Chapter 8: Failure

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are the different types of failure?
• Under what conditions/situation does each type occur?
• What is the mechanism associated with each failure type?
• What parameter is used to quantify a material's resistance to fracture?
• What measures may be taken to reduce the likelihood of each
failure type?

Neal Boenzi/New York Times Pictures/Redux

Pictures

Chapter-opening photographs, Chapter 8, AP/Wide World Photos

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 1
 Contents
• Fracture
• Simple fracture (ductile and brittle modes)
• Fundamentals of fracture mechanics
• Fracture toughness testing
• The ductile-to-brittle transition
• Fatigue
• Creep

Chapter 8 - 2
 Fracture
• Simple fracture – the separation of a body into two or
more pieces in response to a static stress
• Propagation of cracks accompanies fracture
• Two general types of fracture
– Ductile
• Slow crack propagation
• Accompanied by significant plastic deformation
• Fails with warning
– Brittle
• Rapid crack propagation
• Little or no plastic deformation
• Fails without warning
• Ductile fracture generally more desirable than brittle
fracture
Chapter 8 - 3
 Examples of Ductile and Brittle
Fracture of Pipes
• Ductile fracture:
-- one piece
-- large deformation

• Brittle fracture:
-- many pieces
-- small deformations

Figures from V.J. Colangelo and F.A. Heiser,

Analysis of Metallurgical Failures (2nd ed.), Fig.
4.1(a) and (b), p. 66 John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1987. Used with permission.

Chapter 8 - 4
 Fracture Profiles
Fracture Very Moderately
Brittle
behavior: Ductile Ductile

Adapted from Fig. 8.1,

Callister & Rethwisch 8e.

%RA or %EL Large Moderate Small

• Ductile fracture is Ductile: Brittle:
usually more desirable Warning before No
than brittle fracture! fracture warning

Chapter 8 - 5
 Stages of Moderately Ductile Failure
void void growth crack
necking nucleation and coalescence propagation fracture

(a) Scanning electron fractograph showing

spherical dimples characteristic of
ductile fracture resulting from uniaxial
tensile. 3300x
(b) Scanning electron fractograph showing
parabolic-shaped dimples characteristic
of ductile facture result from shear
loading. 5000x

Chapter 8 - 6
 Fracture Surface Photographs

cup-and-cone fracture brittle fracture

- moderately ductile - totally brittle
- flat surfaces

Fig. 8.3, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 7
 Brittle Failure Surface Photographs
• Brittle fracture surface displays V-shaped, chevron markings
• V features point to the crack initiation site

Fig. 8.5(a), Callister & Rethwisch 10e. [From R. W. Hertzberg, Deformation and Fracture Mechanics of Engineering
Materials, 3rd edition. Copyright © 1989 by John Wiley & Sons, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
Inc. Photograph courtesy of Roger Slutter, Lehigh University.]
Chapter 8 - 8
Photographs of Brittle Fracture Surfaces
• Intergranular crack propagation • Transgranular crack propagation
(between grains) (through grains)

4 mm
304 S. Steel (metal)
Reprinted w/permission from "Metals Handbook", 9th
ed, Fig. 633, p. 650. Copyright 1985, ASM
International, Materials Park, OH. (Micrograph by J.R.
Keiser and A.R. Olsen, Oak Ridge National Lab.)
160 mm
316 S. Steel (metal)
Reprinted w/ permission from "Metals
Handbook", 9th ed, Fig. 650, p. 357.
Copyright 1985, ASM International, Materials
Park, OH. (Micrograph by D.R. Diercks,
Argonne National Lab.)

Chapter 8 - 9
 Principles of Fracture Mechanics
• Fracture occurs as result of crack propagation.
• Each case has different causes.
• Understanding of fracture mechanism is needed.
• Fracture mechanics - study of the propagation of
cracks in materials.
- Relationships among material properties, stress level,
crack size and crack propagation mechanism.

Chapter 8 - 10
 Fracture Mechanics (cont.)
Stress concentration

• Measured fracture strengths of most materials

much lower than predicted by theory
– microscopic flaws (cracks) always exist in materials
– magnitude of applied tensile stress amplified or
concentrated at the tips of these cracks

Chapter 8 - 11
 Fracture Mechanics (cont.)

Stress Concentration at
Crack Tip

Flaws are Stress Risers

or Stress Concentrators

Adapted from Fig. 8.8(b),

Callister & Rethwisch 10e. Chapter 8 - 12
 Fracture Mechanics (cont.)
The maximum stress, σm may be approximately by
Crack

where
rt = radius of curvature
σo = applied stress
rt
σm = stress at crack tip
a = one half length of internal
crack or a length of surface crack
sm
Kt =
so
Fig. 8.8(a), Callister & Rethwisch 10e. Kt = stress concentrationChapter
factor 8 - 13
 Fracture Mechanics (cont.)
• Avoid sharp corners!
σ0 Kt
Kt tends to increase with increasing
w 2.5 w/h ratio and decreasing r/h ratio.
σmax

r, h
2.0 increasing w/h
fillet
radius σ0
1.5
Adapted from Fig.
8.2W(c), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 8.2W(c) is from G.H.
Neugebauer, Prod. Eng. (NY),
Vol. 14, pp. 82-87 1943.) 1.0 r/h
0 0.5 1.0
sharper fillet radius

Chapter 8 - 14
 Crack Propagation

• Cracks having sharp tips propagate easier than blunt tips

• Ductile metal – plastic deformation occurs – blunt tip –
lower stress concentration
• Brittle metal – no plastic deformation- sharp tip – higher
stress concentration – crack propagation

deformed
region

ductile brittle

Chapter 8 - 15
 Criterion for Crack Propagation
Crack propagation (and fracture) occurs when σm > σc for
crack with lowest σc
Critical stress for crack propagation (σc) of brittle materials

where For ductile materials

- sc = critical crack-tip stress replace γs with γs + γp
– E = modulus of elasticity where γp is plastic
deformation energy
– s = specific surface energy
– a = one half length of internal crack or a length of surface crack

- materials have numerous cracks with different lengths

and orientations.
- Largest, most highly stressed cracks grow first!
Chapter 8 - 16
 Fracture Toughness
• Measure of material’s resistance to brittle
fracture when a crack is present
• Defined as
KC = YsC√p a
Kc = fracture toughness [MPa √m]
Y = dimensionless parameter
sc = critical stress for crack propagation [MPa]
a = crack length [m]
• For planar specimens with cracks much
shorter than specimen width, Y ≈ 1

Chapter 8 - 18
 Plane Strain Fracture Toughness
• For specimen thickness much greater than crack
dimension, KC independent of thickness
– Condition of plane strain exists
– Leads to plane strain fracture toughness, KIc, where
I indicates mode I crack displacement

• values of KIc relatively high for ductile materials and

low for brittle ones
Chapter 8 - 19
 Design Against Fracture
• Crack growth condition:

--Scenario 1: KIc and flaw --Scenario 2: Kic and stress

size a specified - dictates level specified - dictates
max. design (critical) stress. max. allowable flaw size.

σc ac

fracture fracture
no no
fracture fracture
a σ
Chapter 8 - 21
Design Example: Aircraft Wing
An aircraft component is made from a material has
KIc = 26 MPa-m0.5 It has been determined that
fracture results at a stress of 112 MPa when the
maximum (critical) internal crack length is 9.0 mm.
For this same component and alloy, compute the
stress level at which fracture will occur for a critical
internal crack length of 4.0 mm.

Chapter 8 - 22
Solution:
Given that fracture occurs for same component using
same alloy the parameter Y will be the same for both
situations. Solving for Y for the conditions under which
fracture occurred using following equation

Now we will solve for sc using following equation

Answer: s c = 168 MPa

Chapter 8 - 23
 Brittle Fracture of Ductile Materials
• Pre-WWII: The Titanic
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(a), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Dr. Robert D. Ballard, The Discovery of the Titanic.)
• Ships failed in a brittle manner though constructed of
steel that, from tension tests, is normally ductile
• Ductile to britt
• WWII: Liberty ships
Reprinted w/ permission from R.W. Hertzberg, "Deformation and
Fracture Mechanics of Engineering Materials", (4th ed.) Fig.
7.1(b), p. 262, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1996. (Orig. source:
Earl R. Parker, "Behavior of Engineering Structures", Nat. Acad.
Sci., Nat. Res. Council, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., NY, 1957.)
Chapter 8 - 24
 Testing Ductile Materials for Brittle
Failure (Izod)
Impact Test
• Test conditions promoting brittle fracture:
(Charpy)
-- High strain rate
-- Deformation at low temperatures
-- Presence of a notch

Impact energy
Fig. 8.13(b), Callister
computed from & Rethwisch 10e.
(Adapted from H.W.
difference between Hayden, W.G. Moffatt,
and J. Wulff, The
initial height h and Structure and Properties
of Materials, Vol. III,
final height h’ Mechanical Behavior,
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
(1965) p. 13.)

final height initial height

Chapter 8 - 25
 Influence of T on Impact Energy
• When impact tests conducted as function of temperature—
three kinds of behavior observed for metals
• Some BCC metals exhibit Ductile-to-Brittle Transition
Temperature (DBTT)
FCC and HCP metals (e.g., Cu, Ni)
ductile fracture
Adapted from Fig. 8.16,
Impact Energy

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

BCC metals (e.g., low strength steels)
polymers

brittle
fracture
High strength materials
Temperature
Metals having DBTT should only be used at temperatures where ductile.

Chapter 8 - 26
 Contents
• Fracture
• Simple fracture (ductile and brittle modes)
• Fundamentals of fracture mechanics
• Fracture toughness testing
• The ductile-to-brittle transition
• Fatigue
• Creep

Chapter 8 - 27
 Fatigue Failure
• Fatigue = failure under lengthy period of repeated stress
or strain cycling
• Key points: Fatigue...
--can cause part failure, even though applied stress σmax < σy.
--responsible for ~ 90% of mechanical engineering failures.
--brittle-like in nature

Chapter 8 - 28
 Cyclic stresses
σmax
Reversed stress cycle
σmin

σmax

Repeated stress cycle

σmin

Random stress cycle

 Cyclic stresses (cont.)
s max+s min
Mean stress sm =
2

Range of stress s r =s max-s min

s max-s min
Stress amplitude sa =
2

s min
Stress ratio R=
s max

30
 Fatigue Testing
• Study fatigue behavior of materials under cyclic load.
• Plot stress vs. logarithm of the number of cycles to
failure for each specimen; S-N curve

Schematic diagram
of an apparatus for
performing rotating-
bending fatigue
tests
Adapted from Fig. 8.19(a),
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 31
 Types of Fatigue Behavior
• Fatigue data plotted as
stress amplitude S vs. log
of number N of cycles to
failure.
• Two types of fatigue
behavior observed
-- S-N curve with a fatigue limit
(for some ferrous and titanium
alloys)

-- S-N curve without a fatigue limit

(for some nonferrous e.g.
aluminum, copper)
- fatigue strength
- fatigue life

Chapter 8 - 32
 Improving Fatigue Life
• Three general techniques to improve fatigue life
1. Reducing magnitude of mean stress
2. Surface treatments
3. Design changes

S = stress amplitude Adapted from

Fig. 8.26, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

near zero or compressive σm

moderate tensile σm
Larger tensile σm

N = Cycles to failure

Decreasing mean stress increases fatigue life

Chapter 8 - 33
 Improving Fatigue Life
• Three general techniques to improve fatigue life
1. Reducing magnitude of mean stress
2. Surface treatments
3. Design changes
Imposing compressive surface stresses increases surface hardness
– suppresses surface cracks from growing
--Method 1: shot peening --Method 2: carburizing
shot
C-rich gas
put
surface
into
compression

surface compressive stress due surface compressive stress due

to plastic deformation of outer to carbon atoms diffusing into
surface layer outer surface layer
Chapter 8 - 34
 Improving Fatigue Life
• Three general techniques to improve fatigue life
1. Reducing magnitude of mean stress
2. Surface treatments
3. Design changes

Remove stress bad better

concentrators Fig. 8.27, Callister &
Rethwisch 10e.

sharp corner – point of rounding corner reduces

stress concentration stress concentration

Chapter 8 - 35
 Contents
• Fracture
• Simple fracture (ductile and brittle modes)
• Fundamentals of fracture mechanics
• Fracture toughness testing
• The ductile-to-brittle transition
• Fatigue
• Creep

Chapter 8 - 36
 Creep
Measure deformation (strain) vs. time at constant stress
σ σ

0 t

Occurs at elevated temperature for most metals, T > 0.4 Tm (in K)

Adapted from Fig. 8.30, Callister

& Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 8 - 37
Three regions of creep curve
Primary or Transient Creep:
- Slope (creep rate) decreases with time.
- Creep resistance or strain hardening

Secondary or Steady-State Creep:

- Constant slope (Δe /Δt).
- Balance between the stain hardening and recovery processes

Tertiary Creep:

- Slope (creep rate) increases with time, i.e. acceleration of rate.

- Microstructural changes

Chapter 8 - 38
 Stress and Temperature Effects
Increasing
T or s

tertiary

primary
secondary

elastic

Figs. 8.31, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

• At T < 0.4 Tm the strain is independent of time

• Steady-state creep rate ( ) increases with increasing T and s
• Rupture lifetime (tr) decreases with increasing T and s Chapter 8 - 39
 Steady-State Creep Rate
• constant for constant T, s
-- strain hardening is balanced by recovery
-- dependence of steady-state creep rate on T, s
stress exponent (material parameter)

activation energy for creep

(material parameter)
material const. applied stress
Adapted from
• Steady-state 200 Fig. 8.31, Callister &
427°C
Stress (MPa)

Rethwisch 7e.
creep rate 100 [Reprinted with permission
from Metals Handbook:
increases 538°C Properties and Selection:
40 Stainless Steels, Tool
with increasing Materials, and Special
Purpose Metals, Vol. 3, 9th
20
T, σ 649°C
ed., D. Benjamin (Senior Ed.),
ASM International, 1980, p.
10 131.]

10 -2 10 -1 1
Steady state creep rate ε s (%/1000hr) Chapter 8 - 40
 SUMMARY
• Simple fracture – one type of failure
- Occurs by crack propagation
- Ductile fracture: some plastic deformation – slow crack propagation
- Brittle fracture: no plastic deformation – crack propagation
- Fracture surfaces – different for ductile and brittle
• Small cracks or flaws exist in all materials
- Applied tensile stress amplified at tips of flaws
- Fracture – when stress at tip of crack reaches theoretical strength
• Fracture toughness – measurement of material’s
resistance to brittle fracture
- A function of applied stress and crack length
• Impact tests – Impact energy measured vs. temperature
- Some ductile materials experience brittle fracture – low temps.

Chapter 8 - 43
 SUMMARY (cont.)
• Fatigue failure – stress fluctuations with time
- Occurs at applied stress < TS
- Important parameters: fatigue limit, fatigue strength/lifetime
• Creep failure – at elevated temperatures and constant strain
- Important parameters: steady-state creep rate, rupture lifetime
- Data extrapolation – Larson-Miller parameter

Chapter 8 - 44