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Qualitative Research Designs,
Sample, and Data Collection and
Analysis Procedures
Research Methodology
is a part of the research process wherein
research design, sample and sampling procedure,
and plans for data collection and analysis are
described.
Research Designs
Case Study - It is used if the researcher needs to
understand one or few institutions, processes,
individuals, or phenomena in depth.
Phenomenology - It is used to describe the tough
lived-in experiences of people.
Historical Research - It is used to investigate on
people, places, and events in the past.
Ethnography - It is used to describe the culture or
the way of living of a group of people in a natural
setting, community, organization or even a nation.
Content Analysis - It is used to explore and analyze
the content of a document, article, speech, video,
picture, and others to understand a certain problem
Once you have decided the appropriate
research design for the study you’re working on, it’s
time to identify and select your research sample. A
sample is a part of the entire population of research
participants.
How to write Methodology
• Describe what you did and how you did it. The
interested reader should be able to repeat the
study from the account provided.
• Be concise, precise and logical in your writing.
• Use the past tense in writing the method section
• Provide enough detail to enable the reader to
make an informed assessment of the methods
used in obtaining the results in relation to the
research problem.
STEP ONE: PARTICIPANTS
The Participant section tells the reader a minimum of
three pieces of information:
1. Who was in your study;
2. The population used;
3. Any restrictions on the nature of your
participant pool.
You must give the following information in your
Participants section:
1. The total number of participants and the
number assigned to each experimental
Condition
2. The major demographic characteristics of the
participants (such as age, etc.)
3. You must report the way the participants
were selected.
⚫ Were they randomly selected from the
whole population or only from volunteers?
⚫ Were they not randomly selected but only
volunteers?
⚫ Were they offered money or course credit
to volunteer?
4. You must indicate if your participants are not
representative of the general population and if
the selection process was restricted in any way.
5. If they went to different groups, were they
randomly assigned? ("APA Method Section
2017)
STEP TWO: Materials and Apparatus
This section tells the reader what equipment
and tools you used to run your experiment and to
acquire data. Traditional to label the “apparatus”
section if you are describing mechanical devices and
the “Material” section describing mostly paper and
pencil type items
The rules for writing this subsection are as follows:
1. Standard equipment (such as screens, timers,
keyboards, etc.) can be mentioned just by name
and without detail.
2. Specialized equipment should give name,
model number, and supplier name and location.
3. Complex equipment is named and then the
reader is referred to the Appendix for
illustrations and greater detail.
4. Custom equipment is named and labeled as
custom equipment. Then the reader is referred
to the Appendix for illustrations and greater
detail.
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5. In your descriptions of the apparatus and
materials, do NOT tell in detail how you will use
them.
How apparatus and materials are used belongs in the
Procedure section.
STEP THREE: Design & Procedure
Describe the type of design used in the
research. Specify the variables as well as the levels of
these variables. (Cherry, 2017; “APA Method
Section,” 2017) This subsection gives the reader a
summary of each step in the execution of the
research. This summary must be concise, precise, and
logical. Do not burden the reader with too much
detail but give enough so the reader can follow what
is being done. (“APA Method Section,” 2017
Sampling Strategy
Purposive sampling - It considers samples that suit
the selection criteria.
Snowball sampling - It selects one or more
participants and asked them to identify other
participants who fit the selection criteria.
Multiple variation sampling - It uses varied
samples to get multiple perspectives on your
research topic.
Convenience sampling - It selects samples that are
easily accessible to the researcher.
Data Collection
It is the process wherein the researcher
gathers relevant information to answer the stated
research questions and generate relevant solutions.
Quantitative data is generally obtained through the
following methods.
Data Collection Methods
Interview - It is a conversation between the
researcher and the research participant with the use
of guide questions. It can be done face-to-face (most
applicable), through phone, or virtually.
Types of Interview
⚫ Structured Interview is using a set of questions
prepared by the researcher and responses are
coded immediately.
⚫ Unstructured Interview - using open-ended
questions to which the interviewee can answer
freely.
⚫ Semi-structured Interview – allows the
interviewer to as only pre-determined questions
while the rest of the questions are not planned
in advance.
Focus Group Discussion (FGD) - It is when the
researcher interviews a manageable group of
research participants in a scheduled meeting.
Observation - It plays a significant role in gathering
qualitative data since there are data that a researcher
may not be able to gather from other sources, such
as interviews.
Types of Observation
⚫ Participant Observation - the researcher talks
to people informally to know more about
something being observed.
⚫ Non-participant Observation - the
researcher observes without talking to anyone
in the setting
⚫ Naturalistic Observation – participant’s
behavior is recorded in their own environment.
⚫ Controlled Observation – participant’s
behavior is recorded in a situation created by
the researcher.
Other Types of Observation
⚫ Overt Observation – participants are aware
that they are being observed.
⚫ Covert Observation – participants are
unaware that they are being observed.
⚫ Structured Observation – the researchers
decides in advance exactly which behavior they
will record.
⚫ Unstructured Observation – researchers
observes from a distance and does not interfere.
Written documents - These are existing documents
needed to understand better the event being
studied. Ex. letters, manuals, attendance sheets, and
others
Pictures, Audios and Videos - These provide
additional information related to your research
study. Videos actually capture a lot of details about
the topic being explored.
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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS
STUDENTS’ ASSOCIATION (STEMSA)
Bgy. Manggahan, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan
Telephone No.: PNS STEMSA 09684548804
E-mail Address: stemsa.pns@gmail.com
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Questionnaire - A questionnaire is a list of pre-
written questions, printed or typed in a sequence on
a form used for acquiring specific information from
the respondents.
⚫ Open questions - allow people to write about
what they want in their own words.
⚫ Closed questions - provide people with a
number of answers which they must choose
from.
When writing questionnaires, some types of question
should be avoided in order to receive clear answers.
⚫ Leading questions - encourage people to give
a particular answer, e.g. ‘Many people think
abortion is wrong: do you agree?’. This can lead
to a bias in responses.
⚫ Double-barreled questions - ask two
questions in one, e.g. ‘Do you think crime is due
to bad housing and poor education?’. The
participant might want to give different answers
to the two questions.
⚫ Ambiguous questions - can be interpreted
differently by different people, e.g. ‘Do you
drink coffee often?’. A better question would be
‘How many cups of coffee do you drink every
day?’.
⚫ Complex questions - use phrases or technical
jargon which people may not understand.
Intellectual Honesty
means being true in gathering, analyzing
and interpreting ideas and in other aspects of
conducting a research.
Developing Conceptual Framework for
Qualitative Research
Conceptual Framework is where relevant
variables of any research study are mapped out how
on they might relate to each other.
Here is the step-by-step guide on how to write the
conceptual framework in order for you to have an
outlook of the study:
1. Identify the key variables used in the subject
area of the study.
2. Draw out key variables within something you
have already written about the subject area i.e.
literature review.
3. Continual to the aim, segregate them as
dependent and independent variables.
4. Take one key variable and then brainstorm all
the possible things related to the key variable
(Dependent variable).
5. After all the variables have been defined,
focus on the number of relationships they can
form with each other to determine the inter-
relationships between all.
6. The arrows used to identify the relationship
between variables must be applied in the
direction as to what impacts the other.
Intellectual Honesty in Research
Intellectual Honesty is an applied method of
problem solving, characterized by an unbiased,
honest attitude, which can be demonstrated in a
number of different ways including:
⚫ Ensuring support for chosen ideologies does not
interfere with the pursuit of truth;
⚫ Relevant facts and information are not
purposefully omitted even when such things
may contradict one's hypothesis;
⚫ Facts are presented in an unbiased manner, and
not twisted to give misleading impressions or to
support one view over another;
⚫ References, or earlier work, are acknowledged
where possible, and plagiarism is avoided.
QUESTIONS
1. In the context of research, which of the
following gives sense to the data
gathered?
A. Data analysis C. Data reporting
B. Data testing D. Discussion of the findings
2. In qualitative data analysis, which of the
following is being analyzed?
A. Numbers C. Patterns
B. Patterns and numbers D. Patterns and themes
3. What process designates meaning to
different chunks of relevant data gathered.
A. Coding C. Data analysis
B. Qualitative analysis D. Thematic analysis
Research Instrument
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SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS
STUDENTS’ ASSOCIATION (STEMSA)
Bgy. Manggahan, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan
Telephone No.: PNS STEMSA 09684548804
E-mail Address: stemsa.pns@gmail.com
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It is a tool used to gather relevant
information which will be subjected to certain
analysis procedures. This could be researcher-made
or standardized.
⚫ Interview Questions - These are list of
questions that will be asked to the participants,
individually or in group (focus group discussion).
Follow-up questions may be asked if necessary
(semi structured).
⚫ Observation Checklist - It contains the
observable behavior or criteria that can be
possibly observed among the participants.
However, expect that not all observations are
pre-stated in your checklist.
Data will remain meaningless words unless
analyzed and interpreted. Data analysis involves
identifying, examining, and interpreting patterns and
themes in the gathered information. These patterns
and themes will help you draw the conclusions of
your study.
⚫ Coding - It is the process of designating
meaning to different chunks of relevant data
gathered.
Thematic Analysis
is the most commonly used method of
qualitative analysis. It focuses on identifying
common themes (ideas or patterns of meaning that
come up from the closely examined data).
Steps in Thematic Analysis
1. Transcribe the verbal data and read through
all the transcript (transcribed data) to find
meaningful information
2. Code your data and identify similar codes
(categories)
3. Establish collections of similar codes
(themes)
4. Review the themes
5. Define and name the themes
6. Prepare a concise, logical and coherent
report
Test what have you learned!
Directions: Read and answer carefully the following
questions.
____ 1. Which of the following pertains to a set of
research data collection, analysis and interpretation
methods to be carried out for the conduct of a
research study?
A. Data analysis method C. Data collection method
B. Research design D.Sampling strategy
____ 2. Which of the following is the commonly
used method of data analysis?
A.Coding C.Data saturation
B.Sample D.Thematic analysis
____ 3. Which of the following refers to the process
through which the intended research participants
are carefully chosen?
A.Data collection C.Sample
B.Sampling D.Themes
____ 4. What data collection method is applicable if
the researcher wanted to explore the behavior of
young children?
A.Interview C.Observation
B.Use of questionnaire D.Written document
____ 5. Which of the following is exemplified by the
statement: The research study will be interviewing
senior high students who joined and won contests
held last school year.
A. Data analysis method C. Sampling strategy
B. Research design D. Theme
Reporting and Sharing the Findings
Conclusions - It is the section in a research report
where the researcher provides practical implications.
Recommendations - It presents and discusses how
to support the findings and conclusion of the
research study.
Reference list - Allows the reader to locate the
materials consulted or used during the research.
Characteristics of Conclusions
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Telephone No.: PNS STEMSA 09684548804
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1. Conclusions are interferences, deductions,
abstractions, implications, interpretations,
general statements and/or generalizations
based upon the findings.
2. Conclusions should appropriately answer
the specific questions raised at the
beginning of the investigation in the order
they are given under the statement of the
problem.
3. Conclusions should point out what were
factually learned from the inquiry.
4. Conclusions should be formulated
concisely that is, brief and short, yet they
convey all the necessary information
resulting from the investigation.
Strategies in Writing Conclusions
✓ Echoing your introduction, or simply
reiterate or link ideas expressed in the
other sections of the research. Challenging
the reader by directing or showing how
readers can apply the study in their own
lives.
✓ Looking to the future by emphasizing the
importance of your paper or redirecting
the reader’s thought process in looking at
things more globally.
✓ Posing questions where the readers can
gain a new perspective on the topic of you
may also bring your main ideas together to
create a new meaning.
How to Write Recommendations
The following will have to be considered in writing
recommendations:
✓ Brief – write concisely; any reasons for
recommendations should only be given if
necessary.
✓ Clear –not ambiguous as to how the
recommendation will be implemented.
✓ Precise – vague recommendations usually
result from insufficient research / analysis.
Guidelines in Writing Recommendations
1. Do not write recommendations that are too
broad, too generic or those that are not
directly related to the topic of the research.
2. Do not recommend anything that has not
been previously discussed.
3. The rule for “no new material” in the
conclusion also applies in preparing this
section.
4. It is important to consider the different
levels within the set of recommendations
such as; for academic, policymakers,
practitioners, and the training / education.
Characteristics of Recommendations
1. Recommendations are expressed in clear
and concise terms
2. They are relevant to the research problems
and are feasible for implementation
3. The general recommendations may also be
stated giving suggested measures to
concerned agencies, institutions, or to the
government that may lead towards the
betterment of society in general.
4. The researcher’s final recommendation is
addressed to other researchers who may
want to pursue similar studies
5. Suggested topics of interest or variables are
given. In the case that the qualitative study
is conducted to propose an intervention
program, the recommendation will be the
adaption of said program.
Finally, the section on recommendations should
have the aim and effort to solve problems in the
study. The recommendations should ensure a
continuous benefit to individual persons and the
larger society.
NOTE: The use of reference list in scholarly disciplines
will allow you to credit the works of others that
directly influenced the present work and document
any facts that are not common knowledge. It also
gives interested readers the information necessary to
identify and retrieve these sources.
PALAWAN NATIONAL SCHOOL
SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS
STUDENTS’ ASSOCIATION (STEMSA)
Bgy. Manggahan, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan
Telephone No.: PNS STEMSA 09684548804
E-mail Address: stemsa.pns@gmail.com
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Example of a Reference List using APA

format
Mills, H.A. & Jones, Jr., J.B. (1996). Plant Analysis
Handbook II: A Practical Sampling, Preparation,
Analysis, and Interpretation Guide. Athens, Georgia:
Micro-Marco Publishing.

Willis, Harold (1983). The Rest of the Story...About

Agriculture Today. Seattle, Washington: Amazon
Publishing.

PALAWAN NATIONAL SCHOOL

SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY, ENGINEERING, AND MATHEMATICS
STUDENTS’ ASSOCIATION (STEMSA)
Bgy. Manggahan, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan
Telephone No.: PNS STEMSA 09684548804
E-mail Address: stemsa.pns@gmail.com