CHAPTER

CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE
HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS
AND MARINE GEOLOGICAL
HAZARDS
3
CHAPTER OUTLINE
1. Classification Principles and Scheme of Marine Hazard Geology Factors .............................................77
1.1 Current Research Status of Classification of Marine Hazard Geology Factors.........................77
1.1.1 Classification of G.B. Carpenter ..................................................................................... 78
1.1.2 Classification of Li Fan et al. .......................................................................................... 78
1.1.3 Classification of Liu Yixuan et al. .................................................................................... 78
1.1.4 Classification of Chen Junren et al. ................................................................................ 79
1.1.5 Classification of Feng Zhiqiang et al. .............................................................................. 79
1.1.6 Classification of Liu Shouquan et al................................................................................ 79
1.1.7 Classification of Li Peiying et al. ..................................................................................... 79
1.2 Classification Principle and Scheme of Marine Hazard Geology Factors ................................79
1.2.1 Genesis Classification System ........................................................................................ 79
1.2.2 Genesis-Harmfulness Comprehensive Classification System ........................................... 81
2. Classification and Gradation Principle and Scheme of Marine Geohazards...........................................83
2.1 Classification Principle and Scheme of Marine Geohazards .................................................83
2.1.1 Classification According to Marine Geographic Unit........................................................ 87
2.1.2 Classification According to Spatial Distribution................................................................ 87
2.1.3 Classification According to Hazard Chronology ............................................................... 87
2.2 Gradation Principle and Scheme of Marine Geohazards ......................................................87
2.2.1 Hazard Change Intensity Gradation................................................................................ 87
2.2.2 Hazard Degree Gradation .............................................................................................. 87

1. CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLES AND SCHEME OF MARINE HAZARD

GEOLOGY FACTORS
1.1 CURRENT RESEARCH STATUS OF CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE HAZARD
GEOLOGY FACTORS
Classification of marine hazard geology factors is a basic theoretical problem of marine hazard geology;
its purpose is to have more in-depth understanding of the marine hazard geological object. At present,
the geologists still have confusion about “hazard geology factor classification” and “geo-hazard

Marine Geo-Hazards in China. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812726-1.00003-6

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77
78 CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS

classification.” We believe that the geo-hazard classification is an attribute of hazard classification and
measurement on hazard harm degree, and hazard geology factor classification is an attribute of geological
factors, which may bring together hazards and the features of inducing hazards, so there is a clear
distinction between them.
There has been more than 40 years of study on marine hazard geology. With the development of
marine hazard geology survey and research, domestic and foreign scholars according to their
respective research purposes and the understanding of geohazards, have developed a variety of clas-
sification schemes (Carpenter and Mecarthy, 1980; William, 1986; Li, 1990a,b,c; Liu et al., 1992;
Chen and Li, 1993; Li and Yu, 1994; Zhan et al., 1996; Feng et al., 1996; Wang and Xi, 1997; Liu et al.,
2000a; Liu, 2006; Li et al., 2007a,b,c). In accordance with the different classification principles and
bases, there are different classification methods; we only briefly introduce some representative
classification methods in the next subsections.

1.1.1 Classification of G.B. Carpenter

In 1980, when G.B. Carpenter conducted the geological survey in the Atlantic, he performed sys-
tematic study on all kinds of hazard geology factors of the outer shelf, and divided them into two
categories. One category includes the factors that pose high potential risk to seabed oil and gas en-
gineering, such as active fault, shallow layer high-pressure gasbag, submarine landslide, and turbidity
current; this is called hazard geology factor. Once there are such incidents, they are likely to produce
unexpected great loss. A second category are factors that may bring certain threat to the seabed en-
gineering, or bring some troubles to the engineering, such as submarine scarp, buried ancient river
channels, active sand waves and bumps. They may not necessarily result in hazardsdif the geological
investigations are careful and engineering designs are reasonable, the geohazard events can be reduced
or avoided; this is called constraint geology factor.

1.1.2 Classification of Li Fan et al.

In 1990, when Li Fan carried out the study on hazard geology factors in Western South China Sea,
according to the place of geological hazard, they divided the factors into surface hazard geology factors
and underground hazard geology factors. According to the hazard properties, they further divided
factors into direct hazard factors, direct barrier factors, and potential hazard factors (Li, 1990a,b,c).
This classification gives the potential risk degree and concept of hazard factors.
In 1994, Li Fan made additions and modifications to the original classification method. A new
classification method was based on genesis. First he divided the continental shelf hazard geology factors
into six “genesis types”: erosion and accumulation, new tectonic movement, volcano, biology, glacier,
and artificial. Second, on the basis of its harmfulness to engineering, the factors were further subdivided
into risk factors and barrier factors. Third, on the basis of engineering harm degree, the factors were
further divided into risk factors, potential risk factors, and barrier factors (Li and Yu, 1994).

1.1.3 Classification of Liu Yixuan et al.

When Liu Yixuan et al. studied geohazards in coastal Southern China, they proposed the classification
scheme for marine geohazards (actually it is classification of the marine hazard geology factors). This
scheme is according to the earth spheres where there are geohazard dynamics, and proposes four
geohazard factor divisions: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere (Liu et al., 1992).
Geohazards are generally due to the interaction results of lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere, so if we want to define the sphere a geological hazard belongs to, it would be very difficult
with this method. Therefore, this classification lacks practicality.
 1. PRINCIPLES AND SCHEME OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS 79

1.1.4 Classification of Chen Junren et al.

When Chen Junren studied geohazards in South China Sea, he put forward a new classification method
of marine geohazards (actually it is classification of the marine hazard geology factors). This method is
based on the dynamics that induce geological hazards, divided into five types: hydrodynamic force, gas
dynamic, soil mechanics, gravity, and inner moving force (Chen et al., 1993). This classification has
better balance with respect to both the systematization and practicality.

1.1.5 Classification of Feng Zhiqiang et al.

Feng Zhiqiang in the book Geological Hazard in Northern South China Sea and Seabed Engineering
Geological Conditions Evaluation constructed a classification of geohazards (actually it is classifi-
cation of the marine hazard geology factors). According to the activities and the harm to engineering,
this classification system divided hazard geology factors into two categories, namely destructive
geohazard factors that have activity and constraint geological conditions that have no activity, with a
total of 13 types (Feng et al., 1996).

1.1.6 Classification of Liu Shouquan et al.

The classification of marine hazard geology factors proposed by Liu Shouquan et al. comprehensively
considered the two dynamic systems inside and outside of earth and the space of hazard geology
factors; it divided the hazard geology factors in South China Sea into four categories as tectonic,
coastal, seabed, and shallow layer (Liu et al., 2000a,b).

1.1.7 Classification of Li Peiying et al.

Li Peiying in the book China Coastal Zone Hazard Geology Characteristics and Evaluation put
forward a hazard geology classification system of coastal zone (Li et al., 2007b). This classification
combined with the characteristics of China’s coastal zone hazard geology factors, and comprehen-
sively considered the damage degree, dynamic origin, and human activities, so it has better balance
regarding both the systematization and practicality.
These classification methods are shown in Table 3.1 and Table 3.2.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY

FACTORS
Classification of hazard geology factors should follow scientific and practical principles. Scientific
principle means that the classification scheme can clearly reflect its essence and the relationship with
each other; practical principle means that the classification scheme is easy to grasp. In accordance with
this principle, and according to the development characteristics of the marine hazard geology factors in
China seas, and with reference to the previous classification of various hazard geology factors, we put
forward the genesis classification system and comprehensive classification system that considers both
genesis and harmfulness of the hazard factors.

1.2.1 Genesis Classification System

This classification system is, firstly and according to the genesis of marine hazard geology
factors, divided into natural genesis and human genesis as two categories. According to the hazardous
factors, the former is further divided into five subcategories as tectonic activity, gravity (slope) effect,
erosion-accumulation effect, coast (ocean) force effect, and special geological body; according to
 80 CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS

Table 3.1 Existing Classification Scheme

Scheme Carpenter (1980) Li (1990a,b,c) Liu et al. (1992)

Types Hazardous Shallow Surface Direct Large active Lithosphere Earthquake,

geology layer high hazard risk sand wave, Volcano
factors pressure geology factors Sand ridge,
gas, factors Mudflow,
Submarine Landslide,
landslide, Submarine
Submarine erosion
slump, Potential Steep slope,
Active risk Sandy soil
fault, factors liquefaction
Seafloor layer, Pit
active sand Direct Sand dune, Atmosphere Storm surge,
wave, Mud barrier Pit, Gully, Debris flow,
mound factors Earth Landslide
hummock,
Scarp
Constraint Buried Underground Direct Shallow Hydrosphere Sea rock
geology ancient hazard risk layer high erosion,
factors river geology factors pressure gas Submarine
channel, factors Active fault, erosion,
Gas- Deep fault, Trough
bearing Potential Sandy soil valley
sediment, risk liquefaction
Submarine factors layer,
sand wave, Buried
Sand landslide,
dunes, Ancient
Submarine delta
trench, Direct Buried Biosphere Soil and
Bump (pit) barrier ancient river water loss
factors channel,
Buried
ancient
landslide,
Biogas

human activity regions, the latter is further divided into two subcategories of coastal human activities
and offshore human activities as, as shown in Table 3.3.
The marine hazard geology factors with natural genesis are mainly earthquake, volcano, active
fault, sand and soil liquefaction, landslide, turbidity current, sand ridge, sand wave, gas-bearing
deposit, tsunami, and storm surge et al.; the marine hazard geology factors with human genesis are
mainly harbor and waterway siltation and land subsidence et al.; in fact, some marine hazard geology
 1. PRINCIPLES AND SCHEME OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS 81

Chen et al. (1993) Feng et al. (1996) Liu et al. (2000a,b)

Hydro- Canyon, Active Shallow gas, Tectonic Inner motive Earthquake,

dynamic Erosion destructive Landslide, force Active fault,
force Valley, hazard Fault, Scarp, Volcano
Active sand geology Diapir,
wave factors Active sand
Aerodynamic Shallow gas wave,
force Earthquake
Hydraulics Submarine Coastal Stress Seawater
soft interaction intrusion,
interlayer, between land Coastal
Ancient river and sea erosion
bed sandbar,
Storm
sediment
Gravity Landslide, Inactive Buried Submarine Hydrodynamic Active sand
Mud restrictive ancient river force, gravity wave, Sand
turbidity geological channel, Ridge, Scour
current condition Irregular depressions,
bedrock Landslide,
surface, Turbidity
Bump, Shoal, current,
Canyon, Steep slope,
Non-mobile Bump,
sand wave, Canyon,
Buried Seamounts
Tectonic Volcano, Valley Shallow Buried landform, Liquefaction
stress Earthquake, sand layer, Rapid accumulation,
Fracture Biogas, High pressure shallow gas,
puncture

factors, e.g., collapse, landslide, seawater intrusion, and land subsidence, can be both due to natural
geological effect and human effect, and on many occasions are caused by the composite natural and
human effects.

1.2.2 Genesis-Harmfulness Comprehensive Classification System

This classification system comprehensively considers both the genesis and harmfulness of hazard
factors. Genesis is divided into natural genesis and human genesis as two categories; the former is
further divided into tectonic activity, gravity (slope) effect, erosion-accumulation effect, coastal
(ocean) force, and special geological body (rock and soil body) as five subcategories. According to the
harmfulness of hazard factors, they are divided into two categories of active hazard factors and po-
tential hazard factors. Active hazard factors refer to the types with high active ability and high potential
 82
CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS
Table 3.2 Coastal Zone Hazard Factor Classification Scheme (Li et al., 2007a,b)
Erosion- Rock-Soil Sea-Air Human
Types Tectonic Gravity Accumulation Stratum Interaction Activity

Direct hazard Earthquake, Landslide, Coastal erosion, Shallow gas, Storm surge, Sea Land
geology factors Volcano, Ground Collapse, Debris Coastal dune, Mud volcano level rise, Saline subsidence,
fissure, Active flow, Coastal Harbor siltation, land, Seawater Coastal erosion,
fault collapse Erosion scarp, intrusion Saline land,
Tidal sand ridge, Seawater
Submarine sand intrusion,
wave and dune, Vulnerable land,
Scour channel, desertification
Submarine Land, Soil and
canyon water loss,
Groundwater
pollution
Potential hazard Fault cliff, Fault Talus, Cliff, Rocky Ancient river Vulnerable Strong fresh
geology factors scarp, Dormant Submarine mud beach, Coastal channel, Buried wetland, water pumping
volcano, Buried stream embankment, unconformity, Ancient beach zone, Protection
fault, Seamount Subaqueous Ancient Delta, forest
and sea dune delta, Tidal Ancient sandbar, destruction
delta, Coastal Weak layer, zone, Industrial
terrace, Shoal, Liquid and gas waste, Mine pit
Caldron mineral deposit, collapse
Easily liquefied
sand layer,
Undulating
bedrock
 2. GRADATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF MARINE GEOHAZARDS 83

Table 3.3 Genesis Classification System

Genesis Main Hazard Factors

Natural genesis Tectonic activity Earthquake, volcano, active fault, ground fissure
Gravity (slope) effect Collapse, landslide, debris flow, land subsidence, submarine
turbidity current
Erosion-accumulation Coast and seabed erosion, sand wave, sand ridge, estuary and
effect bay siltation
Coastal (ocean) dynamic Coastal erosion, sea level rise and fall, seawater intrusion,
action storm surge, tsunami, sand liquefaction
Special geological body Mud diapir, mud volcano, soft soil interlayer, gas-bearing
(rock soil body) deposit, bioherm, gas and liquid mineral deposit, ancient river
channel, ancient erosion surface, shallow buried undulating
bedrock
Human genesis Coast human activities Land subsidence, seawater intrusion, coastal erosion, harbor
and river channel siltation, collapse, landslide, desertification,
land salinization, groundwater pollution, ground collapse
Offshore human Seabed erosion, sand and soil liquefaction
activities

harmfulness, such as earthquake, volcanic activity, active fault, landslide, active sand wave, and
coastal erosion; potential hazard factors refer to the hazard types with no activity, such as mud diapir,
easily liquefied sand layer, soft soil interlayer, bioherm, ancient river channel, ancient erosion surface,
shallow buried undulating bedrock, scarp, and scour trough, which themselves have no direct
destruction effect, but should be paid attention to during the ocean engineering investigation, design,
and construction, otherwise they will bring accidents or potential dangers. The comprehensive clas-
sification system is detailed in Table 3.4.
The previous two classification systems have their own characteristics. We believe that based on
the different surveys, research purposes, and demands, we can adopt different classification schemes.
With the further development of marine geohazard survey and research work, the existing classifi-
cation schemes will continue to be supplemented, revised, and improved.

2. CLASSIFICATION AND GRADATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF

MARINE GEOHAZARDS
2.1 CLASSIFICATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF MARINE GEOHAZARDS
As mentioned before, geohazard classification divides the hazard properties and harmfulness degrees.
Marine geohazard classification should also follow scientific and practical principles, and be condu-
cive to monitoring and forecast, implementation of prevention, and countermeasures for marine
geohazards. Different marine geohazards have different hazardous factors. Only when we master the
genesis, mechanisms, and development laws of geohazards can we make effective early warning and
forecasting, and propose targeted prevention and control measures. In addition, the occurrence and
duration of marine geohazard is another important principle of the classification. Different hazards
 84
CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS
Table 3.4 Genesis-Harmfulness Comprehensive Classification System
Natural Genesis

Special
Erosion- Coast (Sea) Geological
Tectonic Gravity Accumulation Dynamic Body (Rock Human
Types Activities (Slope) Effect Effect Action Soil Body) Genesis

Harmfulness Active hazard Earthquake, Landslide, Coastal Coastal Gas-bearing Coastal erosion,
geology factors Active fault, Collapse, erosion, Seabed erosion, Sea sediments, Seawater
Volcanic Debris flow, scouring, Tidal level Mud volcano intrusion, Land
activities, Turbidity sand ridge, rise, Seawater subsidence,
Ground fissure current Active s intrusion, Harbor siltation
and wave, Storm surge,
Estuary and Tsunami
harbor siltation
Potential Fault cliff, Scarp, Talus Marine cliff, Vulnerable Mud diaper, Desertification,
hazard geology Fault scarp, Marine terrace, wetland, Soft soil Land
factors Dormant Beach ridge, Ancient Beach interlayer, salinization
volcano Offshore dam, Bioherm, Gas
Scour channel, and liquid
Submarine mineral
canyon deposit,
Ancient river
channel,
Ancient
erosion
surface,
Shallow buried
undulating
bedrock
 2. GRADATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF MARINE GEOHAZARDS 85

have large differences of occurrence and duration. For example, earthquake often only has a few
minutes of occurrence and duration, therefore it is sudden hazard, and instantaneously can cause huge
losses; coastal erosion, land subsidence, and other marine geohazards often last for a few years,
decades, or even longer, and they are gradual or progressive accumulation, gradually producing
disastrous consequences. Obviously, because the occurrence and duration of hazard is different, hazard
prevention and reduction countermeasures and measures to be taken are also different.
In accordance with the just-discussed principle, we hereby put forward the following classification
system with genesis as dominant factor and consideration of the hazard occurrence and duration.
According to the hazard genesis, this classification system divides the marine geohazards into two
categories: natural genesis and human genesis. According to the hazardous factors, marine geohazards
with natural genesis are divided into four subcategories of tectonic activity, gravity (slope) effect,
erosion-accumulation effect, and coastal (ocean) force effect; according to the occurrence and dura-
tion, marine geohazards are divided into sudden and gradual types. For details see Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Marine Geohazard Classification System

Hazardous Factors
Natural Genesis

Coastal
Occurrence (Ocean) Erosion-
and Duration Tectonic Gravity Dynamic Accumulation Human
Time Activities (Slope) Effect Effect Effect Genesis

Burst type Earthquake, Collapse, Tsunami, Estuary and Harbor and

Tsunami Landslide, Storm surge harbor sudden waterway
caused by Debris flow, siltation sudden
earthquake, Submarine siltation, Rock
Landslides and turbidity burst, Water
Sand soil current, Land inrush,
liquefaction collapse Artificially
(induced by induced
earthquake), earthquake
Fault
activities,
Ground
fissure,
Volcanic
activities
Gradually- Ground Ground Coastal Coastal Seawater
varied type deformation, deformation erosion, erosion, intrusion,
Block Seawater Estuary and Land
displacement, intrusion, Sea harbor subsidence,
Crustal level rise siltation, Under Coastal
movement sluice siltation, erosion,
Tidal sand Harbor and
ridge, Active waterway
sand wave siltation
 86
Table 3.6 Hazard Change Intensity Gradation
Intensity Grade

CHAPTER 3 CLASSIFICATION OF MARINE HAZARD GEOLOGY FACTORS

Extra-
No. Type Hazard Index Large Large Medium Small

1 Coastal Shoreline Silt-muddy >50 50e15 15e5 <5

erosion recession rate/ coast
(m/a) Sandy coast >5 5e1.5 1.5e0.5 <0.5
2 Seawater Intrusion range (km2) >500 500e100 100e10 <10
intrusion
3 Land Subsidence area (km2) >500 500e100 100e10 <10
subsidence Accumulated subsidence (cm) >200 200e100 100e50 <50
4 Submarine Volume (104 m3) >1000 1000e100 100e10 <10
landslide
5 Harbor Siltation rate (cm/a) >200 200e100 100e10 <10
siltation
6 Tsunami Wave height (m) >20 20e6 6e1 <1
Energy (ERG) >8  1021 8  1021e3.2  1020 3.2  1020e1.3  1019 <1.3  1019
7 Storm surge Water level increased by storm >1.5 1.5e1 1e0.5 <0.5
surge (m)

Table 3.7 Hazard Degree Gradation

Number of Deaths and Direct Economic Loss
No. Hazard Degree Missing (3 104 Yuan)

1 Extra-large hazard >50 >500,000

2 Large hazard 50e10 500,000e50,000
3 Medium hazard <10 50,000e10,000
4 Small hazard 0 <10,000
 2. GRADATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF MARINE GEOHAZARDS 87

In addition to the previous classification, other main classifications of marine geohazards are briefly
introduced as follows.

2.1.1 Classification According to Marine Geographic Unit

In accordance with the regions where the geohazards occur they can be divided into coastal zone
geohazards, continental shelf geohazards, continental slope geohazards, and deep sea basin
geohazards.

2.1.2 Classification According to Spatial Distribution

According to the spatial distribution, the geohazards can be divided into seabed geohazards and
submarine buried geohazards. The former are collapse, landslide, coast erosion, harbor and waterway
siltation, tidal sand ridge, and active sand wave et al.; the latter are earthquake, sand and soil lique-
faction, and seawater intrusion et al.

2.1.3 Classification According to Hazard Chronology

Hazard chronology can be divided into primary marine geohazards and secondary marine geohazards.
The former are earthquake and active fault et al.; the latter are tsunami, sand and soil liquefaction
induced by earthquake et al.

2.2 GRADATION PRINCIPLE AND SCHEME OF MARINE GEOHAZARDS

Gradation of geological hazard reflects the geological hazard scale, activity frequency, and the degree
of harm to humans and environment. It has a variety of schemes including hazard change gradation,
hazard degree gradation, and risk gradation. The following only presents two common schemes of
hazard change intensity gradation and hazard degree gradation.

2.2.1 Hazard Change Intensity Gradation

Hazard change intensity gradation is the division of hazard intensity, scale, and frequency. According
to the scale and severity of marine geohazards, we put forward the following hazard change intensity
gradation scheme for part of hazards. For example, for silt-muddy coastal erosion hazard, the annual
erosion rate greater than 50 m belongs to extra-large hazard, the annual erosion rate of 50 ～ 15 m
belongs to large hazard, the annual erosion rate of 15 ～ 5 m belongs to medium hazard, and the annual
erosion rate less than 5 m belongs to small hazard; see the details in Table 3.6. Landslide, land sub-
sidence, and seawater intrusion use the hazard change intensity grading index proposed by Zhang and
Zhang (1994).

2.2.2 Hazard Degree Gradation

According to the number of deaths and direct economic loss of one hazard, marine geohazard degree
gradation can be divided into four grades: extra-large hazard, large hazard, medium hazard, and small
disaster as. Table 3.7 presents hazard degree grading according to the present situation of China’s
marine geohazards.