Industrial Engineering & Ergonomics

WORK MEASUREMENT

Work measurement:
Work measurement is the application of techniques designed to establish the time for a
qualified worker to carry out a specified jab at a defined level of performance.

Work measurement is a term used to describe family of techniques, such as

➢ Stop watch time study

➢ Work sampling
➢ Pre-determined Time Standards
➢ Standard data

Any one of these four techniques can be used to measure work.

Objectives of Work measurement:

(i.) To analyze the operations with the view that the improvement is to be done on
existing methods and to minimize the human effort.
(ii.) To establish and standardize the conditions for an efficient operation.
(iii.) To control man, machine and labour utilization by assessing the plant capacity
accurately.
(iv.) To standardize the standard of performance.
(v.) To determine the man/machine assignment.
(vi.) To determine the time standards to be used as a basis for wage payment to the
direct labour and for the future reference.
(vii.) To improve the operating efficiency.

The Purpose of Work measurement:

Method study is one of the principal technique by which the work involved in the product
or the process could be decreased by the systematic investigation and critical
examination of existing methods and processes and the development and installation of
improved methods.

How ever, the reduction of actual work involved in the product or process to minimum
possible takes us only part of way towards achieving maximum productivity from the
resources of manpower and plant available. Even if the essential work is reduced to
minimum, there is quite likely to be a great deal of unnecessary time taken in the course
of manufacture, due to failure of the management to organize and control as efficiently as
it might, and beyond that, further time is likely to be wasted through the action or in-
action of workers.

Method study is the principal technique for reducing the work involved, primarily by
eliminating unnecessary movement on the part of material or operatives and by
substituting good method for poor ones. Work measurement is concerned with
investigating, reducing and subsequently eliminating ineffective time, that is time during
which no effective work being performed, whatever the cause.
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Work measurement, as the name suggests, provides the management with a means of
measuring the time taken in the performance of an operation or series of operations in
such a way that ineffective time is shown up and can be separated from effective time.
Once the existence of ineffective time has been revealed and reasons for it tracked down,
steps can usually be taken to reduce it.

Work measurement has another role to play. Not only can it reveal the existence of
ineffective time, it can also be used to set standard times for carrying out the work, so
that, if only ineffective time does creep in rates, it will immediately be shown up as an
excess over the standard time and will be bought to the attention of the management.

Method study can reveal shortcomings of design; material and method of manufacture,
and, as such affects mainly technical people.

Work measurement is more likely to show up the management itself and the behaviour of
workers. Because of this reason work measurement is opt to meet with far greater
resistance than method study.

Just as method study should precede work measurement in any organization that takes
place, so must the elimination of ineffective time due to management shortcomings
precede any attack on the ineffective time with in the control of the workers.

Uses of work measurement:

➢ To compare the efficiency of alternative methods other conditions being equal, the
method which takes the least time will be the best method.
➢ To balance work among members of teams.
➢ To Determine number of machines an operative can run.
➢ To provide information on which the planning and scheduling of production can be
based, including plant and labour requirements for carrying out the work.
➢ To provide information on which delivery dates can be estimated.
➢ To set standards of machine utilization and labour performance.
➢ To determine time standards which can be used as a basis for payment of wage
incentives.

It is thus clear that work measurement provides the basic information necessary for all
the activities of organizing and controlling the work of an enterprise.

The basic procedure of work measurement:

1. SELECT: the work to be studied.

2. RECORD: all the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which work is being
done, the methods and the elements of activity in them.
3. EXAMINE: the recorded data and the detailed breakdown critically to ensure that the
most effective method and motions are being used and that unproductive and foreign
elements are separated from productive elements.
4. MEASURE: the quantity of work involved in each element, in terms of time, using
appropriate work measurement technique.
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5. COMPILE: the standard time for the operation (in stop watch time study it will include
application of rating factor and allowances).
6. DEFINE: precisely the series of activities and methods of operation for which the time
has been compiled and issue time as standard for the activities and methods specified.

Select, record, Examine and Measure quantity of work performed using

Predetermined
Work Sampling or Stop watch time or Time Standard
study (PTS)

COMPILE COMPILE

With allowances to COMPILE To get standard

get standard time of time of operation
operations
To establish
standard data banks

Fig: Work Measurement

WORK SAMPLING

Work sampling is a method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain activity by

statistical sampling and random observation.

Work sampling is a fact-finding tool. It is used to obtain information about men or

machines in less time and at lower cost.

Work sampling has three main uses:

(1) Activity and delay sampling- to measure the activities and delays of workers or
machines. Ex: to determine the percentage of the day that a person is working and the
percentage that he or she is not working.

(2) Performance sampling- to measure working time and non working time of a person on
a manual task and to establish a performance index or performance level for the person
during his or her working time.

(3) Work measurement: under certain circumstances, to measure a manual task, that is, to
establish a time standard for an operation.

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Work sampling is based upon the laws of probability. A sample taken at random from a
large group tends to have the same pattern of distribution as the large group or universe.
If the sample is large enough, the characteristics of the sample will differ but little from
the characteristics of the group. Sample is the term used for this small number and
population or universe is the term used for the large group. Obtaining and analyzing only
a part of the universe is known as sampling.

The Need for work sampling:

In order to obtain a complete and accurate picture of the productive time and idle time of
number of machines in a specific production area, it is necessary to observe continuously
all the machines in that area and to record when and why any of the machines where
stopped. This of course will be laborious and uneconomical because number of observers
(equal to number of machines) has to spend all their time in observing machines working
and idle time. Therefore in order to obtain percentage of working and percentage of idle
time of machines, work sampling technique is used, in which only one observer will make
tours of the shop at random intervals of time, noting which machines are working and
which are stopped and noting the cause of each stoppage. Deciding on the reason for
stoppage suitable recommendations will be used, number of observations in which
machines found working divided by total number of observations gives percentage
working time of machines to increase utility.

Determination of Sample Size

The work sampling technique is similar to the sampling technique used in statistical
quality control where conclusions about the proportion defective items ‘P’ in a large
number of items is to be drawn after observing the proportion defective ‘P’ in a suitably
selected sample of size ‘n’ from the large number of items.

In work sampling the instants of random observations during a specified period of time
may be considered to constitute the sample from large time horizon. Then from the ratio
‘P’ of the number of non-working (say) period observations to total number of random
observations during the specified time interval, conclusions about the proportion P of
activity (non working) with respect to total time is to be made.

The question- how far the actual proportion, p may p’ be found in a sample size n depart
can be answered by finding a suitable indicator for measuring the error which will be
measure of sampling variations.

This indicator is the standard deviation of p’ for sample size n, which is also termed as
p (1 − p )
standard error of proportion and is given by,  p =
n −1

For large n (if n  30) the above expression may be approximated without too much error
p (1 − p )
as  p = and normal distribution of the error of proportion may be assumed.
n

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When p is unknown the average value of p’ computed from previous samples may be used
in place of p and the following confidence level statements may be made.

(i) 68% of the time p will lie with in p’   p.

(ii) 95% of the time p will lie with in p’  1.96  p
(iii) 99% of the time p will lie with in p’  2.58  p

as well as defining the confidence level for our observation, margin of error that can be
allowed for these observations are to be available i.e., “we are confident that say, for 95%
of the time this particular observation is within  5% or 10% of what ever other range of
accuracy we may decide on”.

The formula for determining the number of observations required is given by P.S.= K  p =
p(1 − p)
K .
n
Where, P= percentage occurrence of the activity (working or non working) being
measured in fraction.
S= error ( accuracy required) in fraction.
K= a factor, the value of which depends on the desired confidence level. for ex, for 95%
confidence level, k=1.96
n= number of observations required for the desired confidence level and margin of error.

Using the estimated value of ‘p’, value of n is determined satisfying the confidence level
and accuracy constraint.

Random Observations

In designing the work sampling study a time schedule shuld be prepared for taking
observations. work sampling, to be statistically acceptable, requires that each individual
moment have an equal opportunity of being chosen. In other words, the observations
must be random, unbiased and independent.

The use of a table of random numbers is perhaps the best method of ensuring that the
sample is random. The table will serve, first of all

➢ To determine the time of day that an observation should be made

➢ It may also be sued to indicate the order in which the operators should be observed or
➢ The specific location in the department or plant where a reading should be taken.

In table the first number is 950622. The first digit of this number might indicate the hour
and the second and third digits the minutes. Thus, 950 would indicate 9.50 or 9:30 o’
clock. The second half of this number, 622. might be read as 6.22 or approximately 6:13 o’
clock. Since this plant operates only during the periods 8:00 am to 12:00 and 1:00 pm to
5:00 pm this number would be discarded because it falls outside the working period and
next number is considered. Observations usually are not made during lunch periods.

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Observer would start type trip through the departments or plant at a different place each
time. The location for starting could also be selected by using the random number table.
The number 9506 might indicate that this trip start at 9:30 am ad that it begin with
department 6. the observer also might change direction and path of travel in going from
department to department, in order to achieve a greater degree of randomness. By proper
use of this table, a list of random times of any desired length can be obtained. If 25 or less
sampling times are planned for a day. One column will be sufficient. After the column
selected has been translated into clock times, those times falling in scheduled rest and
lunch periods are eliminated if the number of sampling times remaining is greater than
planned, the number to the left of certain times are used to reduce the list of the desired
number. These auxiliary numbers indicate the order in which the times were originally
selected from the random number table. In order to maintain the randomness of the list,
numbers should be eliminated from the list in reverse order of their selection. Thus if only
20 sampling trips were planned then remaining i.e., (25), (26), … will be omitted.

Steps in making work sampling

The following steps are usually required in making work-sampling study.

1. Define the problem:

(a) State the main objectives or purpose of the project or problem.

(b) Describe in detail each element to be measured.

2. Obtain the approval of the supervisor of the department in which the work sampling
study is to be made. Make certain that the operators to be studied and the other
people in the department understand the purpose of the study- obtain their
cooperation.
3. Determine the desired accuracy of the final results. This may be stated as the standard
error of a percentage or desired accuracy or as the absolute error or desired absolute
accuracy. The confidence level should be stated.
4. Make a preliminary estimate of the percentage occurrence of the activity or delay to
be measured. This may be based on past experience; however, it is usually preferable
to make a one-day or two day preliminary work sampling study.
5. Design the study:

(a) Determine the number of observations to be made;

(b) Determine the number of observers needed. Select and instruct these people;
(c) Determine the number of days or shits needed for the study;
(d) Make detailed plans for taking the observations, such as the time and the route to be
followed by the observer;
(e) Design the observation form.

6. Make the observations according to the plan. Analyze and summarize the data.

(a) Make the observations and record the data;

(b) Summarize the data at the end of each day;
(c ) Determine the control limits;
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(d) Plot the data on the control chart at the end of each day.

7. Check the accuracy or precision of the data at end of the study.

8. Prepare the report and state conclusions. Make recommendations if such are called
for.

Advantages of work sampling in comparison with time study

(i) Many operations or activities which are impractical or costly to measure by time
study can readily be measured by work sampling.
(ii) A simultaneous work sampling study of several operators or machines may be
made by a single observer. Ordinarily an analyst is needed for each operator or
machine when continuous time studies are made.
(iii) It usually requires fewer man-hours and costs less to make a work sampling study
than it does to make continuous time study. The cost may be as little as 5 to 50% of
the cost of continuous time study.
(iv) Observations may be taken over a period of days or weeks, thus decreasing the
chance of day-to-day or week-to-week variations affecting the results.
(v) It is not necessary to use trained time study analysts as observers for work
sampling studies unless performance sampling is required. If a time standard or a
performance index is to be established, however, then an experienced time study
analyst must be used.
(vi) A work sampling study may be interrupted at any time without affecting the
results.
(vii) Work sampling measurement may be made with a pre-assigned degree of
reliability. Thus, the results are more meaningful to those not conversant with the
methods used in collecting the information.
(viii) With work sampling the analyst makes an instantaneous observation of the
operator at random intervals during the working day, thus making prolonged time
studies unnecessary.
(ix) Work sampling studies are less fatiguing and less tedious to make on the part of
the observer.
(x) Work sampling studies are preferred to continuous time studies by the operators
being studied. Some people do not like to be observed continuously for long period
of time.
(xi) A stopwatch is not needed for work sampling studies. If an electronic data collector
is used the results are shown on a computer print out.

Disadvantages of Work Sampling

(i) Ordinarily work sampling is not economical for studying a single operator or a
machine or for studying operators or machines located over wide areas. The
observer spends too much time walking to and from the work place or walking
from one work place to another. Also, time study standard data or predetermined
time data are preferred for establishing time standards for short cycle repetitive
operations.

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(ii) Time study permits a finer break down of activities and delays than is possible
with work sampling. Work sampling cannot provide as much detailed information
as one can get from time study.
(iii) The operator may change his or her work pattern upon sight of observer. If this
occurs, the results of such a work sampling study may be of little value.
(iv) A work sampling study made of a group obviously presents average results, and
there is no information as to the magnitude of the individual differences.
(v) Management and workers may not understand statistical work sampling as readily
as they do time study.
(vi) In certain kinds of work sampling studies, no record is made of the method used by
the operator. Therefore, an entirely new study must be made when a method
change occurs in any element.
(vii) There is a tendency on the part of some observer to minimize the importance of
following the fundamental principles of work sampling, such as the proper sample
size for a given degree of accuracy, randomness in making the observations,
instantaneous observation at the pre-assigned location, and careful definition of
the elements or subdivisions of work or delay before the study is started.

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