r= 0 by virtue of the fact that the rank of
i row lrlnsfonnllions.
tM rank.
But since every minor of order greater than
Caw L lnurduzngt ofa pair ofll7WS dou not alur

I
r,IB0 1=0.
obtained by an interchange of a then we can write.
th
If B0 contains the i row but nor the j row,
matrix th
Bbe lhe
. Let rbe rhe rank of agiven matrix Al.et that ,' = r.
is to prove
Jlllr of rows of A and let the rank of B be ,'.
Ir IB0 1=IA11+kl A21
f
sign, minors of A of order (r + 1).
, We consider a minor of order (r +I). where I A1I and I A2 I are, except possibly, for
(r + I) is zero and hence IB01= 0.
aubma1!~u:r,are~t be anyof(rsome.
+I) ~ minor of_ B. Then (r + I) rows of the
uruq~ely detennined submalrix Ao of A
The
Since the rank of A is r, every minor
Thus we have shown that every determinant
of order
of B of order (r + 1) vanishes. It follows
belween B
only diff'crence and ro~ r ~ r.
15 in differenr positions · We therefore that the rank of B cannot excee d r i.e.,
bow that rhe m·._ ... _ 0 f Ao that the identical rows occur .
- ........ge o two rows .of detenni nanI changes only the sign. Therefore we by means of invers e transf ormation, which would again be an
Similarly it can be shown r = r.
haw.
elementary transformation of the same type that r ~ r .Hence
IBol'"'IAol or 1B01=-IAol ··· (I) row transf ormat ions do not alter the rank of a matrix.
.a... ,a.. Thus we find that elementary
Now itis~o· ·-· u- UK: ranlc of A is,, ~fo
re b deli .. is the same as that of the original matrix,
. Y muon, cvcry (r+ l)row ed minor Now, since the rank of the transpose of a matrix
1Aolof Aas zetoand lfndrom (I) IB l=0 ose A' of A it can be shown that the elementary column
That" I O •
• . therefore considering the transp
cfmin orlB lofBis a matrix .
ts,evay(r+l)rowe 0 zero. Ir implies therefore that the rank of B transformations do not alter the rank of
c:annot exceed ,. Thus t' sr.
i . Hence we prove the theorem.
Aaain, as Aalso arises from B by an mten:h ang f A and C col A
eo rows ,weh aver ~r. Cor. : Let A be am x n matrix and let B row
I
1
Hencewe,ecr•t'.
CaseD.Mllbip/icar;o,,o/tN •'-~
"""''nDIISO/a IDK>bya
Let r, r and r" be the ranks of the matric
Then according to the theore m, r = r.
es
Also
A,
r =
Band C respectively.
r".
•-·-
Let
r be the mnlc of• aiYen matrix A ' ~B non-um numberdoes nor a/Jer the rank. Hence r =r" =r i.e., row rank= column rank=
rank of the matrix.
be the matrix b · by multiplying the
e...,.Kiflts of I row ,4 by a number c ;e 0 and&..Q:
let the rank of B o tained_
be r' •Consider a minor of B of
 .,..~ Elcmea,.ary Tn11ur.orma;,1M rrr ~ Openooa1 • 79
. of
1.5 I~
twO matrices
x n matrix A by a finite nuinbe Step 3. We make the neJttdiagonal clement LC ,, a i: eq~ so I by u,ing a ~ row
·ned from ant 1h . r operations.
matrix can be obw . .d to be equfra/ent to e matnx A and
l)efiDilioa: If •• X ~ the matrix BIS S8.I Step 4. Using row operations again on lhi, mar.ru. ~..amcd in ,1~ J ~ all the cntneJ
of'f(Jffl and oo)UJDJl opcrtb~ then
below the (2. 2)th entry zero i.e., make the (3. 2) entry. <4, 2Jd1 cotry of tJy, matru equ.il to

l
~ ,.111e Ba A f th same order have !he same rank, they zero and so on.
matrices A and Bo e
ID Olher' words, if theandtwOwe write B = A red . . The reduced matrilt so obtained in Echloo form CTCaLC a ~ pacc-n likL lt>e fo{'..,..m, :
_:., to be cquivaJent k f gi·ven matrix is by ucmg it to what
~- r
dinetheran O a 'I a"
The easiest practical ":8~ ~~ be]ow.
0 all
0 a 23 a:.,
is caDcd Echeloo form. This LS • th matrix to Echelon form 0 I 0,4
n'PE L }1adiDg the nmk by redoaog e
r0 0 LJ..
ufE<helontonn . ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPUS
. .
l)efiDition : A maJnX LS sat
"d to be in Echelon form if
•
2 3
(i) 1be first
non-zero element in each non-zero row is I.

(u1 All the non-~

rows the zero rows, if any; i.e., every row of the matrix
precedeO below every row which has a non-zero element
• fx.1. Find th, ronk of A .-hm A • [ i 0
4
5 ·1
3 .
- JO
which~ all its elements OCCUIS .

15

R ~ ,.
~ fl
. olrmhic:
elemeol m the , row asw
•
(i"i) 1be numbers of zeros in eac
w .
h row preceding the first non-zero element m !hat row
.
than the number of such zeros in the precedmg rows;
• If 8 matrix is in Echelon form and if the first non-zero
h lies in the 1-lh column and all other elements in the /'
Soln. We ha,e, A• [ ~
2

0
l
3
4
5 _,i l ~1
~
then the matrix is said to be in reduced Echelon form. 2 3

}-00~~ -5 1
By R, -,R, -2R, , R, ->R, -JR,. - [ -3 -2

: : : { f -j -6 -4
2 3
-11.J

(i) In ever, row the first non-zero element is I.

(ii) The first three non-zero rows preceed the fourth zero row.
By R2 ➔ (-l)R2 , R3 ➔ (-l)R3,
-[~ 3
6
2
2
4
3
1]
(iii) The number of zeros preceding the first non-zero elements are 0, I, 2, 4 in the first,
second and third rows respectively.
Hence the number of such zeros are increasing.
By R3 ➔ R3 -2R2 ,
-[: 3
0
2
0 12
:1
- - - - - - - -- - - -----"----···················-·- - - ······· Herem = total number of rows= 3.
,., Note: The matrix must be reduced to the fonn such as above by applying only row transfonnations. k = total number of rows which contain all zero clcmcn~ • 0.
F.chdon fonn is very useful as it shows the maximum order of non-vanishing minor and thus
: . p(A)=m-k=3-0=3.
die rank is immediately obtained. To determine the rank of a matrix Am x n reduce it to
Echelon form and if m = total number of rows in A and k = total number of rows which
contains alheroelements, rhenp(A) = m -k.Also if k = O, then p(A) = m.
Hencep(A) =3. l 2
l
3
-I
-l
- 2 : _.
• 1
The rank or a matrb: ln Echelon form Is the number or non-zero rows or the matrix.
- - - - · ·············································
WORKING RULE
► Ex.2. Find the ronk of A = ! ; ~ =~ ·
• Step L Using row operations on the given matrix, make the (1, 1) position element called
pivot element equal to 1 (one).
te
. S p 2. Using row operations again on the reduced matrix make all the entries below the
pivotelementO (zero). i.e., make (2, J)111 entry, (3, I) entry, (4, l)th entry of the given matrix 0
Soln. We ha,e, A•[~ -1
3

I
-1
-2
3
:~]
-2
and soon. 3 0 -7
80 ■ Matrlcea
nlcmentary Tran~formationK or Elementary Operations • 81

-2 0 4 1
2 2
-~ 1
4. ( 32 4 3 6

3-l! - 2 -3
1 2
-1
1
-2
-1
6
2
4
-3

-~1
10
17
{
-2
2
-1
-2
0
0
0
i1
................................----····- --
{
1 -3
0
0
-2
- - - -- - - - -- -
Answers
-i l
-3 1. 3 2.2 3.4 4.4 s. 3 6.2
-41
10
·························································· -- - -- - - -
Remark : In the Echlon form, we make pivotal elements as one (1) and all elements
17 below the pivotal elements as (0) zero. We extend the Echlon method further and make even
the elements above the pivotal element as O (zero) using suitable row operations. The
-2 -2 extended method is called Row reduction method or more commonly as reduction to normal
1 -6
33
-4]
-3
22
or canonical form.
TYPE 11. Finding the rank by reducing the matrix to Normal form
0
0 66 44
-4
7.71 Reduction to normal or canonical form
-2 -2
1 -6 -3 Every non-zero matrix of rank r can be reduced by a sequence of elementary
0 3 2 transformations to any one of the following forms :
0 3 2
(i) I, (ii)[!, O] (iii) [ ~] (iv) [ ~ ~]
-1 -2 -4
where I, is the r-rowed unit matrix.
1 -6 -3
0 3 2 The form [ I, O ] is called the normal or canonical fom1 of the matrix A
· 0 0
0 0 0 Procedure : Let A= [a ij] be the given matrix of order m x n and of rank r.
Here m = number of rows =4 To reduce A to its normal form, we proceed as follows :
~d p(Ak) : numkber of rows which contain all zero elements = I (i) We apply the transformation of the type I, ifnecessary to obtain a non-zero element
·· -m- =4-1=3. in the first row and first column of A.
Hence p(A) =3. (ii) We then divide the elements of the first row by this non-zero element if it is not
· unity, by using a transformation of the type II.
EXERCISE 7 (A) (iii) Then using the transformation of the type III, we add appropriate multiples of the
first row to the other rows so as to reduce the other elements of the first column to
Find the rank of the following matrices : zero. Similarly we add appropriate multiples of the first column to the other
columns so as to reduce the other elements of the first row to zero.

1.[ ~ ~] f
2 -I
2 -1 The non-zero element (here a 11 = l) which has been used to reduce the other elements in
-1
2
2
-2
4 0 3]
-1
the first row and first column to zero is called the pivot. Thus by a sequence of elementary
transformations, A will reduce to the form ·
-I 0 -2 7
 84 • Matrices
Elementary TranHf ,
ormallon~ or Elementary Operations • 85
/3
which is in canonical form [ 0 I M3 Soln. Let the matrix be denoted by A.
Then performing the elementary operations
3
Hence the rank of matrix is · . f dern x n can be reduced to the equivalent fort R2 ➔R2 -RpR3 ➔ R3 -2R R ➔ R 3R
1
~ ~ I~ ]4
. · gular matrix o or . 11
Cor.: Since a non-sin th nk of the non-singular matrix of ordern x n isn
I which is therefore its normal form, era . A~[ I 4- , we get
n• ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES
0 0 O
1 0 O

>Ix. 1. ,q,ul the rank ofthe ,;.,,rix[: :

Soln. Let the matrix be denoted by A.
4
0 ff -[ i il I O

A-u : ~ : l byC2 ➔ C 2 -2Ci,C 3 ➔ C 3 -C 1,C 4 ➔ C 4 -2C 1

-[ i I:il
Then

-[ i _: -!~ -; l by •• ➔ •• - .,

-U ~ ~ : l 1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0

-u ! :] O
byC 2 ➔ C 2 -2C ,
c3 ➔ _c 3 - 4C JI c4 ➔ c4 - 3c11,
0 0 0 0

=[; ~l
-[i ! ! I] Hence the rank of the matrix A is= 3.

.- Note : Here the number of non-zeroes rows= 3.

-1 -3
-[.i : :: :J • EX.l. Derem,;n, the rank ofthe matrix r-1 0
2 3
-11
-1
1 .

=[;; ~J Soln. Let the matrix be denoted by A.

-1

Hence the rank of the matrix A is 2.

►
2 1

Ex.2. Detennine the r~ ofthe matrix[ i 3

4
2
3 ~]
4 .
· Then . A~
[
-2
~ -~0 -!.1 =~11
. 3 1 -1
7 .4 6
 f.lcrncn,ar", Tun1 ,'lfrTiat,,-~. ,.~ ~:J
r. ~ " 1¥'"/ (vnr.,_ • ,rr
'

0 0 O
by R2 ➔ R2 + 2Ri, R3 ➔ R3 - J? 3 4
I
4 4 I
0 0 O

~ ~ i~ ➔
0 0 0
I R, R, - R,

1 0 0
3 4 I
0 0 0

l 0 0

=[~ ~l
Hence the rank of the matrix A is 2.
-
0
0
l
0
0

0 0 0

• Eu. Fmdtherankofthemamx[ ~ -; ; !J- =[~ ~l

l·
2 S 11 6
Hence the rank t>f the matrix A = 3. (Herc the numher of non-mo
m'll,-s = 3).

►
Soln. Let the given matrix be A. Then

A-[;0 -;4 ! ~]
4 1
Ex.5. Find the rank of the matrix [ 1:
16
:

4
:

12
-;

IS

0 6 8 2 Soln. Let the matrix be denoted by A

i : -~] ➔R4
-[i -i i l]
Then A-[: by R1 -+R1 -(R 1 + R1). R4 -(R1 + R3 )

0 0 0 0
 Elementary Transformations or Elementary Operations • 89
81 • Mllri0CS

.I
-[ i ; : ~ I
• 1=B ~ o, therefore rank (A)=
2
6

-1]
,: ;~~roMeftM~I{ ; :i -4
-2 .
-7
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 0
So/n. Let the matrix be denoted by A

~~]
0 0 0 0

Then A-[~ : ~; byR1 ~R

2
=[~ ~l
6 3 0 -7
Hence the rank of the matrix A = 3.

by R2 4 R2 - 2Rp R3 ➔ R3 - 3R ,
1
► Ex.7. Determine the rank of the matrix [;
-~ ~ -~i-
-2 -3 •2
R4 ➔ R4 ~6R1 . 0 1 2 1
Soln. Let the given matrix be denoted by A

by C2 4 C2 -Cp C 3 ➔ C 3 + 2C1,
C4 ➔ C4 + 4CI T~• A-[i :; T-]
-[~ -; -i -Il
.-[ ~ ~ !-] byC 2 ➔ C 2 +2Cp
C3 ➔ C3 +3Cp C4 ➔ C4 -2C1

-[ ~ ~ ~ ~l
O 4 9 -7

~ ~l
O 2 2 1

-[~ 0
O O 1 -11
O O -2 -1
 ,. ......- Elementary Transfonnations or Elementary Operations • 91

-~l
0 0 0
0 byC3 -+C1 -2C2,C4 ➔ C4 - c 2 0 l 2

-[i 0
0
1 -II
-2 -1
2
IL[~ 4
3
l
2
12,[! 2 3
1 :]
-[i l
0
0 0
I 0
0
0 0
-1;
-23
by R4 ➔ R4 +2]?
3
13-[i -1
-1
2
2 -:] ,{ l
3
0
3
-2I
-3 f l
-3
l
I]

l
0 0

~
J
2 -2 4

-[i
I
0
0
0
I
0
_j] by C 4 ➔ C 4 + I IC
3
,s.u -3
5

4
-4
2
-l il 16-[ -1
l
4
-2
-l
3
6
2

1{
0 0

~
0 2 1 -3

-[i 0
0
0

0
;] byR4 ➔ (-..!.}4
23 17. [
-2
-1
1

2
-2
4
8 il 0

1 -i
1
0 -~]
=I•.

~]
2 -1 b

+
Hence lhc rank of the matrix A=4.(Hcre the number of non-zero rows= 4) [ I aC

~ ~]
2 d

EXERCISE 7 (8) -1 1 20. a b

2 0 C d
Reduce each of lhc following matrices to the nonnal fonn and obtain its rank :
2 3

2{
0 2
7]
~]
I 2

L[: 0
0 -l l
I 4
6 2 I
~[i 1
0
2 n-[~
4
2
3
f]

l
0 0 I 5
2 2 8 7
3 4
1[: lfl ~]
1 2

n.[ ~ {
-1 2

~[; n
2
s
2 3
6
0
[ I
4. 2
-I -2
2
4
-I
-4
-I
3
7
2
1
3
0
1
0 ~] 2 3
3
4

r
7 3
3 s 3 -1
~[: n
3

~r; -11
-1 4
I I
8 2 25.
6
:
2I
3
6
3 -!] -1
1
-2 -4
3 . -2

f
2 -I
0 -7
-I -2
4 3
6 _;] a(: 0
I
I
2
0
4 ~]
16 4 12 15

3.3 4.3
Answers
5.2 6.3
3

7.2 8.2
1. 2 2.3

:1 ,f
I I
11.3 12.3 13. 3 14.4 15.4 16.4
9-D 2
4
3
S 3
I
3
2
6]
2
9. 2
17. 3
10.3
18.2 19.3 20.2 21.3 22.3 23.4 24.2
-8 -I -3 25. 3 26.4
4

- -- ----~ .....-__,_
 n•Malricet Elementary Transfonnations or Elementary Operations • 93

ELEMENTARY MATRICES I
7,10 Theorem I

· A b throw transformation on mx n matrlX

Each• 1elementary . A can be affected by
7.1 f Definition premu1tip ymg Y e corresponding elementary matrix.
We will n~t try to give a gen~ral proof of the above theorem but we will illustrate the
An x n square matrix obtained from / n, the n x n unit matrix by means of an snme by a part1cular example, takmg each row transformation successively.
elementary row (column) transformation is called an elementary matrix (abbreviat~done
Let A be a 3 x 4 matrix defined by
E-matrix).
Thus we have three diffcrrnt types of clemenlary matrices corresponding to clern

"'~
as

l
-:::M~r-m,,•[i i !~]
A=[::: :: :: ::: a 34
a 31 a 32 a 33

(i) lnterch•~:[gtt:t::(fil~•::•sfonnation) gel we

Then we may ha,-e the following :

a31 a32 a33 a34
Since we have to premultiply A, we need to take that unit matrix in which the number of

i ; :1= columns should be equal to the number of rows of A Obviously that will be

, ·[~ ! n
E.' say; interchanging the first and
0 0 I second rows i.e., R, B R
2

l ; :].= Eb, say; multiplying the second row

Thus the corresponding elementary matrix obtained by interchanging the first and
second rows of/ 3 will be

n
0 0 I by c * 0, i.e., R?~ ➔ cR2

E.=u i
: ; le~]= Ee• say;
0 0 I
• the third row by
rep Iacmg
(lhi rd row+ k times the founh row)
i.e., R3 ➔ R + kR
Now, E ·A=[;
0
1
0 00 l[. .
x a 21
a12

a22
a13

a23
a,.]
az4

l
Similarly we have th-- d'ffi 0 1 a31 a32 a33 a34 .
elemen ..... 1 erent types f 3 4
. to
lary column transfonnati ons. o elementary• matrices corresponding
a22 a23

7.9 f Notations

(i) The elementary ma.,.,

[""
= all
031
a12
a32
013

a33
•N
014 =B.

a34

...... of the E type . Hence Bean be obtained by premultiplying A by Ea.

rows (or columns) of an unit ma.... ·
• . dobtained bY interchanging the ;lh d -lh
.. .. .... is enoted b • an J Thus E A has the same effect as ·applying the elementary transformation of
(11) The elementary ma... f Y Eii orby E (R. ~R-) O
interchanging first and second rows of A
col .. ,x o the E . a • J •
umn) of a unit matrix b A: • b type Obtained by multi I . •lh
It has to be noted that wepremultiply Aby Ea. lfwe post multiply Aby Ea i.e., A · Ea•
("') Th Y IS denoted by E (le) P ymg the i row (or
Ill eelementarymatrixoftheE ; orby Eb(R; ➔ kR;). then this will give us the elementary operation of interchanging the first and second columns
row (or column) of a unit . c type obtained by addin of A. Here we need to take that unit matrix in which the number of rows should be = the
(or column) ,·s d mamx, A: times the co g to the elements of the ith number of columns of A
enotcd by Eii (k) or by E (R rresponding eIements of the j th row
C i ➔ R; +kRj>·
 r Elcmentury Trunsformutions or Elcmc
ntnry Opcrutlons • 95
,,,M,incel
entnry row
x obtnincd from / 11 by nn clem
au a., 0 4
• JoJOli1 1 0 0 where E is nn elemcntnry matri

AE. •
{"' 11 21

OJI
1112

'1.J!
av
a _\l
0:14
0 .w
~
0 0 I
O 0
trnnsfornm1ion.
From (I), by Inking 1r11nspose (B )' ::::(E
where E' is lhe _1rnnspose of E i.e.,
t1on.
A')' i.e., B= AE';
E' cnn be obtnincd from / n by the
sumc elementary

column U1lnsforrnn

·{:: ::: :~: :;J.

a.u aJ1 a.u a_w .
Hence the theorem.
-~~-~j~;j~··;~;-~j~~;~~~;·~;~ti~~-~-~~~-;;;;·~h~;;·b;
From Theorem I nnd TI1eorem ii:·~~~
;·N~;e : elc:m
. . . ..._ 5---~~ino arode. cntruy mntrires.
lUI< ' 11\.l .~ ~
~gtn cnJ ~ffll S81 ~ffll
f :ond row by a SC',tfar (, we gel

(u) MWriply;: ~r::••:; :; :=]=

a~ aJJ
0 .w
B.
I
1.12 Theorem Ill

The elementary mat.rices are non-

of
singular.
type I is non-singular.
aJI (i) Elem enta ry transformation
ti.>n of the socond row by a scalar c:)
is
~correspooding ele~nwy nurrix (multiplica ga unit matrix I of order 3.
We illustrnte this theorem by takin
However the proof is quite gene ral.

c. ={~ ; :1
0 0 J Wl•[i In rea oru rnm mxo f~3

x obtained by
lar. Let Ea be the elementary matri
E• ·A={ ~ ; :1)(1::: :; a.1:;:: Then I/ I= I and hence / is non-singu

J,
lh:fffarr rows i.e.,
I
0 a a~
0 11
intert'hanging the second and third

=[; I: :; :: :~']=8. E0 (n)•[i i ttR3

a_u the sign of the

interchange of two rows changes
Q~ D:;.c
OJI
We know that in a determinant, the
~Bc aab edJ cain cdfu m,t "J ..... .......,.,,,i,.;n1,. · g •. by£•· determinant but it does not affect its
value.
.---" 't"/m ations of type I,
etfea as J · !be , of we transform / into Ea by a set of elementary transform
Thus E•A has the same app _nng Citmentary row transformation Hence when enor odd. (here it is odd).
of Ab\· c
rnuJtiplyicg die scrood ro.· I Eal will be+ I or- I according
astbenumberofinversionsisev
there is an elem ental )• matrix
•. x of order n and
TI •oe post muJriftfy• [h.1t •,ill EJl>e
••
·
as the eJeme111a1y column Opetal.lOQ . Similarly if we have a unit matri interchan ged (R; ~ Ri) IE(,iJ) I=± I
-·· . . and J~ row have been
(lll) T h e ~ ~-
• cp:nooo cm similarly be ,cri!'io :1. E<.iJ) i.e.. Ea@ whe re the,~ row singular.
is even or odd. Hence E(,iJ) is non-
according as the number of inversions ding to elem entar y
7.11,lbearm,11 entary matrices correspon
Similarly it can be shown that elem
non-singu lar.
tar, mlaaa . column transformation of type I are
Ar d ~ OD a ax 11 •
• matrtx A can be aff'ected bv post of tJpe II ~ non-sin,,aular.
---r:--''IIIC A .,_ ,_ • .. • IBatrii obtained Crom
...._ ._ • ation
. 1. by the same dem enta ry cdW
DII (u) FJe.mentacy transform
.,__ / be the unit matrix of ordec n so that
Let
,...____ .,&... -.
Prvoi:S..:;poseais - .
~-B ~ .. ~ .-4t,· za-'
• Q~ tarv oolum.n transfi~ O D , then ltS .
- ~ ~ b e ~ futn . A' by a : , ~ ~ tralbformatioo_ This fol!~-s
~ def.J:iti."C of Oe
~ c{ ~ ca:tix.
~.:r,
.

,{ ;: : -!]
-"--.. ~B aro .- . • n~i . .
DK. •e~ ,ef, v
eq.; . ~lO aS theorem
If= Lr
_ (l)
 Elcmcnlnry Trnnsforn .
muons or Blcmcnlury Operations • 97
96 • M■lrit,:s f-{ence E1/k) is non-singular.
11,rn I// = I. . R ➔ kR - and lei the resultant rnatr· Similarly th<: theorem holds for elementary column transformation .
of type III.
I. lird by k (-$ 0) i.e., ; , •x be
Let rhe ,..,. n>"' of/ t,e mu ur
7,131 Inverse 01f elementary matrices
dcmllrd by E;(k). Then o OJ

r~F
O

(:t"~~- i'
Since elementary ·matrices are non-singul ar, Ihe1r
. tnverses
.

£,(l)f : : : .: shall confine ourse Ives to the square matrices of d

·t p h
1
exis • •or l e present, we

is £~:i:r'i ilie ~r:WS

:f fiut YPoof el,me,truy =tri,

IE,(i)l=k1! :
O O
:
O O
~ :1
I
(/h row)
Let E, (23) = [i ~ n
31 032 033

which is obtai111ed by interchanging the second and third rows of ·1 t · (R

=k •I=k (~ 0).
Hence E,-(k) is non-singular. Then Ea A=[=~: ::: ::: ]=B(soy) um m,,,. '<->R,).
Similarly the theorem holds for column rmnsfonnation of type ll.
a21 a22 a23
(iii) Elementary transformation of type III is non-singular. because Ea has the effect of interchanging the second and third rows of A (as we did in
Let/ be the unit matrix of order n so that the case of Ea-).

Again, Ea ·(E,,A) = EaB=[=~: =~: =~: ]=A,

a31 a32 a33
because again Ea has the effect of interchaning the second and third rows of B.
⇒ Ea(EaA)=A ⇒ Ea ·Ea =I.
That is, Ea is the inverse of itself.
Then 111=1.
,.. Note: This can be verified by direct multiplication of Ea and Ea.
R ➔Let
R thekR;th) row
d I of/ be multiplied by k (;t: Q\I and added to the 1•th the row (1.e.,
.
i i + · ; an er the resultant matrix be denoted by Eii (k).
The second type of elementary matrix is Eb which is the multiplication of a row
I O O O O 0 (column) by a scalar k.
0 0 0 0 0 0
o] [
a,2
a,,]
0 0 0 0
~tl=[i 1
0
0 andA= (!•11
1
21 a22
a32
a23
a33 .
·

Then E;i (k) = (i th row)

a31

. 0
0

0 O
0 0

0
O+k

... 0 1
0
(j th row)
Let £,(k) =[ i n 0
k
0

0 bv,ous1y/Eu.. (k)l=1, since th eval ueofthedete . •.. which is obtained by multiplying the second row of the unit matrix by k (i.e., R2 ➔ kR2 )
.I
any row by a constant (;1: 0) and add . munant does not change if we mu!Up Y
,1 to the any other row.
 Elementary Transformations or Elementary Operations • 99
98 • r.tatrt-.-es
011 a,2 au ]· 1.14 f Properties of ~quivalent matrices
Then E•(k}A = kaz1 ka22 kaZJ '

l
[ 31 Let us recall the following :
a a32 aJ~ . the second row of A by k.
lhe ffecl of muluplying If am x 11 ~atrix Bean be obtained from am x n matrix A by a finite number ofrow and
t,tcause £•(k)All3S e [ 1 0 0 column operattonS, then the matrix Bis said to be equivalent to the matrix A and we write
A~ 0 Ilk O •
B=A.
.
In particular. if we lake O 1

l
Theorem I. Suppose that A is a n x n matrix. If A is reduced to I by using
O nd row of A by k and hence elementary row operations, then A is non-singular. n
has lhe effecl of multiplying the seco row
!hen E•{A:)A O Proof : Suppose A ::::: In • Then / n can be obtained by a sequence of elementary row

E (k)A
•
~ ~
=[ o . O O
1
=/.
operations on A
Let S 1, S2, S3, • .. , Sk be the elementary row matrices of order n by which this
reduction is affected.
But A= E•(ll k) and henceEb(k) Eb(II k) = I. Then denoting Sk ... S3 S2 S1 by P, we have PA =I.
⇒ P- 1(PA) =P- 1 =P- ⇒ A =P-
. 1 1 1 (i)
That is the im-erse of Eb(k) is Eb(II k). ...
• . E . the addition to a row k times another row.
1
Now,P- =(Sk .. ,S3S2S1)-
1
=S,'s2ts; 1
... s; •
1

: : [ ~0 o~·t:1·=:~r':::" :: :: ]·
0 1 a31 a3z 0
n
But the inverse of an elementary matrix is also an elementary matrix and hence they are
non-singular. H~nce their product p-I is also non-singular. It follows from (i) that A is
non-singular.

• Note : Let A be an x n matrix. If A is non-singular, then A can be reduced to/n by using a chain of
elementary row operations.
LdE, =U : ;] row
Theorem IL Let A and B be m x n matrices. If B ::::: A, then B =PA where Pis
:::r~~:: ro~~~t rim~~~ ]ndrow (i.e., R3 ➔ R3 + kR2). non- singular matrix of order m x m.
Proof: If Bis row equivalent to A, then B can be obtained by a sequence of elementary
row operations on A Thus B =PA where P is the product of elementary matrices. Also, we
0 33 +ka23 know that elementary matrices are non-singular and hence their product Pis non-singular.
0 31 +ka21 °n +ka~
Hence the theorem.
because Ec Abas the effect of multiplying the second row by k and adding to the third a,J

row of A Theorem ill. Let A and B be m x n matrices. If B ::::: A, then B = AQ, where Q is a

fu~d~A=[i _; 0 n x n non-singular matrix.

a,I row
1 Proof : Given B ::::: A, therefore fl ::::: A'.
0 Hence according to the previous theorem, fl =PA' where Pis a n xn non-singular
so dial A so formed is the inverse of Ec. . matrix. Now, taking transpose, we get B=(PA')' =AP =AQ,
where Q =P' is an x n non-singular matrix.
But A is obtained from/, by replacing R3 (the 3rd row) by R3 -kR2 •
. of rank r and let N r =( Ir .
0~ be its
_Hence if Ec is the elementary matrix obtained from I by replacing the J-dl row by /1 row Theorem Iv. Let A be any m x n matrix 0 0
+ ~tunes the,.. row, then its inverse is obtained from L by replacing the J-dl row by (J.m row- normal (or canonical) form. Then there exists a non-sin.:,crular mx m matrix and a
1:. tunes the,.. row). .
non-singular n x n matrix Q such that PAQ =Nr.
. ~ we cooc:ude that each elementary matrix E has an inverse which may be denoted Proof : We know that A can be reduced to the normal form N r by a sequence of
O}' E so that c- (£4) = A and which itself is an elementary transformation. elementuy transformations (row/column).
 ·. oforder mandT, .T2,h-· T, betL•1e Elemenrary Transformations or Elementary Operations • 101
JOO• M11ri«J row matrices . d
S be the elemenlar/ . th . eduction 1s affccrc . we ave
Ifs,, Sz, s,, ... , ~ ofordern by which ,s r Theorem VIII. If A be any m x n matrix of rank r, th en there exists . a non-smg. ular
lumn ,na1nces
elemenlar/ co S S AT, T2 ... T, • N, . . .
St ... S, 2 ' T byQ we have PAQ=N,. square matrix P of order msuch that PA = [ A, ] whe re A, 1sanrx nmatnxofrankr
h · 0
S S byfandT1Tz-- · t '
Denoting s•... s, 2 I • .., s are
non- singular, he_nce I e,r pr?ducr P is and O is the (m-r) x n matrix.
. th lemenr•rv S2, ·. 1• , T2· ... Tt are non-singular, rherr proctu ct
mau,ces SI' mairrces k • .
Smee e e -✓ lar/ 1 Proof:
.
We know that given any m x n matri
. x A of ran r, there exist non-singular square
1he rd nd products of elementa ry matrices
non-singular. Similar!Y ele~:the proof of the theorem. marnces P and Q of o ers m a n respectively which are
Q is non-singular. nus comple '
such that [1 ]
Tileorem V. Lei A and fJ be m x n matnces. PAQ= , 0 ... (1)
0 0
Tileo Bi! A ⇒ B "'PAQ, . d Q Is a n x n non-singulur mutrix,
where p Is a m x n non-singular nuitrrx an which is the normal from of the matrix A.
of elementary
Proof•u rB::A · ti Now, every non-singular matrix can be expressed as the product
• - . IV and following the same reasonmg, 1c lhcorcrn is e we suppose that Q = T T .. . T , where r , r , .. . r, are elementary
matrices. Th~refor 1 2 1 1 2
Replacing N, by B rn Theorem
column matrices.
·
· 1ence re Iut ron.
'
olrkcs ls an equ1vn
=[ ~ ~]
proved.
Theorem VJ. The congruence orm Then from (1) , PAT1T2 .. . T1
... (2)
Proof: Lei each of the matrices A, 8, C be am x n matrix.
Now, post multiplying the two sides of(2) successively, by r,- 1 •• • r 2- 1 r,- 1, we get
(i) Rtfltxivity: A= A
(ii) Symmttry: A:! B ⇒ 8: A.
Since A= B, there exist non-singular unit matrices_:. and Q of proper order
(Theorem PA=[~ ~] r,-1 ...T2-I rl-1.
1
lV)such thatPAQ=B ⇒ P- PAQ=P- B ⇒ AQ=P B
1
all the elements in
1 1 As no column transformation can affect the last(m - r) rows, (since
⇒ AQQ-1 =P- 1BQ- 1 ⇒ A =P- BQ - . the last (m - r) rows are zero) therefore we shall finally obtain a relation of the form
Since p - , Q- arc also non-singular matrices, ii follows thal A == B.
1 1

(iii) Tronsirfriry: A= Band B = C ⇒ A = C. PA=[~]

The proof is similar 10 (ii). where A, is the r x n matrix obtained from[/, 0] and O is the(m - r)
x n null matrix.
that == is an
Since the relation •=• is renexive, symmetri cal and transitive, it follows Since A, is obtained from [A,, O]by elementa ry transform ations, A, is of the same rank
equivalence relation.
as[/,, O]i.e., of rank r.
matrices.
Theorem VII. Every non-singular matrix is a product of element ary This proves the theorem.
matrix ofordern . Then evidently its rank isn and
. Proof: Lei ~bea non-singu lar square By similar reasoning, we can prove.
l11eorem,
us norm~ form,~ I,, where I,, is die unit matrix of ordern. Now, by llie previous a non-singular
non-~mgu lar square matrices P and Q each of order n, which are products of Theorem IX. If A be any m x n matrix of rank r, then there exists
there ex,s1 = [A, OJ where A, is an m x r matrix ofrankr and Ois
square matrix Qsuch that AQ
elementary matnces such that PA Q =In. ·
1 them x (n -r) matrix.
Hence(P- P)AQ=P-'ln ⇒ AQ=P-1
AQQ-1 =P-'Q-1 ⇒ A =P-'Q-1 Proof: Here we takeP = Sk ... S3 S2 S1•
⇒
f
... (l)
Hence we have to premultiply the matrix (1) by s1 -1S21... s;1.
I nowP= St· ··S2S, andQ=T',T,• ... T, wheres I • S 2' ••• Sk are elementary (row
rransfonnarion) matrices and 7'.
of order n each, then r,
'' T2 ' .. . are elementary (column transformation) matrices 7.15 f The rank of the product of matrices
I .
r =<St· .. s2s,>-' =s-' s-• s-1 prove an important
I 2 ••• t By virtue of the theorem established above, we are in a position to
and
1
Q- =(T1 T2 • •• T) -'=r-• ••• r-•'7'-1
2 '1 . result on the rank of the product of two (or more) matrices.
. I I
exceed the rank
Bur the inverse of an elementary matri . al an elementary matrix. Hence it follows Theorem : The rank of a product of two matrices A and B cannot
that each of p - l Q-1 is 8 prod ucr of elementarv so ·
x rs . of either matrix, i.e. p(AB) :S p(A) and p(AB) :S p(B).
• ·; matrices. Thus from (1), the theorem 1s
proved.
Proof: Let p(A) = r1, p(B) = r2 and p(AB) = r.
 rnc111cn1t1ry Trnnsfonnn1l011~or Elcmcnlnry Opcrullo
ns • 103
ltl • ,..._
Wr •·1111 '° pnt¥e &ha( r S,: 1,1 -~II a.H S 'z · rvrE Jfi, Find non-slni:ulnr mntrlccs p O1td Q
~ ~
1 ) tht'~ eli~t • ru>n-~ingular !>quare I
matri,c p 1 10
N,,.,~-ool•n•"' lht- -hnJ ~m •
pm- --At.ct f\A) suc-h that i, Ihe pn ,J UC t f o
Slff "' • II ('(lllf(W'ffllt,lt f~ !ht ... - - -
f O i.yMcn i or "' Ex, 1. For the matrix [ : ], '°" lbol PAQ I, no,m•lfonn.
t'k-ffitntlfY tn1fflt'('S .,id
0 -1 -1
ji11d non-si1
of1g11/ar matrices p and Q sue'1 t1wt pAQ
fA •[;; ]
wht'ff ,'\ is 11111111' of rank '• '
.,..,.,ot A),nd woth 'o ""'""d '"""'"'"""'h"ol
the rank A. is in tire normal form. Also find
t . with m _ ,., rows and n column ~. So/Ir. Total number of rows= 3 :. consider unit
columns II A SI)'"· and O d the 11 nu rna nl matrix 13 _
I
Total number of columns= 3 :. consider unit matrix
~ ]s
13 .
H~·tPABe[
. We write A c / 3 Al 3

! ;i,u ! n .
S1m.-c f is• prodlll.1 uf eklllt'ntary matrices, and
ekmcn t.,ry nmtm·C'~ arc non-si nr,ular,

pl.PAB) • p( AB) • r. i.e., :

[ 0 -1 -I
2
0
!]=[~
Al.,_ !h, m,lri• [ ;; ] B We shall affect every elementary row (column)
··· II) transformation to the product by
tw (m _ , ) zero rows+ some zero rows "hich may subjecting the prefactor (post factor) of A to the same.
ari~c by multip lying the non-7.cro
1
rows of A with the column, of 8.

[: ~ ~1-[~ ~ ~]A[~ -: -~]-

11

Hence the matrix [ ~ ]8

tw atmo~• 'i non-1.ero rows which arise by multiplying the
non-1..CrO rows of A11 wi1h 0 -1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1
the columns of 8.
Hencep(PAR) s, ⇒ ,s, Applying R2 ➔ R2 - R1 yields
~ 1 1

[~ ~ ~]-[-~ ~ ~]A[~ -~ -~i-

p(AB) Sp(A)
... (2)
Again.p(AB) cpf(AB)'J; ·;the rank of a matrix i~ the
same as the rank of its conjugate
s: p(B'A') 0 -1 -1 0 0 1 0 0 1
Sp(/1) a.~ proved before in (2)
c p(_R) Applying C ➔ C 3 - C 2 yields
3
i.e., p(AR) Sp(B).

w1
Thus p(AB)SA and p(AB)SB.
'th Cor. : The. rank of a matrix
any non-smgular matnx.
. docs not alt er bY prcmu 1t1phcau
• . .on or post multiplication
[i _:
Now, applying 1? ➔ R3 + R2 yields
n-H I ;m-i =n
with LetAh
ii. eagivcnmatrixandfanon ·-s·ng 1 uIar matnx 3
. conformable for pre-multiplication

Let Bc PA. Then A =P-' B.

By the above theorem, we havep( R) =p(PA) Sp(A).
Also p(A) =p(P-' R) Sp(R)
[~~ ~]-[-~ ~ ~]A[~ -~ =:].
0 0 0 -1 1 1 0 0 1

p(R') Sp(_A)andp(A) Sp(R) => p(A) =p(R).

The proof of the theorem is similar in the
i.e., [ d ~] =PAQ.
Remark : This re.~ull has already b(,c case of post-multiplication. Here PAQ is in normal form, p(A) = 2
n estabhshcd by direct proof.
 Elementary Tra ns ~ormauon
. s or Elementary Operatio ns ■ 105

0
ol [
-l; -;-1]. 0 0

~if ;]{ 0
1/3
-1/ 6
3/5
0 2q
HenceP=[-:
-1
1 O andQ= 0l
1 I O
[~ 1 -3
1
0
0
0
- 1/5
0 111

HereP and Qare non-singular matrices. BYR3 ➔ R3 - R2 , we have

1 2 31 -2]3 1/3 3/5

► Ex.2, For tht maJrix A=[32 - 20 4 1

[~
0
1
0
0

0 ~if
0 -1 -1
0

;Hi
-1 /6
0
0
~1/ 5
2q
111

l
nd the 0 0
jindnon -singularmatricesPandQsuch thatPAQis in nomuil form. Also,fi
Lastly, byC 3 ➔ C 3 -C2,C 4 ➔ C 4 - C 2 ,weget

l[
rank ofA.
Soln. Total number of rows= 3 :. Consider unit matrix I3 • 1/3 4/15
0 : 0

.:}H
-1/ 21
Total number of columns= 4 :. Consider unit matrix / 4. - 1/6 1/6 1/6
0 o o0 I
A O
0
Write A3 • 4 =/3A/4 i.e., A=l 3Al4
A
[.:. 0 0
-1 1 0
0
0 -1/5
0 0 1/ 7
A

l
Thus

Hi ; i ~ [; O ] =PAQ (nonnal fonn)

u-~ : ;1=r: : ~
i.e., o .
0
1/3 4 /15
1/6
-1/21]
1/6

Ou~ objective is to reduce Ato nonnal fonn by using elementary transfo

connecllon, we should rememb er the following procedure.
nnations. In this whereP =[-~ -1 -1
;]MdQ=[i
-1/6
0
0
-1/5
0
0
1/7

I. Perfonn row lransfonnations only on left hand side matrix A and

unaltered.
2. Perfonn column transfonnations only on L.H.S. matrix A ru~d
on / keepin g/
3

on / k . / 3
4 eepmg
4
.
Smce A~ ; [/ ~ l p(A) =2

unaltered.
rr Note : P and Qare not unique.
By R2 ➔ R2 -2R, , R3 ➔ R3 -3R1, we have
EXERCISE 7 (C)

~* l
0 0
[' 2 2][
0 -6
3
-s 1 = -2
I
0
I
I 0
0 I fonn. Hence find the rank of
0 -6 -s 1 -3 0 Find non-singular matrices P and Q such thatPAQ is in nonnal
O 0 0 A where
B
yC2 ➔ C2 -2C, ;C3 ➔ C l -3C I' C• ➔ C4 + 2CI , we get 1

[' 0 0 OJ[= -~ 0 -2 -3 1. A=U

2
~] U=[i -:] -1

0 -6 -s 1 I
;Hi I 0

jJ
l uf
0 -6 -s 1 -3 0 I 3
0
0 0
0
3.A=U
2 3
4
2 2
:1
.c, ➔(--sc, )OJldc ➔(!1c•)
I ) -1 -3 -2
ByC 2 ➔ ( --C I . 0
6 ' 0 5 -I~
4 ,weget
 Element:irv• Trans-~om,allons
. or Elementary Op,:rations •
107

~ ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES

5,. .4•ff JI :
•
--:; _1:1 " £X.1. C<1mpute A- I by applying elementmy tronsfomration, where

l -• o
A=[~ ~l
l - 1
~1-
l

Se1ln. Write A=IA

i.e.•
[: : :H~ : fl,
[~ =: iH! ~ n,
[i =~ JU ~~ ~]A
1. f7 / llftW ,- finding the infflW by eleffltnta,Y operations ~
[0
_; :]-[ ~ -2
-1 -1
ne.-.~-w.sofitie puotofme Last thcomTl su£~ the follO"ing steps for finding I.he

J[-:
.-aw«.a.-~ "i'.i.a:-err. atrix.
Tin aia be IX'll''ffllCffrly rnanipualt'd try- oariring A =/.◄ side by side and then operating
• d roa niasfar.nmom oo ~-a of. :hem sunulta."ICOU~ly so th.st by the time A (LHS) has
1,er9~r.o/ ,/t-.abe=.c ae~ro.4-1•
[i -~ -2

Thul H follca che fos1o-.ir.g s:eps f<X finding the inv~ of a matrix A

1. Fa f:nJ;::g A _,. A must be I sqiwe matrix. 1

O
_:]=[-~
-2 -2

[~ ~ -~l l
2. u,.,. :- a. rhea r •cum.
l •-e oaa.-i to apply ooiy ro- rransformation. "e "Tire A = IA where/ is the unit
If
nYml d l!'IC ume <rder as A =[ -: 0 -: A
3
B} performing adc:n:af elementary row. rran.sformations only on A on the left hand 0 0 -2 -2
uJe vld LY pre-factor/ oo t5ae R.H.S~ rhe given matrix A is reduced to I while I is

[~~ -~]=[ =:
rr-dindtoA - 1•

4- lf • ·e •;-nt
ro apr!y only column transformation , we write A= Al. By performing
0 0 -2 -2
~nr.a.. e!enrn~'}' ro~utr'.n rnnsformat.ioos only on A on the L.H.S. and the oost
{Kt« I 00 R.H.S. rhe gwen matn1 A is reduced to / while / is reduced to A-I_
108 • Mallices

ByR, ➔HR,l[:
0

0
o]
-; = -; r -1/2
2l ] A
-3/2

0 I 2 ]

[i ;]=[i
1/2 -1/2 A
By R2 ➔ R2 +R3,
-1/2 -3/2
0

⇒
1
l=BAsothatB=A-
1
=[o 1\ -1~2 ]·
1 -1/2 -3/2

► Ex.2. Compute. the inverse ofthe following matrix by elementary row trans"orm
'J' .
at1on

! : ; ~]
[2
4
5
5
2
14
-3 .
14

Soln. We write A= IA

29 -64/5
0 0 0 -1815]
1 0 0 r-23
10 -12 26/5 715 A

[i 2
4 3
2

!Jf 01 00 OJ
O [i 0
0
1
0
0
1
1 -2
2 -2
6/5
3/5
215
1/5

-3
1 -1
8
-5
10
-1
2
0
0 O
1 O A
1
-1 r-23
10
29 -64/5 - 18/5
-12 26/5 7/5
j
.
1.e., I =BA so thatB=A = ~ 2/5 .

~1r
2 2 1 0 -2 6/5

l
4 3 -2 3/5 1/5
By RI BR2, 0 0
► Ex.3. Compute the inverse of the following matrix by using elementary transformation
[i -3
1 -1
8
-5
10
-1
2
0 1
0 0
i]A -6
-3
-2
-13 -4 -7

By~ ➔~ i ~1r
2 2 2 .

-2R,, [
0 -1 -2
0
0 [-i 4 l
0 l

-3
-1
8
-5
10
-1
-2
0
0
1
0
f]A Soln. We write A= IA
 F
Elementary Transfonnati ons or Elementary Operations • 111

uo • M1aices BY R1 ➔ R, + R3'
2 -3 ][ I 0 o o]

[i I t :!]-[~ ~ ; :~ t
-6 O O A
-13 -4 -7 = 0 1
1 0
1 2 0 0
[-! 4
o 1 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 -1 1 o 2 -2 J

l
By R3 -+(-l)R3, BY R4 -t(-lR4)
0
o]
-6-2
-13 -4 -3]['
-7 _ 0 1
o0 0 A
~ ~ ~ l=[ ~ ~ ~ -~
[~ -2 - 0 0 -1 0 0 -
-4 -1 0 1 0 0 -4 0 5 _7 A
1 0 0
1 0 [
0 0 0 1 -1 0 -2 2
By R1 i-► R3 , ByR -tR1 +2R4 ,R2 ➔ R2 -R4 , R3 ➔ R 3 +4R4 ,

}
0 -1
-4 -1 1
-2] [o 0

il I ~ ~]=[:! ~ _; -:1A
-13 -4 -7 _ 0 1

[~ -6 -2
0
-3 - 1 0
1 0 0
0
0
0

Thusl=BAsothatB=A-

.
0 0 1

1
=[-~
-1

-4
-1
O
1
0
0 -2

0
2
-3
-2
-11 .
1
2
l
2

► Ex.4. Compute the inverse of the following matrix by column transfo,mation

A=[-~-4 -2
~ -~ -~]1
-3
1 1 0

Soln. Write A = AI

i.e.,
[
-~ -4
1
~ -~ -~]=A[~ ~ ~
-2
1
-3 1
0
0 0 1 0
0001
~i
l[
ByC ➔ C -Cp C 3 ➔ C 3 -CpC 4 ➔ C 4 -C,
2 2
-1 -1

[f ; 1J[f
0
0
I
-1
0
5
_]]A
0 0
3
-4 2 1
[-;
1 O0 =A 0I
0
0
1 0
1
0
-~ ~
-~1
1 0 0
0 2 -2
 ~ T ~ . _ c r ~~ • W

~[: ! :] ~[; :~_;]

~[i:; -i ~~] { ~ i~
]
7.[:~: -; :1 _3 l
s.[ ; : ; ~:]
-2 0 0 lO

0 -Z
OJ r-S
0 :.4
-I
s
0
.f ~ i ~] {~ :~-~~ ]
--·-

l. -2
[ -2
I l -I
3
3
O
-4
-3
Ann·~r.s

6 58
2...!_ - 21
17 [ -10 3
541 ]

.!.[-: -: _; l . ½[-; =! -n
l
3.
2 2 -3 l

-;]·
15
-1
0
I I
I
-2
O
-4
-l 6.
[=~~!~;~! _;~:
1/2 1/2 -1/2
S. [ I -I 3 6 1/2 -1/2 -1/2
2 I -6 -10

2 2
7. [;~; _;
-3/ - 1
- 112 -4 8.6 l[-l3~3 ~ ~ -10~3] ·
0 0 2 I
I 1 1 0 0 1
EXERCISE 7 (D) 1/2 0 1/2 0

Compute the inverse of the following by using elementary transformations : 1 -2/3

I. 2
[0
3 -3
-3
-I
4]
4
J
I[ -1 I]
2. 2 2 -3
,.
[
~ 1~3 {; ! -~ -~]
I -4 9
□□□