GIS Fundamentals:

A First Text on Geographic

Information Systems

7th Edition

Paul Bolstad & Steven Manson

University of Minnesota - Twin Cities

Eider Press
White Bear Lake,
Minnesota
 Table of Contents v

Chapter 1, An Introduction to GIS ......................... 1

Introduction ..................................................................... 1
What is a GIS? ........................................................................... 2
Why We Need GIS ...................................................................... 3
GIS in Action .............................................................................. 6
GIS Components ............................................................ 14
Hardware for GIS .................................................................... 14
GIS Software ............................................................................ 15
Open Geospatial Consortium .................................................. 15
ArcGIS ..................................................................................... 16
QGIS ........................................................................................ 16
GeoMedia ................................................................................ 16
Idrisi ......................................................................................... 16
AUTOCAD MAP 3D ................................................................ 17
GRASS ...................................................................................... 17
Bentley Map ............................................................................. 17
Spatial R, Python, and GDAL .................................................. 17
GIS in Organizations ..................................................... 18
Summary .................................................................................. 19
The Structure of This Book ...................................................... 19

Chapter 2, Data Models ........................................... 25

Introduction ................................................................... 25
Coordinate Systems .................................................................. 27
Coordinates on a Sphere .......................................................... 28
Spherical vs. Ellipsoidal Earth ................................................ 31
Converting Arc to Surface Distances ....................................... 32
Three-Dimensional, Earth-Centered Coordinates ................... 34
Geographic and Magnetic North ............................................. 35
Attribute Data and Types ......................................................... 36
Common Spatial Data Models ....................................... 39
Vector Data Models ................................................................. 40
Polygon Inclusions and Boundary Generalization .................. 44
Vector Topology ....................................................................... 46
Vector Features, Tables, and Structures .................................. 50
Raster Data Models ....................................................... 51
Models and Cells ........................................................... 51
Raster Features and Attribute Tables ...................................... 54
A Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models ................... 56
Conversion Between Raster and Vector Models ...................... 57
Raster Geometry and Resampling ........................................... 59
Other Data Models ......................................................... 61
Triangulated Irregular Networks ................................... 61
Object Data Models ................................................................. 61
Three-Dimensional Data Models ............................................. 64
Multiple Models ....................................................................... 66
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Data and File Structures ................................................. 67

Binary and ASCII Numbers ..................................................... 67
Pointers and Indexes ................................................................ 68
Data Compression ................................................................... 70
Raster Pyramids ....................................................................... 71
Common File Formats ............................................................. 72
Summary .................................................................................. 72

Chapter 3, Geodesy, Datums, Projections ........ 89

Introduction .................................................................... 89
Surface and Ellipsoidal Coordinates ....................................... 91
Coordinate Capture, Coordinate Systems, and Datums .......... 91
Datum Ellipsoids ...................................................................... 92
Modern Datum Definition ........................................................ 93
NAD83(2011) ........................................................................... 96
NATRF2022 ............................................................................. 97
ETRS89 .................................................................................... 99
WGS84 Datums ........................................................................ 99
Legacy, Pre-Satellite Datums ................................................... 99
Datum Shifts ........................................................................... 100
Datum Transformations ......................................................... 102
Heights ......................................................................... 105
The Geoid ............................................................................... 105
Vertical Datums and Heights ................................................. 108
Vdatum ....................................................................................110
Dynamic Heights .....................................................................112
Local Sea Level Datums .........................................................114
Map Projections and Coordinate Systems ................... 116
Common Map Projections in GIS .......................................... 122
The State Plane Coordinate System ....................................... 125
Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System .............. 127
Other Common Projections ................................................... 129
Conversion Among Coordinate Systems ................................ 130
Coordinate System Identifiers ................................................ 131
The Public Land Survey System ............................................. 132
Summary ............................................................................... 135

Chapter 4, Maps, Data Entry, Editing, Output 147

Building a GIS Database .............................................. 147
Introduction ............................................................................ 147
Accuracy vs. Resolution ......................................................... 149
Scale ....................................................................................... 150
Map and Data Generalization ............................................... 152
Digitizing: Coordinate Capture .................................... 154
On-Screen Digitizing ............................................................. 154
Field Digitizing ...................................................................... 155
 Table of Contents vii

Hardcopy Digitizing .............................................................. 155

Characteristics of Manual Digitizing .................................... 156
The Manual Digitizing Process ............................................. 157
Node and Line Snapping ........................................................ 157
Reshaping: Line Smoothing and Thinning ............................ 159
Scan Digitizing ....................................................................... 161
Editing Geographic Data ...................................................... 161
Slivers .................................................................................... 162
Features Common to Several Layers ..................................... 163
Map Boundaries and Spatial Data ........................................ 164
Digital Data Output ............................................................... 165
Metadata: Data Documentation ............................................ 165
Cartography and Map Design ...................................... 168
Map Types .............................................................................. 168
Coordinate Transformation .......................................... 176
Control Points ........................................................................ 176
Transformation Equations ..................................................... 178
A Caution When Evaluating Transformations ....................... 180
Control Point Sources ............................................................ 181
Map Projection vs. Transformation ....................................... 182
Summary ................................................................................ 183

Chapter 5, GNSS and Coordinate Surveying ... 193

Introduction ................................................................. 193
GNSS Basics .......................................................................... 193
GNSS Signals ......................................................................... 196
Range Distances .................................................................... 197
Positional Uncertainty ........................................................... 198
Sources of Range Error .......................................................... 198
Satellite Geometry and Dilution of Precision ........................ 200
Differential Correction ................................................ 204
Real-time Differential Positioning ......................................... 206
Real-Time Kinematic and Virtual Reference Stations ............ 207
WAAS, Augmentation, and Satellite-based Corrections ........ 208
Precise Point Positioning ...................................................... 209
A Caution on Datums ............................................................. 209
GNSS Applications ...................................................... 211
Field Digitiziting .....................................................................211
Single-Fix vs Averaged Accuracy .......................................... 214
Field Digitizing Accuracy and Efficiency .............................. 215
Rangefinder Integration ......................................................... 219
GNSS Height Measurement ................................................... 220
GNSS Tracking ....................................................................... 221
Optical and Laser Coordinate Surveying ..................... 224
Summary ................................................................................ 229
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Chapter 6, Aerial and Satellite Images .............. 241

Basic Principles ............................................................ 241
Aerial Images ............................................................... 245
Aerial Mapping Systems ........................................................ 245
Digital Aerial Cameras .......................................................... 247
Lens and Camera Distortion .................................................. 249
Aerial Image Spatial Accuracy .............................................. 250
Terrain and Tilt Distortion in Aerial Images ......................... 252
Stereo Photographic Coverage .............................................. 255
Geometric Correction of Aerial Images ................................. 258
Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Drones ............................. 261
Photo Interpretation ............................................................... 263
Satellite Images ............................................................ 266
Basic Principles of Satellite Image Scanners ........................ 266
High-Resolution Satellite Systems ......................................... 268
Mid-Resolution Satellite Systems ........................................... 271
SPOT ...................................................................................... 271
Landsat ................................................................................... 272
Sentinel ................................................................................... 273
Coarse-Resolution, Global Satellite Systems ......................... 274
Other Systems ........................................................................ 275
Satellite Images in GIS .......................................................... 277
Aerial or Satellite Images: Which to Use? ............................ 278
Airborne LiDAR .......................................................... 280
Image Sources ........................................................................ 283
Summary ................................................................................ 284

Chapter 7, Digital Data .......................................... 293

Introduction .................................................................. 293
Map Services vs. Locally Stored Data ................................... 294
Global Digital Data ...................................................... 295
Global Spatial Data Infrastructure ........................................ 297
Open Street Map .................................................................... 297
Other General Distributions .................................................. 298
National, Provincial/State, and Local Digital Data .............. 299
Digital Data for the United States ................................ 300
National Spatial Data Infrastructure ..................................... 300
The U.S. National Map .......................................................... 300
Digital Elevation Data ........................................................... 301
Hydrographic Data ................................................................ 303
High-Resolution Digital Images ............................................ 306
NAIP Digital Images .............................................................. 307
National Land Cover Data .................................................... 308
NASS CDL .............................................................................. 310
C-CAP .................................................................................... 312
National Wetlands Inventory .................................................. 312
 Table of Contents ix

Digital Soils Data .................................................................. 314

Digital Floodplain Data ........................................................ 315
Climate, Geology, and Other Environmental Data ............... 317
Digital Census Data .............................................................. 318
Summary ................................................................................ 321

Chapter 8, Attribute Data and Tables ................ 325

Introduction ................................................................. 325
Database Components and Characteristics .......................... 327
Relational Databases ............................................................. 330
Primary Operators ................................................................. 332
Hybrid Database Designs in GIS .......................................... 334
Selection Based on Attributes ...................................... 335
The Restrict Operator: Table Queries ................................... 335
Joining Tables .............................................................. 340
Primary Keys and Joins ......................................................... 340
Foreign Keys .......................................................................... 343
Concatenated Keys ................................................................ 345
Multi-table Joins .................................................................... 346
Normal Forms in Relational Databases ....................... 348
Keys and Functional Dependencies ....................................... 348
The First and Second Normal Forms .................................... 350
The Third Normal Form ........................................................ 353
Summary ................................................................................ 355

Chapter 9, Basic Spatial Analysis ....................... 363

Introduction ................................................................. 363
Input, Operations, and Output ............................................... 363
Scope ...................................................................................... 364
Selection and Classification ......................................... 366
Set Algebra ............................................................................. 366
Boolean Algebra .................................................................... 368
Spatial Selection Operations ................................................. 370
Classification ......................................................................... 375
Data-defined Classification ................................................... 377
The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem ..................................... 382
Dissolve ....................................................................... 384
Attribute Aggregation in a Dissolve Operation ..................... 386
Proximity Functions and Buffering ............................. 388
Buffers .................................................................................... 389
Raster Buffers ........................................................................ 390
Vector Buffers ......................................................................... 390
Overlay ........................................................................ 394
Vector Overlay ....................................................................... 395
Clip, Intersect, and Union: Special Cases of Overlay ........... 397
A Problem in Vector Overlay ................................................. 402
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Raster Overlay ....................................................................... 404

An Example Spatial Analysis ................................................. 406
Network Analysis ........................................................ 410
Geocoding .............................................................................. 416
Summary ................................................................................ 418

Chapter 10, Topics in Raster Analysis .............. 435

Introduction .................................................................. 435
Map Algebra ................................................................ 436
Local Functions ............................................................ 440
Mathematical Functions ........................................................ 440
Logical Operations ................................................................ 441
Reclassification ...................................................................... 444
Nested Functions .................................................................... 446
Raster Clip and Overlay ........................................................ 447
Fuzzy Membership and Raster Overlay ................................. 450
Neighborhood, Zonal, Distance, and Global Functions 452
Zonal Functions ..................................................................... 459
Cost Surfaces ......................................................................... 460
Summary ................................................................................ 464

Chapter 11, Terrain Analysis ............................... 473

Introduction .................................................................. 473
Slope and Aspect .................................................................... 475
Hydrologic Functions ............................................................ 482
Contour Lines ....................................................................... 491
Profile Plots ........................................................................... 493
Viewsheds ............................................................................... 494
Shaded Relief Maps ............................................................... 495
Terrain Analysis Software ...................................................... 496
Summary ................................................................................ 497

Chapter 12, Spatial Estimation, Core Areas ..... 509

Introduction .................................................................. 509
Sampling ...................................................................... 511
Sampling Patterns ...................................................................511
Spatial Interpolation Methods ...................................... 514
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation ............................................. 516
Fixed Radius – Local Averaging ............................................ 517
Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation ............................... 519
Splines .................................................................................... 522
Spatial Prediction ......................................................... 524
Spatial Regression ................................................................. 528
Trend Surface and Simple Spatial Regression ....................... 529
Kriging and Co-Kriging ......................................................... 530
Prediction Accuracy ............................................................... 534
 Table of Contents xi

Core Area Mapping ..................................................... 536

Mean Center and Mean Circle .............................................. 536
Convex Hulls .......................................................................... 537
Characteristic Hull Polygons ................................................ 539
Kernel Mapping ..................................................................... 540
Time-Geographic Density Estimation .................................... 546
Summary ................................................................................ 550

Chapter 13, Spatial Models and Modeling ....... 561

Introduction ................................................................. 561
Cartographic Modeling ................................................ 565
Designing a Cartographic Model .......................................... 566
Weightings and Rankings ....................................................... 567
Rankings Within Criteria ....................................................... 568
Weighting Among Criteria ..................................................... 570
Cartographic Models: A Detailed Example .......................... 573
Scripting and Models ............................................................. 581
Simple Spatial Models ................................................. 582
Spatio-Temporal Models ............................................. 585
Cell-Based Models ................................................................. 587
Example 1: Process-Based Hydrologic Models ..................... 588
Example 2: LANDIS, a Stochastic Model of Forest Change . 590
LANDIS Design Elements ...................................................... 592
Summary ................................................................................ 593

Chapter 14, Data Standards and Quality ........... 605

Introduction ................................................................. 605
The Geospatial Technology Competency Model ................... 606
Spatial Data Standards .......................................................... 607
Data Accuracy ............................................................. 609
Documenting Spatial Data Accuracy .................................... 609
Positional Accuracy ............................................................... 612
Accuracy Calculations ........................................................... 614
Positional Accuracy Standards .............................................. 616
Errors in Linear or Area Features ......................................... 619
Attribute Accuracy ................................................................. 619
Error Propagation in Spatial Analysis .................................. 621
Summary ................................................................................ 622

Chapter 15, New Developments in GIS ............ 627

Introduction ................................................................. 627
GNSS ........................................................................... 628
Fixed and Mobile Three-Dimensional Mapping ................... 630
Ground Based Positioning ..................................................... 632
Datum Modernization .................................................. 634
xii Table of Contents

Improved Remote Sensing ........................................... 636

Three-Dimensional GIS, Exterior and Interior ..................... 639
Cloud-Based GIS ......................................................... 642
Open GIS ..................................................................... 643
Open Standards for GIS ............................................... 643
Open Source GIS .................................................................... 644
A Hybrid Model ...................................................................... 645
Summary ................................................................................ 645

Appendix A: Glossary ........................................... 649

Appendix B: Useful Conversions ...................... 667

Length .................................................................................... 667
Area ........................................................................................ 667
Angles ..................................................................................... 667
Scale ....................................................................................... 667
State Plane Zones ................................................................... 668
Trigonometric Relationships .................................................. 669

Appendix C: Answers to Study Questions ....... 675

Chapter 1 ............................................................................... 675
Chapter 2 ............................................................................... 676
Chapter 3 ............................................................................... 681
Chapter 4 ............................................................................... 685
Chapter 5 ............................................................................... 689
Chapter 6 ............................................................................... 692
Chapter 7 ............................................................................... 694
Chapter 8 ............................................................................... 695
Chapter 9 ............................................................................... 697
Chapter 10 ............................................................................. 706
Chapter 11 .............................................................................. 709
Chapter 12 ............................................................................. 714
Chapter 13 ............................................................................. 718
Chapter 14 ............................................................................. 720