INTRO TO PHILO REVIEWER
MODULE 1: FREEDOM OF THE HUMAN PERSON
LESSON 1: ALL ACTIONS HAVE CONSEQUENCES
Freedom
 The human capacity to act (or not to act) as we choose or
prefer without external compulsion or restraint
 An intrinsic and essential property of a person
 The ability to MAKE CHOICES and PERFORM
ACTIONS
 Act that sets us apart from other beings
ARISTOTLE (THE POWER OF VOLITIONS)
Volition refers to the mental faculty that allows individuals to
make choices and decisions
 the faculty or power to use or discharge one’s will
 If there were no intellect, there would be no will
Will of humanity – instrument of free choice
Will is borne out by:
 Inner awareness of an aptitude to do right or wrong
 The common testimony of all human beings
 The rewards and punishment of rulers
 The general employment of praise and blame
Reason, Will, and Action – they work together to achieve a virtuous
life
REASON – allows us to understand and contemplate the world
WILL – allows us to desire and make choices
ACTION – the expression of our will and reason in the world
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS (LOVE IS FREEDOM)
 Human beings have the unique power to change themselves
and the things around them for the better
 Human beings as a moral agent
 “Through our spirituality, we have conscience where we
choose to be “good” or “evil” becomes our responsibility”
 A person who can be held accountable for his or her actions
because he or she has the ability to tell right from wrong
 Conscience – spirituality separates us from animals
FOUR-FOLD CLASSIFICATION OF LAW (AQUINAS)
1. Natural Law
 Applies only to human beings: good is to be sought after
and evil is to be avoided
 Originated by nature
Examples:
- Right to life
- Pursuit to happiness
- Family bonds
- Property ownership
- Self defense
- Truth telling
2. Human Law
 Originated by governments and humans
 Aquinas defined this type of law as “an ordinance of
reason for the common good” made and enforced by a ruler
government
Examples: Old law
- Right to life, liberty, personal security  commands, conduct, externally-reaches human through
- Right to equality their capacity for fear
- Freedom from discrimination New Law
- Freedom from slavery  commands internal conduct-reaches human by the example
3. Eternal law of pure and divine love
 Originated by God
 the ruling of God that governs all creation DIFFERENCE OF PHILOSOPHY BY: ARISTOTLE AND ST.
Example: THOMAS AQUINAS
- The principle that it is wrong to kill another person without a For Aristotle, the purpose of a human being is to be happy. To be
justifiable reason. This principle is considered to be happy, one has to live a virtuous life to develop to their full
unchanging, and it is not dependent on any particular culture powers, rational moral, social, emotional, and physical here on
or society earth.
- 4. Divine law
 Originated through religious texts For St. Thomas, he follows the same line of thinking, but points to a
 Deals with interior disposition as well external acts and higher form of happiness possible to humanity beyond his life, and
ensures the final punishment that is perfect happiness that everyone seeks but could be found
Example: only in God alone
- The Ten Commandments
ST. THOMAS AQUINAS: SPIRITUAL FREEDOM
 St. Thomas Aquinas establishes the existence of God as a
first cause of all God's creations, human beings have the
unique power to change themselves and things around them
for the better (Ramos, 2016). As humans, we are both
material and spiritual. We have a conscience because of our
spirituality. God is Love and Love is our destiny.

JEAN PAUL SARTRE (INDIVIDUAL FREEDOM)
 Sartre's philosophy is considered to be a representative of
existentialism (Falikowski, 2004). For Sartre, the human
person is the desire to be God the desire to exist as a being
which has its sufficient ground in itself (en sui causa).
PRINCIPLES OF SARTRTE’S EXISTENTIALISM 3. Moral Freedom
 The person, first, exists, encounters himself and surges in the - Using freedom in a manner that upholds huma dignity and
world then defines himself afterward goodness
 The person is provided with a supreme opportunity to give LESSON 2: PRUDENCE IN CHOICES
meaning to one’s life  Freedom involves choices. As Sartre said, it is through the
choices that man lives an authentic human life.
THOMAS HOBBES & JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (THEORY FATALISM
OF SOCIAL CONTRACT)  A view stated the one is powerless to do anything than
 Define freedom of an individual in the context of having a what does he actually do
government to rule them (contract), which is the basis of PRUDENCE
notion of moral obligation and duty  Good judgment
Social Contract  It is the intellectual virtue that guides the choice of means
 An agreement where individuals sacrifice an amount of to achieve good ends
their freedom and submit to a higher authority WHY PRUDENCE IS IMPORTANT?
 Government and people works as one  Prudence gives us the ability to pursue correct action in
various situations
THOMAS HOBBES  The virtue of prudence is about making right decision from a
Law of Nature (lex naturalis) purely natural perception
 General rule established by reason, by which a person is B.F SKINNER (BURRHOS FREDERIC SKINNER MARCH 20,
forbidden to do that which is destructive of his life 1904 – AUGUST 18 1990)
 He was American author, inventor, psychologist, behaviorist,
JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU social philosopher
 Believe that human being have to form a community or  He is also considered as the Father of Behaviorism
civil community to protect themselves from one another
 Absolute democracy and individualism PLATO’S
 Rosseau believes that a human being is born free and good  “I am the wisest man alive for I know one thing and that
KINDS OF FREEDOM is that I know nothing”
1. Physical freedom  Plato’s conception of freedom is very much functional,
- Absence of any physical restraint according to him, a man is truly free when he is fulfilling his
- Freedom of mobility to go where you want to go role. We are responsible, whether we admit it or not.
2. Psychological Freedom LESSON 3: FREEDOM OF CHOICE
- “freedom of choice” ROBERT NOZICK
- Free to perform actions that she/he considers right and wise  Renowed American philosopher explains in his 1981 book
- Innate and cannot be denied as a person Philosophical Explanation that making a choice seems to feel
 like there are various reasons for doing each of the
alternative actions or courses of action
 He explained that when you are choosing the act, involves
not only weighing the reasons but giving weight to
reasons
THEORY OF VALUES IN THE ACT OF GIVING WEIGHTS
(ROBERT NOZICK)
1. Intrinsic Value
 Value that has in itself apart from or independence of its
consequences
 “What is in the choice?”
2. Instrumental Value
 The function and measure of the intrinsic value that It leads
to
 “What is the purpose of the choice?”
3. Originate Value
 Introduces new values to the world
 It may be newly intrinsic values or newly instrumental
values
 “Can may choice benefit/help the society?”
4. Contributory Value
 Focuses on the value contribution that a human action effects
 Contributory factor helps in differentiating the existing case
without the factors effected by the contributory value if it did
exist
 “What could I personally and practically get from my
choice?”
- Individual freedom should be aligned with economic
freedom (Rand)
- The Filipino “sakop” or harmony can be a helping value to
the full development of the Filipino if it opens to embrace
the whole Philippines society
MODULE 2:
LESSON 1: MEANING OF INTERSUBJECTIVITY
Defining Intersubjectivity: Gabriel Marcel
 INTERSUBJECTIVITY is the sharing of experiential
content (feelings, perceptions, thoughts, and linguistic
meanings) among a plurality of subjects.
 Intersubjectivity, a term originally coined by the philosopher
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938), is most simply stated as the
interchange of thoughts and feelings, both conscious and
unconscious, between two persons or “subjects,” as
facilitated by empathy.
 Intersubjectivity is “the realm of existence to which the
preposition with properly applies” (Marcel, 1950: 180).
 The French word for meaning, sens, literally means
direction.
 . Intersubjectivity is thus a state in which I recognize my
being as a being-with-others
LEESON 2: AN INTERSUBJECTIVITY RELATIONSHIP
ACROSS DIFFERENCES
The Phenomenology of Intersubjective Relationship Jurgen
Habermas’s Theory of Communicative Action
 Jürgen Habermas, a known German sociologist and
philosopher in the tradition of critical theory of the second
half of the 20th century, is perhaps best recognized for his
theory on communicative rationality. In “What is Universal
Pragmatics?” found in his book Communication and the
Evolution of Society, he identifies and reconstruct “universal
conditions of possible understanding.
 He formulated four tests, or validity claims on
comprehensibility, truth, truthfulness, and rightness that must
occur in conversation to achieve mutual understanding.
 The first universal validity claim of Habermas
  on comprehensibility pertains to the use of ordinary
language. If the meaning of a word or statement is defined
by the ordinary language in which both speaker and hearer
are familiar with then, for sure, understanding will be
achieved, especially, if the ordinary language is the native
language of both speaker and hearer
 The second universal validity claim of Habermas on truth
refers to how true the uttered statement in reference to
objective facts.
 The third validity claim of Habermas on truthfulness
pertains to the genuine intention of the speaker which is
essential for the hearer’s gaining trust.
 And lastly, the validity of claim of Habermas on rightness
pertains to the acceptable tone and pitch of voice and
expressions.
 Comprehensibility, truth, truthfulness, and rightness, for
Habermas, are significant factors for authentic dialogue to
occur leading to better relationship. Habermas believes that
when actors do not violate any of the validity claims in their
speech acts, it would result in intersubjective “reciprocal
understanding, shared knowledge, mutual trust, and accord
with one another”
Martin Buber’s I-Thou Relationship
 Martin Buber (1878–1965), a Jewish philosopher, became
famous through his 1923 philosophical writings entitled I
and Thou (Ich und Du). The major theme of the book is
that authentic human existence manifests in genuine
dialogue with each other, with the world, and even with God.
The book explored the psychology of individual man in two
distinct relationships, namely, the ‘I-It’ and the ‘I- Thou’
(Buber, 1958, p. 3).
 The first mode, which Buber calls “experience” (the mode
of ‘I–it’), is the mode that modern man almost exclusively
uses. Through experience, man collects data of the world,
analyses, classifies, and theorizes about them.
 In the other mode of existence, which Buber calls
“encounter” (the mode of I–Thou), both the “I” and the
‘other’ enter into a genuine relationship as active
participants. In this relationship, human beings do not
perceive each other as consisting of specific, isolated
qualities, but engage in a dialogue involving each other’s
whole being and, in which, the ‘other’ is transformed into a
“Thou” or “You”
 eternal Thou can be known as the “Absolute Person” who
gives unity to all beings.
I-THOU
 “I” refers to the self
 This signifies a person-to-person, subject-to-subject relation
or acceptance, sincerity, concern, respect, dialog, and care.
The human person is not just being-in-the-world but being-
with-others, or being-in-relation.
I-IT RELATIONSHIP
 “Thou” or “You” refers to others
 I-Thou relationship is the most meaningful relationship in
the realm of humanity
 I-It relationship is a person to thing, subject to object that is
merely experiencing and using; lacking directedness and
mutuality (feeling, knowing, and acting)
Emmanuel Levinas’ Face of the Other
 The moral philosophy of Emmanuel Levinas differs from
traditional ethical theories like that of deontology which
focuses on duty, or utilitarianism which advocates happiness
for the greater number of people
 Emmanuel Levinas (1906-1995) is commonly known as a
French philosopher, he was actually born in Russia, in
 Kovno (now Kaunas), Lithuania in 1906 to a Jewish family
rich in Jewish cultural traditions.
 Levinas’ exposure to the barbarity of the Nazi was
instrumental to the creation of his 1961 book entitled
Totality and Infinity: An Essay on Exteriority where he
strives to bring people to the meaning of life through
heteronomous relation to the ‘Other’.
 This “Other” that Levinas refers to are the stranger, the
widow, the destitute, and the orphan to whom the self is
obligated
MODULE 3:
LESSON 1: HUMAN PEROSN IN A SOCIETY
SOCIETY
 According to Collins dictionary, society is people in
general, thought of as a large organized group
 Society or human society is a group of people involved
with each other
 Society as a noun – PEOPLE
 The state of being with other people, a community, nation or
broad grouping of people
 An organized group of people whose members interact
frequently and have a common territory and culture
German Sociologist Franz Oppenheirmer (1992) as referring to the
totality of all natural relations and institutions between man and man.
According to Soren Keirkegard, rather than being ourselves, we tend
to conform to an image or idea associated with being a certain type
of person
According to Emmanuel Kant, we have this social responsibility to
adjust ourselves whether we like it or not.
Social relationships tend to be less intimate with lesser self forms of
social influence
Conformity
 The act of adjusting your behavior, opnions, or beliefs to
agree with other prevising norms or standard
Why do people conform?
A. To be accepted
B. To avoid disapproval
C. To satisfy the need for approval from others
D. You get security that you’re one to that group
Compliance
 Occurs when individual gives in or agrees with other person
or group even if one holds a different opinion about the
person or situation
Identification
 This takes place when a respectable, famous, or well-liked
person exerts great influence on others. The people follow
the ways of the popular figure.
JOHARI’S WINDOW MODEL
 It is necessary to improve self-awareness and personal
development. The Johari Window Model was developed by
American psychologists Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham
in 1955
  Contains a strict hierarchical system of power based around
land ownerships and protection
6. Industrial society
 Refers to a society drive using technology to enable mass,
production, supporting a large population with a ig capacity
for division of labor
7. Post Industrial
 Rooted in the production of material goods. Information
societies are based on the production of information
3 Forms of Societies
1. Agricultural society
2. Industrial society
3. Virtual society

LESSON 3: TRANSFORMATION OF HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS

BY SOCIAL SYSTEM
LESSON 2: DIFFERENT FORMS OF SOCIETIES AND Social Transformation
INDIVIDUALITIES  Refers to the process of change in institutionalized
relationships, norms, values, and hierarchical overtime
KINDS OF SOCIETIES  It is the way society changes due to economic growth,
1. Hunting and gathering society science, technology, innovations.
 Relied on their surrounding for survival, they hunted wild SYSTEMS THEORY
animals and foraged for uncultivated plants for food  Also called Social System Theory, the study of society as a
2. Pastoral society complex arrangement of elements, including individuals, and
 Human societies began to recognize their ability to tame and their beliefs, according to sociologists and philosopher
breed animals and to grow and cultivate their own plants Herbert Spencer and French social scientist Emile
3. Horticultural society Durkheim
 Formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed NEW KNOWLEDGE
them to grow stable crops  “know thyself” is the main idea of Socrates of good living.
4. Agricultural society  His saying “knowledge is virtue, ignorance is a vice”
 Grows rice and other cos, they also began to farm and raise
animals for food
5. Feudal society
MODULE 4
LESSON 1: HUMAN BEINGS BEING ORIENTED TOWARDS
THEIR IMPENDING DEATH
- Death is commonly related to pain, suffering, loss and a-
uncertainty
What is Death?
Traditional Definition:
- It was simply equated to the stopping of heartbeat and
breathing
Legal Definition:
- Section 2, paragraph of the Organ Donation Act of 1991
(RA 7170), it is the irreversible cessation of circulatory and
respiratory functions of the entire brain, including the brain
stem
What happens to the human person after death?
Samsara:
- we are trapped in a cycle of birth and death
- samsara is the indefinity repeated cycles of birth
- Tibetans use the word ‘lu’ to refer to the body and it
means “something you leave behind”. This is the same
idea of changing clothes and accepting we’re travelers in a
temporary experience
Concepts of Life after Death in Christianity
 It includes definite conceptions of the personal continuance
of life after death
 They wouldn’t die at all but would still experience the
advent of Christ in their lifetimes and would go directly into
the kingdom of God without death
Eternal Life
 Refers to the continued life after death
2 components of happiness
1. The balance of emotions
2. Life satisfaction
LESSON 2: MEANING OF LIFE
 Our true existence is not our individual lives but our
participation in the drama of life and history
 Realizing ones “higher self” means fulfilling ones proudest
vision
Act of making a choice
 Evaluation of the reason and giving weight to each of those
Act of disciplining oneself
 Controlling/managing own actions for the betterment of
oneself and of his environment
A. FRIEDRICH NIETZSCHE
 The individual has to liberate himself from
environmental influences that are false to one's essential beings, for
the "unfree man" is "a disgrace to nature'.'
 Unless we do "become ourselves, "life is meaningless. total
reality = phenomenal realm (highly differentiated world of
material objects in space and time- experiences) + noumenal
realm (single, undifferentiated something that is space less,
timeless, non-material, beyond the reach of causality-
reality) which is inaccessible to experience
B. ARTHUR SCHOPENHAUER
 Schopenhauer's ethics: humans are separate physical objects
in space and time. Therefore, we are only the beings who are
able to think in the highest form for our own sake.
 Schopenhauer contends that all of life is suffering caused by
desire. Our desires lead us to harm each other ultimately,
amounting harm to ourselves.
C. MARTIN HEIDEGGER
Threefold structure of care:
- Possibility (Future)
- Factity (past)
- Fallenness (present)
 1. Possibility. (Future) Humanity gets projected ahead of itself.
Entities that are encountered are transformed merely as
ready-to-hand for serviceability and out of them. ***A thing
that may happen or be the case.
2. Facticity. (Past) A person is not pure possibility but strategic
possibility: possibilities open to him at any time conditioned
and/but limited by circumstances. Facts related to us like our
age, blood type and family. This also includes learning
experiences which concludes realities in life.
-Your past is what you are in the sense that it co-constitutes you,
but to say that you are ONLY your past would be to ignore a
large part of reality (present and future), while a denial of one's
past entirely detaches it from you now, which cannot be done
-A large part of your facticity consists of things you couldn't
have chosen - your birthplace, etc., but it cannot determine you -
the value ascribed to your facticity is still ascribed to it freely by
you
3. Fallenness. (Present)
Humanity flees from the disclosure of anxiety to lose oneself in
absorption with the instrumental world, or to bury oneself in the
anonymous impersonal existence of the mass, where no one is
responsible. Humanity has fallen away from one's authentic
possibility into an authentic existence of irresponsibility and
illusory security.
IMMANUEL KANT'S DIFFERENT WORLDS
1. Natural Realm
-consist of whatever is naturally occurring in nature, and whatever is
created by man.
e.q. man, woman, bearing fruits, vegetables, computers, cars,
buildings
REALITY vs. EXPERIENCE - Noumenal &Phenomenal
(What you know and What you have known)
2. Noumenal Realm
use to illustrate the highly differentiated world of material objects in
space and time
noumena are the (presumed) things themselves, which constitute
reality.
3. Phenomenal Realm
-is the highly differentiated, external world of material objects as
humans experience it with their senses, in other words a
representation of the mind in which space, time and causality define
the perceptions.
Phenomena are the appearances, which constitute our experiences.
EXISTENTIALISM
To be is to be: Jean-Paul Sartre on existentialism and freedom by:
Tarun Mittal, 2017
Principles of Sartre's Existentialism?
The person is nothing else but what he makes himself.
The person is provided with a supreme opportunity to give meaning
to one's life.
To be human, to be conscious is to be free to imagine, free to choose
and to be responsible in one's life.
2 KINDS OF THINKING OR REFLECTION
Gabriel Marcel, 1951
1. PRIMARY REFLECTION examines its object by abstraction, by
analytically breaking it down into its constituent parts. It is
concerned with definitions, essences and technical solutions to
problems.
2. Marcel argues that secondary reflection helps us to recover the
experiences of the mysterious in human life. SECONDARY
REFLECTION is best understood as an act of critical reflection on
primary reflection, and as a process of recovery, remembering,
research of the "mysteries of being." It begins as the act of critical
reflection (secondary reflection) on ordinary conceptual thinking
(primary reflection).
In contrast, secondary reflection is synthetic; it unifies rather than
divides. "Roughly, we can say that where primary reflection tends to
dissolve the unity of experience which is first put before it, the
function of secondary reflection is essentially
recuperative/recovering.