Pragmatics from Greek ‘pragma’: deed

Pragmatics is a subfield of semiotics that studies the

ways in which context contributes to meaning.
Speech Acts
Different acts may be carried out by using language that is
different from physical acts like drinking a glass of water, or
mental acts like thinking about drinking a glass of water.
Speech acts include asking for a glass of water, promising to
drink a glass of water threatening to drink a glass of water, or
ordering someone to drink a glass of water, and so on. Most
of these are communicative acts, since speech and even
language are not strictly required. Thus someone can ask for
a glass of water by pointing to a pitcher and miming the act
of drinking.
Types of Speech Acts
Representatives
These represent states of affairs, such as
assertions, statemensts, claims, hypotheses,
descriptions, and sugestions. They are
regarded as being true or false.
Comissives
These commit speakers to sth, such as
promises, pledges, threats, and vows.
Directives
Makes the hearer carry out some action:
commands, requests, challenges, invitations
and entreaties.
Declaratives
Bring about the state of affairs: blessings,
baptisms, arrests, marrying etc.
Expressives
These indicate the speaker’s attitude, such
as greetings, apologies, congratulations,
condolences, and thanksgivings.
Verdictives
Verdictives make assessments or
judgements: ranking, assessing, appraising,
condemning.
The Three Aspects of Speech Acts
Locution, Illocution, Perlocution
Here the denotative meaning is not the focus of attention, but rather
the connotative meaning.
Locution
Locution, also known as utterance act or acoustic chain, is basically
the acoustic utterance that can be phonetically transcribed.
Example:
You have eye inflammation.
Illocution
Sometimes, you may have multiple intention behind an
utterance, so we say that there are more illocutionary acts in
the speech act.
Example: You have eye inflammation.
This is an act of ordering the hearer to
go to an ophthalmologist to have
eye examination or to treat the eye,
depending on the context.
Perlocution (reaction) : the hearer goes to an
ophthalmologist or treats the eye.
Perlocution
Perlocution is the effect of the speech act on the hearer. It has two
aspects of the perlocutionary act.
• First, the effect that the sender wants to evoke in the listener.
• Second, the effect that is finally achieved.
Example 1: You have eye inflammation.
What’s the reaction? The hearer goes to an ophthalmologist or treats
his eyes.
Example 2: An order from someone without authority: the expected
effect was obedience; however, disobedience was eventually
achieved.
Cooperative Principle of Pragmatics has four
sub-parts or maxims:
1. The maxim of quality: speakers’ contributions ought to be true.
2. The maxim of quantity. Speakers’ contributions should be as
informative as required; not saying either too little or too much.
3. The maxim of relevance: Contributions should relate to the
purposes of the exchange.
4. The maxim of manner: Contributions should be clear-in particular,
they should be orderly and brief, avoiding obscurity and
ambiguity.
Information Structure
Information is organized based on the context. If the
information does not fit the context, we are confused.
Ahmad: “Hi, Mahmood. Pleased to see you. Do you want to
have a cup of tea with me?
Mahmood: “Sorry I can’t.”
Ahmad: “Please.”
Mahmood: “My father drinks coffee.”
Ahmad: “What on earth are you talking about?”
Categories of Information Structure
• Given and New Information:
New information receives more stress and
expressed more elaborately than those indicating
old or known information.
Example: I bought the book from this new
bookstore yesterday. It is located right behind the
Languages and Literature Faculty building.
known elements = I and yesterday
New Information = New bookstore “further
explanation is needed”
Topic:
• The topic is the core of attention in a sentence.
It was you who got the highest marks on the
exam!
Sometimes, the topic is outside the spoken
language.
“O damn it!”
Topic: bad luck or mischief.
Contrast
• Sometimes, nouns stand in opposition to each
other.
Only you can get the highest marks.
It was not me but you who disturbed the class.
Definiteness
It is said “definite”, when the listener is able to
identify something without difficulty.
The marker is in my hand.
The listener already knows which marker is meant.
Referentiality
When noun phrases refer to a particular entity,
they are referential. Or the referential meaning
directly relates with the references.
He is the man I met at the airport.
The word “man” is referential, for it is defined
more precisely by the secondary clause.
Nonreferentiality
Nonreferential phrases can not be derived from
the general content of the phrase.
It’s fun to study linguistics.
Pragmatic Categories
In syntax, the same deep structure in a sentence may be
transformed into different surface structures.
1. Fronting: phrases are moved to the front part of the
sentence.
a. Givenness: Linguistics, I can learn with ease.
In the above example, the speaker presumes that the
listener already knows he can learn linguistics with ease.
Therefor, that part of the sentence is a “given”: a known
fact.
b. Contrast: Contrast is expressed through fronting i.e.
the unusual position of “Ahmad” puts emphasis on
like/dislike.
I really hate Mahmood. Ahmad I find nice.”
Left Dislocation
This is also similar to “Fronting”: a noun is moved
from its usual place to the left i.e. front of the
sentence (outside the clause boundries) to indicate
givenness or contrast.
The difference is that the noun remains in the
form of a pronoun in its original place as well.
Linguistics, I can learn it with ease.
Right dislocation
Right dislocation often occurs with a clarifying
afterthought: They went to the store is a coherent
sentence, but Mary and Peter is added afterward
to clarify exactly who they are
They went to the store, Mary and Peter.
Clefting (to divide / split)
Ahmad lent the money to Mahmood.
It + be + that …
It was Ahmad that Mahmood lent the money to.
Pseudocleft
Wh – word (usually “what”) + … + Be”
What Ahmad lent to Mahmood was money.
Here, the listener can focus more readily on the
new information.
What she bought is a pair of shoes with red
flowers.
Sentence Stress
Stress can be used to represent new information
or can mark opposition.
Stress refers to intonation.
In fronting and left-dislocation, stress is added to
strengthen the emphasis on the acoustic level.
Indirect Speech acts:
I would like to know if he got 100 on the test.
I wonder whether he got 100 on the test.
The window is still open!
I must have asked you a hundred times to keep that window closed!