Lecture 02

MAS409- Lecture 2
Systems and Circuits in AC machines.
Martin Choux
Electric Drive
Power
processing Motor Load
unit (PPU)
Fixed form
Speed/
Electric source Adjustable position
(utility) form
Sensor
Controller
input command
(speed/position)
Outline
• Basics 2
• Four Basic Principles 3
• Single phase 4
Use of Phasors
Use of Phasors
Instantaneous Power
Active Power, Reactive Power, Power Factor
• Three Phase Circuits 10
• Space Vectors 15
Coordinate transformations of Real Space Vectors
Instantaneous power using complex space vectors
• Introduction to AC Machines 23
2 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Four Basic Principles
Four Basic Principles for the Course
1 A current-carrying wire produces a 2 Time varying field induces a voltage

magnetic field. in a wire. (transformer action)
3 Magnetic field exerts a force on the 4 A conductor moving in a magnetic

current-carrying wire. (motor action) field has a voltage induced on it.
(generator action)

Single phase
Phasor Domain Representation for Sinusoidal Steady State
AC
V̂
v(t) = V̂ cos(ωt) ⇔ V̄ = √ ∠0
2
Iˆ
i(t) = Iˆ cos(ωt − φ) ⇔ I¯ = √ ∠ − φ
2

Single phase
Complex Impedances
• v̄(t) = V ej(ωt+φ)
• derivative of a phasor ⇔ ·jω
voltage- phasors complex reactance

current impedance
relation
Inductor v(t) = L di(t)
dt v̄(t) = jωLī(t) ZL = XL = ωL
jωL =
jXL
Capacitor i(t) = C dv(t)
dt ī(t) = jωC v̄(t) ZL = XC = 1/(ωC)
1
jωC =
−jXC

Single phase
Time-Domain Analysis
Z
di(t) 1
Ri(t) + L + i(t) dt = V̂ cos(ωt)
dt C

Single phase
Phasor Domain Analysis (Steady-State Analysis)
V̂
V̄ = √
2
∠0
Z = R + jXL − jXC = |Z|∠φ

s " #
1 2 ωL − 1

−1 ωC
|Z| = R2 + ωL − ; φ = tan
ωC R
√
V̄ V̂ / 2 √ V̂
I¯ = = ∠−φ ⇔ i(t) = 2 Re(ī(t)) = cos(ωt − φ)
Z |Z| |Z|

Single phase
Instantaneous Power
v(t) = V̂ cos(ωt + φv )
√
= 2V cos((ωt + φv )
i(t) = Iˆ cos(ωt + φi )
√
= 2I cos(ωt + φi )
V and I are rms values.
• v and i in phase (φv = φi ). • v and i out of phase (φv 6= φi ).

• Power flows in one direction. • Power flow reverses periodically.
• Maximum average power for given • Average power lower than
VUiAand I. maximum possible.
8 Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024
Single phase
Active Power, Reactive Power and Power Factor
• Complex Power
S = V̄ I¯∗ (S is a complex number)
= V I∠(φv − φi ) = V I∠φ
S = P + jQ = |S|∠φ
• Active (Real) Power (average
power)
V̂ ∠φ
P = V I cos(φ) [W] V̄ = √
2
v
• Reactive Power
Q = V I sin(φ) [VAR] I¯ = √Î ∠φi
2
• Apparent Power (Total Power)

p
|S| = P 2 + Q2 = V I [VA]
• Power factor Re
P P
PF = = = cos(φ)
|S| VI

Three Phase Circuits
Three-Phase AC Power System vs. Single Phase AC Power
System
• More power per kg of metal from a three-phase machine.

• Power delivered to a three-phase load is constant at all times.
• Three-phase system gives a constant torque, at any time, in asynchronous
motor (induction motor).

Three phase supply
Three phase supply: the phase voltages are:
va (t) = V̂a cos(ωt + φa )

2π
vb (t) = V̂b cos(ωt − + φb ) (1)
3
4π
vc (t) = V̂c cos(ωt − + φc )
3
During normal operation, V̂a ' V̂b ' V̂c while φa , φb and φc are small.

Three Phase Circuits (Balanced Condition)
Balanced condition:
1 Three generators with equal
voltage magnitude and
frequency
2 120◦ different in phase
3 All three loads are identical
• Wye connection.
Line-to-neutral voltages:
V̂s
V̄an = √ ∠0◦
2
V̂s
V̄bn = √ ∠ − 120◦
2 V̄an + V̄bn + V̄cn = 0
V̂s van (t) + vbn (t) + vcn (t) = 0
V̄cn = √ ∠ − 240◦
2
Per Phase Analysis of Balanced Three Phase Circuits
V̄an Vs
I¯a = = ∠−φ
ZL |ZL |

V̄bn Vs 2π
I¯b = = ∠ − −φ
ZL |ZL | 3

V̄ cn V s 4π
I¯c = = ∠ − −φ
ZL |ZL | 3
I¯n = (I¯a + I¯b + I¯c ) = 0 ⇒ in (t) = [ia (t) + ib (t) + ic (t)] = 0
• Note: the instantaneous three phase power is constant:

p(t) = 3Vs Is cos(φ)
Line-to-Line Voltages (Delta connection)
√
V̄ab = V̄a − V̄b = 3Vs ∠30◦
√ √
V̄bc = V̄b − V̄c = 3Vs ∠ − 90◦ V̄LL = 3V̄ph ∠30◦
√
V̄ca = V̄c − V̄a = 3Vs ∠ − 210◦
Equivalent Y
A balanced ∆-connected load can be treated as if it were in a Y, but with all
impedances reduced to 1/3 of the actual values.

Space Vectors
Symmetric system:
• Symmetric system:
va (t) = V̂ cos(ωt)

2π
vb (t) = V̂ cos ωt − (2)
3

4π
vc (t) = V̂ cos ωt −
3
• Property of symmetric system:
va (t) + vb (t) + vc (t) = 0 (3)
• This removes one dof since one of the component always can be expressed
in the other two.

Space Vectors
Space vector
Therefore an equivalent two-phase system is possible, with 2 perpendicular

axes denoted α and β:
Complex space vector

2h 2π 4π
i
~vs (t) = vα (t) + jvβ (t) = va (t) + ej 3 vb (t) + ej 3 vc (t) (4)
3
• The phases are contributing in 3 different directions.

• Superscript ”s” ⇒ stator coordinates or the stationary reference frame.
Real space vector

Re{~vs (t)}

s vα (t)
~v (t) = =
vβ (t) Im{~vs (t)}

Space Vectors
Space vector construction
• Constant amplitude in steady-state.

• Rotates with angular frequency ω, counterclockwise: Animation
Space Vectors
Property of space vector
For the positive-sequence component:

   
va (t) V̂ cos(ωt + φ)
 vb (t)  = V̂ cos ωt − 2π + φ 

3
V̂ cos ωt − 4π

vc (t) 3 +φ
corresponds the the space vector:
~vs (t) = V̂ ej(ωt+φ) (5)

Space Vectors
Transformation of Real-Valued Vectors
In case of digital implementation, it is necessary to use real-valued vectors
denoted ~v s and corresponding to ~vs :

v
~v = vα + jvβ ⇔ ~v = α
s s
(6)
vβ
The three-phase / two-phase transformation (4) can be expressed using
transformation matrix:
"2 # v (t)
1 1 a
− −3

vα (t)
= 3 √13 1  vb (t)  (7)
vβ (t) 0 3
− √3
| {z } c v (t)
T32
Transforming instead from two phase to three phase:

  
1 0

va (t) √

 vb (t)  = − 1 3 v α (t)
(8)
 
2 2√  v (t)
β
vc (t) − 2 − 23
1
| {z }
T23

Space Vectors
Transformation to Synchronous Coordinates
The general definition of the dq transformation, and its reversal, the αβ
transformation, are given by:
~v = e−jθe ~vs (dq transformation) (9)

s jθe
~v = e ~v (αβ transformation) (10)
where
Z
θe = ωdt (11)
• dq transformation: as observing the space vector

~vs from a coordinate system rotating with the stator
frequency ω.
θe • A space vector in synchronous coordinates (without
any superscript) has its components with subscripts
d and q:
~v = vd + jvq (12)
Space Vectors
dq and αβ transformations
The dq and αβ transformations can be expressed using transformation

matrices:
~v = vd + jvq = e−jθe ~vs = (cos θe − j sin θe )(vα + jvβ )

v cos θe sin θe vα
⇒ ~v = d = (13)
vq − sin θe cos θe vβ
| {z }
Tdq (θe )
And for the αβ transformation:

vα cos θe − sin θe vd
= (14)
vβ sin θe cos θe vq
| {z }
Tαβ (θe )

Space Vectors
Instantaneous power
Starting with calculating:
2 ∗
s ~s ∗ 2 2π 4π
2π 4π
~v (i ) = va + ej 3 vb + ej 3 vc ia + ej 3 ib + ej 3 ic
3
⇒ the complex power is reference-frame invariant and equal to:
Complex power
3 s 3
S = ~vs (~i )∗ = ~v(~i)∗
2 2
With balanced system:

√ √
~vs = 2V ejωt ; ~is = 2Iej(ωt−φ) ;
the instantaneous complex power is:
3 s 3 √ √ jφ
S = ~vs (~i )∗ = 2V 2Ie = 3V I cos φ +j 3V I sin φ
2 2 | {z } | {z }
P Q
which is constant
Outline
• Basics 2
• Introduction to AC Machines 23
• Two Major Classes of AC Machines 24
Synchronous Machines
Induction Machines
Generating Torque
• Power losses and Energy efficiency 37

Two Major Classes of AC Machines
Introduction
• Primary AC motor drives

• Induction motors
• Permanent Magnet Brushless (Synchronous Motors)
Both have similar stators but different rotor construction
• Stator windings produce sinusoidal

field distribution.

Difference between SM and IM
Figure: a) SM and b) IM in steady state
θ: flux angle; θr : rotor position; ωr : electric angular rotor speed

Synchronous Machines
Synchronous refers to the rotation of the rotor which is synchronous with

the stator space vector.
Speed definitions when multipole machine

Electrical Mechanical
ω = ω1 : angular frequency of applied sta- ωsyn : synchronous angular frequency
tor voltage
ωr : electrical rotor speed ωm : mechanical rotor speed
ω1 = np · ωsyn (15)
ωr = np · ωm (16)
where np is the number of pole pairs.

• In steady state, ωr = ω1

Number of Poles > 2
Show the speed of magnetic field rotation in ac machines of 2, 4, 6, 8, 10,
12 and 14 poles operating at frequencies of 50, 60 and 400 Hz
Mechanical speed n in [rpm]
60 60 ωr f1
n= ωm = = 60
2π 2π np np

SM: Operating Principle
• Airgap width: 1 - 3 mm. (vs. <1 mm

for IM)
• d axis is the magnetic axis.
• Current in the stator ⇒ forces F
perpendicular to d axis in the stator.
• Drive the rotor counterclockwise.
• Maximum torque production if applied
stator current is in the q direction.
• Necessary to measure the rotor position
(= flux position).

Induction Motors
• General purpose, low cost and rugged
construction.
• Adjustable speed drives
• Servo drives
• Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source. It requires a

variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed control.
Structure

Construction

Two main parts
• A stationary stator (like other ac machines):

Steel frame supporting a hollow, cylindrical core, constructed from stacked
laminations, having a number of evenly spaced slots
• A revolving rotor (2 types of rotors)

Cage Rotor
• Copper or aluminum bars shorted together at the ends by two aluminium

rings, forming a squirrel-cage shaped circuit.

Wound Rotor
• Usually Y-connected, the ends

of the three rotor wires are
connected to 3 slip rings on
the rotor shaft. In this way, the
rotor circuit is accessible.
• Conventional 3-phase windings made of insulated wire.
• Rarely used because of higher maintenance and more expensive.

Induction Machines
Unlike the SM, the IM is magnetised from the stator. When asynchronous
rotation, current is induced in the rotor winding - according to Lenz’ law -
giving forces that counteract the lagging effect. This gives the electrical
torque.
Slip s
ω1 − ωr
s= (17)
ω1
Electrical angular slip frequency ω2

ω2 = sω1 = ω1 − ωr (18)
Due to slip, the rotor flux angle is not readily measurable (unlike SM) and
has to be estimated. This what greatly complicates control of IM.

Remarks on torque for ac machines
Torque is often produced by 2 magnetic fields: stator magnetic field and

rotor magnetic field.
Rotor magnetic field is created by induced currents on the rotor for

induction motors.
Rotor magnetic field is created by permanent

magnets for Permanent Magnet Synchronous
Motors (PMSM) (smaller motor for the same power
as compared to induction motors.)
directindustry.com
Induction motors and PMSMs motors are dominantly used in industry.

Power losses and Energy efficiency
• Motor losses:
• Conduction losses, PR
• Iron losses (Core losses), PIw
• Friction and windage losses, Pf w
• Switching losses, Psw
• Stray losses, Pδ
Ploss = PR +Plw +Pf w +Psw +Pδ
Po Po 100
Friction/Windage Loss
ηmotor = =
Pin,motor Po + Ploss Iron Loss
75
• PPU losses: Stray

Load Lo
ss
50 Rotor Joule Loss
• Conduction losses
• Switching losses
25
Distribu-
Stator Joule Loss

Loss
(%)
tion
ηdrive = ηP P U × ηmotor 0
1 10 100
(80% − 90%) Nominal Power (kW)
From [?]

Power Flow of AC Motor
Pin = 3V p I p cosθ Piron

Pmech
Pcu = RI 2
ωm
τ load Pstray
Pout = ωmτ load
Pout = ω mτ load = Pin − Pmech − Pcu − Piron − Pstray

Power Flow of AC Generators
Pout = 3Vp I p cosθ Piron

Pmech
Pcu = RI 2
ωm
τ app Pstray
Pin = ω mτ app
Pout = 3Vp I p cosθ = Pin − Pmech − Pcu − Piron − Pstray

Drury Austin, Hughes; Bill.
Electric Motors and Drives: Fundamentals, Types, and Applications.
Elsevier Ltd, 4th edition, 2013.
ABB.
Technical guide No . 7 Dimensioning of a drive system.
(7).
W. Pawlus, G. Hovland, M. Choux, D. Frick, and M. Morari.
Drivetrain design optimization for electrically actuated systems via mixed integer
programing.
In Industrial Electronics Society, IECON 2015 - 41st Annual Conference of the
IEEE, pages 001465–001470, Nov 2015.
ABB.
http://www.abb.no/product/seitp322/fa6faa6d188c9e3cc1256de30034064f.aspx.

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MAS409- Lecture 2

Systems and Circuits in AC machines.

2 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

1 A current-carrying wire produces a 2 Time varying field induces a voltage

3 Magnetic field exerts a force on the 4 A conductor moving in a magnetic

3 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

4 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

voltage- phasors complex reactance

5 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

6 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Z = R + jXL − jXC = |Z|∠φ

7 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

V and I are rms values.

• v and i in phase (φv = φi ). • v and i out of phase (φv 6= φi ).

• Apparent Power (Total Power)

9 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

• More power per kg of metal from a three-phase machine.

10 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Three phase supply: the phase voltages are:

va (t) = V̂a cos(ωt + φa )

11 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

I¯n = (I¯a + I¯b + I¯c ) = 0 ⇒ in (t) = [ia (t) + ib (t) + ic (t)] = 0

• Note: the instantaneous three phase power is constant:

14 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

• Property of symmetric system:

va (t) + vb (t) + vc (t) = 0 (3)

15 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Therefore an equivalent two-phase system is possible, with 2 perpendicular

Complex space vector

• The phases are contributing in 3 different directions.

Real space vector

16 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

• Constant amplitude in steady-state.

For the positive-sequence component:

corresponds the the space vector:

~vs (t) = V̂ ej(ωt+φ) (5)

18 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Transforming instead from two phase to three phase:

19 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

~v = e−jθe ~vs (dq transformation) (9)

• dq transformation: as observing the space vector

The dq and αβ transformations can be expressed using transformation

~v = vd + jvq = e−jθe ~vs = (cos θe − j sin θe )(vα + jvβ )

And for the αβ transformation:

21 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

With balanced system:

23 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

• Primary AC motor drives

• Stator windings produce sinusoidal

24 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Figure: a) SM and b) IM in steady state

θ: flux angle; θr : rotor position; ωr : electric angular rotor speed

Synchronous refers to the rotation of the rotor which is synchronous with

Speed definitions when multipole machine

where np is the number of pole pairs.

26 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

Mechanical speed n in [rpm]

27 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

• Airgap width: 1 - 3 mm. (vs. <1 mm

28 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024

• Adjustable speed drives

• Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source. It requires a

30 UiA Department of Engineering MAS409- L2 15.1.2024